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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
An introduction to the manufacturing industry
Essential Manufacturing provides a comprehensive introduction to the wide breadth of the manufacturing industry.
There is a need for all engineering and business students to understand the importance and context of the manufacturing industry. An engineer should have a well rounded appreciation of all aspects of the industry they work in, including manufacturing. This is evidenced by professional bodies expecting all accredited engineering courses to provide students with a background that allows them to see their own specific discipline in context. Similarly, business students will often find themselves dealing in some way with manufactured products or even be directly involved in manufacturing operations management. This book will cover the full spectrum of the manufacturing industry to provide a holistic appreciation of the topic but with enough detail to be of practical use.
The book begins with an introduction to the manufacturing industry, its history, and some important manufacturing concepts. The materials used in manufacturing and how they are produced are covered. This is followed by a more detailed description of the more common manufacturing processes, their application, and the types of automation used in the manufacturing industry. Consideration is then given to the important aspects of manufacturing operations management and production planning and control, work study, and manufacturing economics. How to maintain quality in the manufacturing process, including metrology, is examined and this is followed by human factors in manufacturing. Finally, a speculative look at the future of manufacturing is included.
Key features:
- Takes a self-contained approach.
- Includes review questions.
- Suitable as an introduction for more advanced study.
- Satisfies the requirements of college and first and second year university engineering courses.
The book provides a comprehensive, concise introduction to the manufacturing industry for engineering and management students.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface
Part I: Introduction
1 Introduction
1.1 Wealth and Prosperity
1.2 Manufacturing Industry
1.3 Manufacturing as a Stimulant
1.4 The Supply Chain
1.5 Conclusion
2 Manufacturing History
2.1 Toolmaking Humans
2.2 The New Stone Age
2.3 The Bronze Age
2.4 The Iron Age
2.5 The Industrial Revolution
2.6 The Twentieth Century
2.7 The Twenty‐First Century
3 Typical Manufacturing Industries
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Aerospace Industry
3.3 Automotive Industry
3.4 Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering
3.5 Electronics and Electronic Products
3.6 Household Appliances
3.7 Pharmaceutical Industry
3.8 Food Processing
3.9 Beverage Industry
3.10 Clothing Industry
3.11 Producer Goods
3.12 Materials and Chemicals Production
4 Designing for Manufacture
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Computer Aided Design, Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality
4.3 Design for X
4.4 The Product Life Cycle
4.5 The Design Process
4.6 Identifying the Market Need
4.7 The Product Design Specification
4.8 Concept Design
4.9 Detail Design
4.10 Prototyping
4.11 Production
4.12 Contributors to the Design
4.13 Some Principles of Product Design
4.14 Standardisation and Modularisation
4.15 A Design for Manufacture Example
4.16 Conclusion
5 Manufacturing Concepts
5.1 The Manufacturing System
5.2 Lean Manufacturing and Added Value
5.3 Integrating the Effort
5.4 The Formal Organisation
5.5 Types of Manufacture
5.6 Types of Manufacturing Equipment
Part II: Manufacturing Materials
6 Materials for Manufacture
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Structure of Metals
6.3 Plastics
6.4 Ceramics
6.5 Composites
6.6 Properties and Testing of Materials
6.7 Conclusion
7 Materials Production
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ferrous Metals Production
7.3 Non‐Ferrous Metals Production
7.4 Forms of Material Supply
7.5 The Primary Production of Plastics
Part III: Manufacturing Processes
8 Casting
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Ingot Casting
8.3 Continuous Casting
8.4 Sand Casting
8.5 Centrifugal Casting
8.6 Shell Moulding
8.7 Full Mould Process
8.8 Investment Casting
8.9 Die Casting
8.10 Defects in Castings
8.11 Cleaning of Castings
8.12 When to Use Casting
9 Cutting Processes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sawing and Filing
9.3 Basic Principles of Machining
9.4 Machine Tools
9.5 Other Cutting Processes
10 Deformation Processes
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Rolling
10.3 Forging
10.4 Extrusion
11 Pressworking
Review Questions
12 Plastics Processing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Extrusion
12.3 Blow Moulding
12.4 Calendering
12.5 Vacuum Forming
12.6 The Blown Film Process
12.7 Injection Moulding
13 Additive Manufacturing Processes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Advantages of Additive Manufacturing
13.3 Disadvantages of Additive Manufacturing
13.4 General Types
14 Miscellaneous Metalworking Processes
14.1 Electrodischarge Machining
14.2 Electrochemical Machining
14.3 Chemical Machining
14.4 Ultrasonic Machining
14.5 High Energy Rate Forming
14.6 Powdered Metal Processes
14.7 Pipe and Tube Manufacture
14.8 Metal Finishing Processes
15 Manufacturing Processes in the Electronics Industry
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Semiconductor Component Manufacture
15.3 Clean Rooms
15.4 Printed Circuit Board Manufacture
15.5 Conclusion
16 Assembly and Joining
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Mechanical Fastening
16.3 Soldering
16.4 Brazing
16.5 Welding
16.6 Adhesive Bonding
17 Material and Process Selection
Part IV: Manufacturing Automation
18 Manufacturing Automation – Introduction
18.1 Types of Automation
18.2 The Advantages of Automation
18.3 Typical Examples of Manufacturing Automation
19 The Building Blocks of Automated Systems
19.1 Cams
19.2 Geneva Mechanism
19.3 Transfer Systems
19.4 Conveyors
19.5 Limit Switches
19.6 Fluid Power Components
19.7 Electric Motors for Actuation
19.8 Feedback Devices
19.9 The Vibratory Bowl Feeder
19.10 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
19.11 Control of Automated Machines
20 Reprogrammable Automation
20.1 Industrial Robots
20.2 Reprogrammable Equipment Precision
20.3 Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) Machine Tools
20.4 Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)
20.5 Reprogrammable Automation and Industrial Robot Safety
21 Machine Vision
21.1 Areas of Application of Artificial Vision
21.2 Vision System Components
21.3 Lighting
21.4 Some Further Application Examples
21.5 Conclusion
Part V: Manufacturing Operations Management
22 Production Planning
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Plant Location
22.3 Plant Layout
22.4 Project Planning
22.5 Process Planning
23 Production Control
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Elements of Production Control
23.3 Material Requirements Planning
23.4 Manufacturing Resource Planning
23.5 Enterprise Resource Planning
23.6 Recognising Constraints
23.7 Just in Time Manufacture
24 Work Study
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Method Study
24.3 Work Measurement
24.4 Work Study As a Service to Management
25 Manufacturing Economics
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Costs for Decision Making
25.3 Investment Appraisal
25.4 Cost Analysis and Control
25.5 Conclusion
Part VI: Maintaining Manufacturing Quality
26 Quality Defined – Quality Management and Assurance
26.1 Defining Quality
26.2 Quality Management
26.3 Organisation for Quality
26.4 The Cost of Quality
26.5 Conclusion
27 Metrology and Statistical Quality Control
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Metrology
27.3 Factory and Workshop Metrology
27.4 Surface Texture and Measurement
27.5 Statistical Quality Control (SQC)
Part VII: Human Factors in Manufacturing
28 Human Factors in Manufacturing
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Job Satisfaction
28.3 Health and Safety
28.4 Ergonomics
28.5 Conclusion
Part VIII: Conclusion
29 Introduction
29.1 Additive Manufacturing
29.2 Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR)
29.3 Immersive Telepresence
29.4 Communications Technologies and the IoT
29.5 Cloud Computing
29.6 Big Data Analytics
29.7 Conclusion
Appendix A:
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Examples of the attributes of some processes and associated materials...
Chapter 25
Table 25.1 Marginal cost of a project (bold terms are for emphasis).
Table 25.2 Effect of increased production on a company's profit.
Table 25.3 Problem with the ‘payback’ method of investment appraisal.
Chapter 28
Table 28.1 Categorising levels of risk severity.
Table 28.2 Listing of hazards, those at risk, risk level, action plan and result...
Table 28.3 Approximate luminance requirements for interior activities.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 The Airbus A380.
Source
: Reproduced with permission of Pixabay.
Figure 1.2 A simplified supply chain for one component contributing to a finish...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 How one of the first stone tools may have been used.
Figure 2.2 Maudsley's all metal screwcutting lathe 1794.
Figure 2.3 Jacquard punch card controlled loom 1804.
Figure 2.4 The pen‐nib slitting room in the Hinks, Wells & Co. factory, Birming...
Figure 2.5 Spencer's automatic lathe 1873.
Figure 2.6 (a) ‘Unimate’; the first industrial robot in 1961. (b) Cincinnati Mi...
Figure 2.7 A modern fully automated area within a factory where industrial robo...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Engineers working on a Rolls Royce jet engine.
Figure 3.2 Car assembly by industrial robots.
Figure 3.3 Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carrier. (a) Hull module, (b) bridge ...
Figure 3.4 A massive oil refinery complex in Texas.
Source
: Reproduced with per...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 The Product Life Cycle.
Figure 4.2 The design process.
Figure 4.3 (a) Prototype design for an alternator assembly. (b) Alternator re‐d...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 The manufacturing system inputs and outputs.
Figure 5.2 Comparison of lead time from product specification to full productio...
Figure 5.3 Hierarchy of objectives from an individual employee to company level...
Figure 5.4 A traditional organisation chart for a large manufacturing company a...
Figure 5.5 The four classes of production showing the relationship of quantity ...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 A simple materials classification.
Figure 6.2 Three main types of crystal structure.
Figure 6.3 Crystal formation and grain growth.
Figure 6.4 Effect on grain structure of cold working and recrystallisation.
Figure 6.5 The effect of grain direction on component strength.
Figure 6.6 Organic molecules.
Figure 6.7 Polymer chains: network, linear and branched polymers.
Figure 6.8 Tensile, compressive and shear loading and the resulting strain effe...
Figure 6.9 Stress/strain diagram for a low carbon steel.
Figure 6.10 A tensile test specimen.
Figure 6.11 Rockwell hardness test.
Figure 6.12 Izod impact test.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Blast furnace for making iron.
Figure 7.2 Stages in the basic oxygen steelmaking process.
Figure 7.3 Electric arc furnace for steelmaking.
Figure 7.4 One method of copper production.
Figure 7.5 Electrolytic reduction cell for aluminium production.
Figure 7.6 Primary processes and standard material forms.
Figure 7.7 Schematic of a fractionating column.
Figure 7.8 Manufacture of polystyrene.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Ingot casting and effect of mould orientation on piping.
Figure 8.2 Two methods of continuous casting.
Figure 8.3 Sand casting elements. (a) Required component, (b) upper and lower p...
Figure 8.4 Stages in shell moulding.
Figure 8.5 Investment or ‘lost wax’ casting process.
Figure 8.6 The hot chamber die casting process.
Figure 8.7 The cold chamber die casting process
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Two‐dimensional (orthogonal) cutting using single point tool.
Figure 9.2 Single point cutting tool for lathe turning. (a) Crater wear. (b) Th...
Figure 9.3 Indexable insert.
Figure 9.4 Generating a surface.
Figure 9.5 Forming a surface.
Figure 9.6 Some machining operations carried out on a lathe.
Figure 9.7 Basic elements of a centre lathe.
Figure 9.8 Three‐jaw chuck (3 and 4 jaw chucks usually much larger than collets...
Figure 9.9 Round collet for cold rolled or previously machined material (openin...
Figure 9.10 Horizontal and vertical milling.
Figure 9.11 Some milling cutters. (a) Cylinder or slab cutter. (b) End mill. (c...
Figure 9.12 Methods of milling. (a) Conventional or ‘up’ milling, maximum chip ...
Figure 9.13 Hand operated vertical drill press.
Figure 9.14 The twist drill.
Figure 9.15 Some operations that can be carried out on a drilling machine.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Principle of operation of a two high reversing mill for steel roll...
Figure 10.2 Some rolling mill configurations.
Figure 10.3 (a) A friction drop hammer forging press and (b) the lower half of ...
Figure 10.4 The principle of extrusion.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 The basic configuration of a gap press
Figure 11.2 Some pressworking operations: (a) cropping, (b), piercing and blank...
Figure 11.3 A simple piercing and blanking tool.
Figure 11.4 A typical small component produced by presswork.
Figure 11.5 A car body panel produced by presswork.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 The polymer extrusion process and typical polymer sections.
Figure 12.2 The blow moulding process.
Figure 12.3 Calendering.
Figure 12.4 Vacuum forming.
Figure 12.5 The blown film process.
Figure 12.6 Main elements of an injection moulding machine.
Figure 12.7 A reciprocating screw injection system.
Figure 12.8 A two‐plate mould for injection moulding.
Figure 12.9 A method for creating a hole at right angles to the direction of tr...
Figure 12.10 A method for creating internal screw threads using a rotating core...
Figure 12.11 A sprue, gate and runner system.
Figure 12.12 A runner system design for optimum flow: (a) poor and (b) better.
Figure 12.13 Metal inserts in a moulding, the flanges and the knurled head fix ...
Figure 12.14 Some aspects of plastic component design.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Principal additive manufacturing starting materials and examples o...
Figure 13.2 Stereolithography (SL).
Figure 13.3 This multipart engine model used stereolithography to achieve a det...
Figure 13.4 Fused deposition modelling (FDM).
Figure 13.5 A component produced by FDM that would be difficult to make in one ...
Figure 13.6 A Medical model and bicycle helmets produced by droplet 3D printing...
Figure 13.7 Some components produced by binder jet printing.
Figure 13.8 Selective laser sintering (SLS).
Figure 13.9 (a) A physical polymer wire‐frame model created by SLS. (b) A compl...
Figure 13.10 A vane produced by laser metal deposition.
Figure 13.11 Principle of laminated object manufacturing (LOM).
Figure 13.12 Aerofoil section produced from carbon fibre sheets.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Electrodischarge machining.
Figure 14.2 Explosive forming a steel bowl‐shaped product.
Figure 14.3 The pressing or briquetting process in powder metallurgy, two punch...
Figure 14.4 The electroplating process.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 A semiconductor diode configuration.
Figure 15.2 An integrated circuit manufacturing sequence.
Figure 15.3 An integrated circuit in a dual in‐line package.
Figure 15.4 Single‐sided PCB manufacturing sequence.
Figure 15.5 Component configurations.
Figure 15.6 Component delivery packages.
Figure 15.7 (a) Preformed axial and radial leads and (b) SMD onsertion using ad...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 A chart showing some examples of the range of joining processes us...
Figure 16.2 Mechanical fastening examples.
Figure 16.3 Soldering examples.
Figure 16.4 Typical brazed joints.
Figure 16.5 Some basic welding joints and welds.
Figure 16.6 Fillet weld terminology.
Figure 16.7 Butt weld terminology.
Figure 16.8 (a) Simplified section of an oxyacetylene welding torch. (b) Three ...
Figure 16.9 (a) Basic equipment for shielded metal arc or ‘stick’ welding. (b) ...
Figure 16.10 Flux cored arc welding.
Figure 16.11 Gas metal arc welding.
Figure 16.12 Gas tungsten arc welding.
Figure 16.13 Plasma arc welding: (a) transferred and (b) nontransferred.
Figure 16.14 Submerged arc welding.
Figure 16.15 Resistance spot welding.
Figure 16.16 Resistance projection welding.
Figure 16.17 Explosive welding.
Figure 16.18 Friction welding.
Figure 16.19 Ultrasonic welding.
Figure 16.20 Adhesive bonding. (a) Adhesive joint loading conditions and (b) de...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Material and process selection factors.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 The interrelationship between volume and cost per unit for manual ...
Figure 18.2 Area of application and effect of reprogrammable automation systems...
Figure 18.3 Industrial robots spot welding car bodies.
Figure 18.4 Human labour being used for qualitative inspection.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Three types of cam used in dedicated ‘hard’ automation.
Figure 19.2 A Geneva mechanism.
Figure 19.3 A linear transfer system.
Figure 19.4 Conveyor system.
Source
: Reproduced with permission of Pixabay.
Figure 19.5 Some limit switch configurations.
Figure 19.6 Simple pneumatic control valve and piston.
Figure 19.7 Simple pneumatic circuit.
Figure 19.8 Typical electric servomotors used in manufacturing automation.
Figure 19.9 The potentiometer, an analogue device for displacement measurement.
Figure 19.10 The tachogenerator, an analogue device for measuring rotational sp...
Figure 19.11 The optical shaft encoder, a digital device for displacement measu...
Figure 19.12 A vibratory bowl feeder.
Figure 19.13 An example of bowl feeder track design.
Figure 19.14 A programmable logic controller (PLC) elements are shown on the le...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Common industrial robot configurations. Articulated, Delta, and SC...
Figure 20.2 The Panasonic TA1400 articulated robot designed specifically for ar...
Figure 20.3 Block diagram of an industrial robot controller functions.
Figure 20.4 Concepts of accuracy and repeatability. (a) High accuracy, high rep...
Figure 20.5 (a) Multitasking CNC machine. (b) Typical MTM tooling.
Figure 20.6 (a) Very large AGV transporting part of an aircraft fuselage. (b) A...
Figure 20.7 An industrial robot working within a 2 m high safety cage.
Figure 20.8 Principle of light curtain, a vertical linear array of photo sensor...
Figure 20.9 A pressure sensitive mat.
Figure 20.10 An emergency stop button; note the mushroom shape for rapid operat...
Figure 20.11 Recessed start button in close proximity to the protruding stop bu...
Figure 20.12 The humanoid configuration Nextage robot by Kawada Robotics at the...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Vision systems checking bottle fill levels and label integrity.
Figure 21.2 Basic elements of a vision–industrial robot system.
Figure 21.3 Machine vision photocell arrays. (a) Linear photocell array of 2592...
Figure 21.4 Setting a threshold value.
Figure 21.5 (a) A rectangle in the field of view of a very low resolution (32 ×...
Figure 21.6 (a) Light rings and (b) light rings in application.
Figure 21.7 (a) An industrial robot is shown palletising bricks with a vision s...
Figure 21.8 (a) A fruit conveyor system is shown with a vision system inspectin...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Decision matrix for plant location: site E is most desirable.
Figure 22.2 Plant layout patterns: (a) ‘functional’ for batch production, (b) ‘...
Figure 22.3 Example project list of activities and durations.
Figure 22.4 Project Gantt chart.
Figure 22.5 The critical path analysis for the project.
Figure 22.6 The project work schedule chart.
Figure 22.7 An operation layout sheet for a clevis rod.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Bill of Material structure for a toy car.
Figure 23.2 Basic MRP system.
Figure 23.3 Benefits of good material scheduling.
Figure 23.4 Closed loop MRP.
Figure 23.5 JIT manufacturing using the Kanban system.
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 The fabric of Work Study.
Figure 24.2 Templates, pins and string used to plot the movements of a toolmake...
Figure 24.3 Operator and machine activity chart.
Figure 24.4 Clevis assembly process chart.
Figure 24.5 SIMO (simultaneous motion chart) for the assembly operation in Figu...
Figure 24.6 Therbligs.
Figure 24.7 The build‐up of the ‘Standard Time’ for a work activity.
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Distribution of costs for a manufacturing company.
Figure 25.2 ‘Risk’ represented by probability curves. (a) The probability of oc...
Figure 25.3 Fixed and variable costs.
Figure 25.4 Cost‐volume‐profit break‐even chart.
Figure 25.5 Break‐even chart for project selection.
Figure 25.6 Investment appraisal using DCF.
Figure 25.7 Allocation of costs to cost centres (chip and crisp departments) us...
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 The Quality Environment for a manufacturing company.
Figure 26.2 A quality organisation structure indicating some necessary function...
Figure 26.3 Two views of Quality Costs. (a) Traditional perception of Quality C...
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 Dimensional tolerancing applied to a bearing and shaft to ensure a...
Figure 27.2 The principle of light interference of monochromatic light.
Figure 27.3 Commercial metrology instruments and typical accuracies.
Source
: Re...
Figure 27.4 Greatly exaggerated machined surface features. This could be part o...
Figure 27.5 (a) A surface texture measuring machine. The stylus can be seen sus...
Figure 27.6 (a) Distribution of part sizes produced by turning. (b) Properties ...
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 The Maslow Scale of the hierarchy of human needs.
Figure 28.2 Engineering and human sciences contributing to ergonomics.
Figure 28.3 Human‐machine closed loop system for car speed control.
Figure 28.4 Distribution of heights of adult male population.
Figure 28.5 Simple 2D models to assist with lathe design.
Figure 28.6 Typical operator dimensions.
Figure 28.7 Quantitative displays.
Figure 28.8 Parallax error when reading mechanical analogue displays: (a) view ...
Figure 28.9 Controls and display convention.
Figure 28.10 Some Db(A) values of typical sounds.
Guide
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Essential Manufacturing
Gordon Mair
University of Strathclyde UK
Copyright
This edition first published 2019
© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Mair, Gordon M., 1949- author.
Title: Essential manufacturing / Gordon Mair, University of Strathclyde.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2019. | Include
index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018039779 (print) | LCCN 2018041977 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119061687 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119061670 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119061663
(pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Manufacturing processes.
Classification: LCC TS183 (ebook) | LCC TS183 .M233 2019 (print) | DDC
670-dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018039779
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Preface
Essential Manufacturing is the title of this book for two reasons. First, the book's main purpose is to provide the reader with the essential technological, managerial and economic ingredients of manufacturing industry. The second reason is that I believe manufacturing is essential in that it is of crucial importance to the wellbeing of a large nation and its population. Our society benefits from manufacturing industry as it creates wealth. It does this by adding value to raw materials through work. This wealth is used to provide services such as health and education and to generally improve the quality of life. The products created by manufacturing industry form the fabric of our civilisation, whether they are used in transport, entertainment, telecommunications, medicine, education or even within the manufacturing industry itself. Unless a country has unique assets such as an abundance of natural resources that are in high demand, then without an efficient manufacturing capability most large developed countries will become relatively poor and experience economic and social decline. It is also significant that the manufacture of a complex product such as a car or aircraft is now a global activity. Thus many countries, by utilising their human resources and depending on their own particular skills, wage rates and quality of work, will all benefit from the production of manufactured products.
A nation therefore needs individuals with the ability to understand how manufacturing industry works, and how to put that knowledge to profitable use. The spectrum of manufacturing today requires knowledge of markets, product and system design, innovation, materials and technologies, logistics and management, manufacturing finance, human factors, environmental concerns and a grasp of the concept of the whole life cycle of a product.
Although much has changed in the manufacturing environment since my earlier book on this subject, the basic manufacturing processes and the importance of manufacturing still exist. However, the Internet has now revolutionised the organisational aspects of manufacturing with companies able to access information rapidly from a wide range of networks and the World Wide Web from anywhere on the globe. This has had an extremely beneficial effect on aspects such as supply chain management and with the emergence of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) a wide range of opportunities are available; for example, the monitoring and control of assembly machines in a UK factory can be carried out in real time at the company headquarters in China or the USA or vice versa. Processes such as casting and metal cutting are unchanged at a basic level but new processes have become mainstream. In particular, the additive manufacturing processes, only made possible by the confluence of digital design, digital communication and digital control, have opened up the possibility of mass personalisation of products. In the product design arena immersive virtual reality and augmented reality have begun to have real practical applications as the initial hyperbole has receded and they have become useful tools, and on the assembly line there has been the introduction of safe humanoid robots that can work alongside human workers. It should also be recognised that the pace of change is such that there are continual improvements in manufacturing processes. Thus although the process specifications included in the book are as correct as could be ascertained at the time of writing the reader should check for current capabilities with equipment suppliers when appropriate.
The book has been written as a result of a conviction that there is a need for an introductory text covering the basic elements found throughout manufacturing. There are many excellent books, some of them quite large that cover in detail the product design process, manufacturing technology or the management of manufacturing. This book is different in that I have attempted to show most facets of the subject in one concise volume thus allowing their interrelationships to be understood. Despite the broad range of the book, each topic is covered in sufficient detail to provide a basic working knowledge. Engineering and business students should understand the importance and content of manufacturing industry. Engineering accreditation bodies expect courses in all disciplines to provide students with a broad background in order to see their topic in context. This often involves an introduction to manufacturing industry. Usually engineering students only acquire knowledge of manufacturing in discrete and isolated topics making it difficult for them to grasp how these topics fit together. This book will therefore provide a holistic appreciation of the topic but with enough detail to be of practical use. As the book is relatively concise it should be capable of being read through from beginning to end providing a complete overview of the significance of manufacturing and its essential elements. However, the specific topics are covered in sufficient depth to have practical applicability in order to satisfy the requirements of college and first and second year university engineering courses. The book should therefore be useful as an introductory text to those beginning courses in manufacturing or other engineering disciplines, and to others who need background knowledge of the subject, for example, those in business studies such as finance, human resource management and marketing. There is no prerequisite knowledge needed for the book as it is at an introductory level.
Part 1 is an introduction. It contains chapters on the significance of manufacturing, its history, an overview of typical manufacturing industries, how to design for manufacture and basic manufacturing principles and elements. These chapters put the subject into economic, social and technological perspective. Part 2 explains the materials used in manufacturing, how they are obtained and their various uses. Part 3 looks in more detail at the basic manufacturing processes to be found throughout industry. This should allow an understanding of how the processes work, their capabilities and relative advantages and disadvantages. This should produce the ability to decide on the fitness of a process for a particular task. Part 4 examines manufacturing automation much of which is microprocessor‐based and is applicable in all areas of the manufacturing process. Part 5 introduces manufacturing management by considering financial aspects and the general organisation of manufacturing. Manufacturing companies need to be world class. This stimulates them to rigorously examine their own operations and constantly compare themselves with other companies to ensure that their products stay ahead and their organisation remains dynamic. Since the competition is doing the same a state of constant change arises, hence the need for the management of change, a task recognised as necessary for company survival. Thus concepts such as good supply chain management are seen as essential and phrases such as ‘continuous improvement’, ‘towards excellence’ and ‘zero defects’ have been coined. Techniques have been formalised to assist achievement of these concepts, for example, total quality management, just in time manufacture, lean manufacturing, the focused factory, and simultaneous and concurrent engineering. Part 6 is a combination of management and technology as the nature of quality and quality measurement is presented. Part 7 presents the human considerations needed for a safe and healthy working environment for people that work in manufacturing industry. The book therefore includes the five ‘Ms’ of manufacture – machines, materials, money, management and the almost archaic term for human resources – manpower. Part 8 concludes by looking at some current trends and having a speculative look at some relevant aspects of the future.
I close this Preface with a personal note. When I started my career in manufacturing as a young apprentice press‐toolmaker and designer over half a century ago the world and manufacturing industry was vastly different from today. After my university education and then while working in a number of manufacturing engineering and management roles in a variety of companies, I could see how the rate of change in the industry was accelerating. At the age of 30, I joined academia and for the next 36 years, I observed, and was thrilled to be part of, what seems to be an exponential growth in manufacturing innovation and knowledge. It is an industry that is important, constantly changing and financially and emotionally rewarding. I have enjoyed continuously learning and applying new knowledge, working with interesting and sometimes challenging people and imparting my knowledge and experience to others. In my academic work I have taught, carried out research and formed my own research group and a spin‐out company, carried out consultancy work for a wide variety of manufacturing companies, contributed to international committees and participated in conferences around the world. Therefore, based on my own experience, I have found a career in manufacturing exciting, challenging and satisfying and I hope, for you, that this book proves a stimulating introduction to essential manufacturing.
Part IIntroduction
1Introduction
Most countries need to use the work of their population to create wealth. If they have a significant size of population then for them, a healthy manufacturing industry is an essential ingredient for prosperity. In a general sense, modern manufacturing now covers a broad range of economic activity. As well as including the technology and management of the manufacturing process it also now spans the spectrum from understanding markets through to distribution and services. However, this book will focus on the core aspects of manufacturing and this chapter describes what manufacturing is, considers what is meant by the term ‘prosperity’, shows why manufacturing is an indispensable creator of wealth and concludes by considering the complex global environment in which it exists.
Around 10 000 BC the world population was about 10 million, by 5000 BC it was 100 million, by 1650 AD 500 million and today, in the early decades of the twenty‐first century, it is approximately 7500 million and increasing. Early humans could survive off the land by hunting and gathering but as the population increased so the need for planned agriculture arose to ensure an adequate food supply. However, since the population of just one city such as Shanghai or Karachi is double that of the early world, manufacturing industry has now become an essential factor in creating the wealth necessary to support the world's 7.5 billion people.
Deriving from two Latin words, ‘manus’ meaning ‘hand’, and ‘facere’ meaning ‘to make’, ‘manufacturing’ is the process whereby materials are changed from one state into another by work. The new state is now worth more than the old, thus value has been added. Today the manufacturing process often involves the use of sophisticated machinery and complex organisation. For example, the Airbus A380, see Figure 1.1, is a manufactured product comprised of approximately four million manufactured components. It is the result of nearly 20 years of research, design and development and has its components manufactured by around 1500 companies distributed throughout 30 different countries.
Figure 1.1 The Airbus A380. Source: Reproduced with permission of Pixabay.
Unless you are reading this somewhere in the countryside or beach, everything around you and on you is manufactured, such as the clothes you are wearing and the seat or floor you are sitting on. In fact, whether or not you are using hardcopy or electronic media it is manufacturing that has allowed you to read this book. Without modern manufacturing techniques many products would not be as affordable as they are today. Domestic labour saving devices like washing machines, fridges and vacuum cleaners are only possible at today's prices because of mass production techniques; the same applies to home entertainment equipment such televisions and music systems. The motor car, which may contain around 15 000 individual components, is now regarded in developed countries as an essential possession, but unless produced using carefully designed and selected manufacturing methods and materials it would be an unattainable luxury for most people.
As well as the fabric of our way of life being held together by the use of manufactured goods, so are the economics of our society also dependent on manufacturing. The wealth created by manufacturing industry gives employment to individuals and enables a country to pay for services at a national level, such as health and education.
In order to put the rest of the book in perspective some aspects of these statements are now looked at in more detail.
1.1 Wealth and Prosperity
Consider first the economic environment within which we work. The economies we are concerned with are ‘market economies’, in that they operate on the basis that things, whether they be items or services, are bought and sold to bring benefit to the individual. It works on the basis of supply and demand. The price of material, food, products and labour, is determined by a combination of the demand for them and their availability or supply. Another type of economy, one that has not proved successful, is the ‘centrally planned economy’, in which the state owns the means of production and the means of distribution. In this type of economy the state, rather than market forces, would determine the level of wages and the price of goods.
The standard of living available in a country is determined by that nation's economic wealth. In our type of economy, ‘wealth’ consists of all things that satisfy human wants. These things can be transferred or exchanged and because they are limited in supply they have value in exchange. By this definition not everything that we need and enjoy is ‘wealth’ in the economic sense. For example, without fresh air to breathe we would all die but as air is unlimited in supply to all it is not economic wealth. Sunlight is also essential for life but as it is not limited in supply it would not be regarded as part of economic wealth. Thus, by definition if something cannot be bought or sold it does not count in the measure of a nation's economic wealth. However, it is now realised that the essentials of life such as fresh air and sunlight may no longer be regarded as being in unlimited supply forever. This is due to the manner of creation of the economic wealth and the pursuit of increasing standards of living at the expense of damage to our natural environment. Those involved in manufacturing industry therefore have their part to play in ensuring that industry does not contribute to environmental pollution. It also means that the full life cycle of the product has to be considered, including disposal, or re‐manufacture of the product or recycling of its materials.
The creation of economic wealth on its own is no longer an adequate gauge of a country's true prosperity and quality of life. It is significant that the word ‘wealth’ comes from the Anglo‐Saxon word ‘wela’ meaning ‘wellbeing’, which is the condition of being contented, healthy or successful. It is therefore the resulting quality of life, rather than the material standard of living, that is meaningful. The manner in which the wealth is created, and the equity with which it is distributed throughout the population, contribute to that quality of life. These concepts are not new. In 1862 the scholar John Ruskin wrote the following: ‘There is no wealth but life, life including all its powers of love, of joy, and of admiration. That country is richest which nourishes the greatest number of noble and happy human beings’. It is therefore interesting that 128 years later in 1990, the United Nations Human Development Report was launched in which a country's progress towards true wealth was measured by using a Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI index, revised in 2010, is produced annually and is derived from the factors of life expectancy, education and standard of living based on Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, rather than, for example, the overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The GDP is one of a number of traditional but important and useful statistics that measures economic wealth and is the total value of all the final goods and services produced annually within the country.
The human perspective of the concept of wealth as well as the purely economic view has been highlighted because throughout the rest of this book we will be focusing on how to increase wealth by making the manufacturing process financially profitable but we should also remember that the purpose of financial success is ultimately to improve the quality, and standard, of life for all. This includes the manufacturing company employees, the company shareholders and the public in general.
1.2 Manufacturing Industry
In an economy, industry is generally regarded as existing at three levels, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. Sometimes an additional term Quaternary is used to include activities such as consultancy and research and development, however, for our purposes these may simply be considered under tertiary. It is important to realise that the primary and tertiary industries are very much dependent on the secondary manufacturing sector. Estimates suggest that about half of those employed in the primary and tertiary industries depend indirectly on manufacturing industry for their jobs.
Primary industry is the first level and includes agriculture, fishing, forestry and mining; it provides the essentials of food and fuel, plus the raw materials for the secondary industries. Efficient operation of the primary industries is dependent on the availability of manufactured goods. For example, the efficiency of farming owes much to the use of tractors, combine harvesters and other mechanised equipment. Fishing fleets require well‐made vessels with reliable navigation and communication equipment. Forestry workers use machines to cultivate the ground for tree planting and to assist with felling and handling mature trees. Cost effective mining relies on the use of modern automated digging, cutting and tunnelling machines. The primary industries rely on manufactured goods to keep themselves competitive in the world market, and to maintain safe and tolerable conditions for their employees. Food is now often a manufactured item when the amount of processing and packaging that is done on it is considered.
Secondary industry is basically the manufacture of goods from the raw materials produced in the first level. Manufacture is the process of changing materials from one state into another; this causes value to be added to the material or product. For example, if iron ore is taken, combined with certain other materials and melted, then steel ingots can be produced by pouring the melt into moulds. This steel is much more valuable than the raw ore because it is easier to put to use. If these ingots are now squeezed in a forging press to produce wheels for railway carriages then once more value is added. If these wheels are now assembled together with other components to form a complete carriage then further value is added. An example of a product with very high value added would be a communications satellite; this requires many expensive labour‐years of work in the form of research, development and high‐skill manufacturing in relation to the cost of the original raw materials used. Manufacturing companies today also have research and development, design, marketing and finance as part of their structure; these would seem to be tertiary industry activities but this highlights the merging of these industry levels in the modern economy.
Tertiary industry involves services rather than extraction or manufacture. Examples of this type of industry are transport, entertainment, banking, police, health and education. Tertiary industry also relies heavily on manufactured products. Transport services need reliable trains, buses and lorries or trucks to operate satisfactorily. The entertainment industry uses many artefacts for lighting and sound and video recording and storage, and of course there are communication satellites and the television and radio receivers in our living rooms. Banking requires the use of extensive computing facilities and customer terminals. The police use computers, communication equipment and transport. The health service uses much of what has been mentioned already plus pharmaceuticals manufactured to stringent specifications. Education also uses many manufactured items such as computers, books and workshop and laboratory equipment. Section 1.3 uses this book you are reading to illustrate the way in which manufacturing stimulates economic activity.
1.3 Manufacturing as a Stimulant
This may be understood by considering the following. Initially this book was written on a computer. Thus there was a need to purchase the computer, which would first have had to be manufactured. In the computer manufacturing company people would be required to carry out a variety of jobs and a whole range of other manufactured products such as industrial robots for assembly, special purpose equipment for adding integrated circuits to printed circuit boards and so on. In turn, these products would require to have been made by companies each specialising in their own product; for example, industrial robots or integrated circuits. At each of these stages value was being added to a raw material then to the manufactured components through work.
As the book was in progress, communication between the author and the publisher had to take place, hence the need for communication systems that require manufacture and operation. The process of producing the book involves the work of many people including the editor, the reviewers and the people involved in production and printing of the book. If you are reading this in hardcopy rather than electronically, the printing machines also had to be made and the paper and ink produced. Transport facilities had to be used to distribute the book to shops or a direct order distribution warehouse, thus providing further employment. Computers were required to monitor stock levels and raise orders. Throughout the whole process financial personnel would be involved in ensuring that money was available to finance the project and monitor the costs incurred. Sales and marketing personnel would also be involved in promoting the book.
It can therefore be seen that stimulus to economic activity arises from even a relatively simple product like this book. Consider the vastly greater implications of manufacturing more complex products such as motor cars and aircraft; for example, the Airbus 380 noted earlier. The wages earned by all of those involved in the production process, and the profits made by the shareholders, are used to purchase more goods and services, thus further stimulating the economy. Unfortunately, this is all too apparent when working in reverse. For example, if a large shipyard or steel making plant closes down a few thousand people may lose their jobs directly. But the numbers of unemployed do not stop there as there will be the companies that relied on their business for sub‐contract work. These companies may have supplied materials and services. Trade in the surrounding community will also be affected as there will no longer be spare money available for the ex‐employees to spend in the retail shops and the local entertainment and leisure industries – and so it goes on. These multiplier or ‘knock on’ effects are well known and verify the validity of the statement that a healthy manufacturing industry is essential for prosperity.
In the twentieth century, the economist Nicholas Kaldor in his short book Strategic Factors in Economic Development noted that the growth of GDP is positively related to the growth of the manufacturing sector and other stimulating effects of manufacturing. One of the most important characteristics of manufacturing industry is its inherent ability to generate economic activity and growth without recourse to other sectors of the economy. In fact, manufacturing determines the prosperity of the other sectors. For example, the advent of microprocessor‐based automation, in the form of computer controlled machines and industrial robots, made it more economic to produce smaller batches of products and to change quickly from making one type of product to another. This flexibility made it possible to do such things as offering a wide variety of car options to the customer such as colour, trim, engine size, accessories and so on. This perpetuates itself as customers want more and more options, greater freedom of choice and subsequently more frequent releases of new models. This puts more pressure on the car industry to respond quickly to new styles and demands and so it needs to invest more heavily in capital equipment – and so the cycle repeats itself. Also, to ensure that the manufactured products are always competitive there has to be research carried out. This again provides employment and advances the scientific and technical knowledge base of the countries involved.
Thus manufacturing is an extremely effective means of creating wealth and is more efficient than many of the service industries that also add value but rely on funds already generated elsewhere. Thus it is important that nations give priority to work in which wealth is created, rather than simply redistributed or dissipated, otherwise the prosperity of local communities and whole countries decline.
All countries have to trade with each other as no country is entirely self‐sufficient in everything its population needs. Therefore, to be able to purchase goods from other countries (imports), without going into debt, it is necessary to sell goods to other countries (exports). Naturally, if the goods sold have a high value added then this makes it possible to purchase many more goods of lower value added without going into debt. Manufactured products provide this high value‐added factor, hence the absolute necessity for a country to have a strong manufacturing base to prevent increasing balance of payments problems.
1.4 The Supply Chain
Today, manufacturing is a global business and this is particularly true for complex products such as are found in the automotive and aerospace industries. Manufacturers have to consider the whole process from where and when to purchase their materials and components through to when they provide the finished product to a satisfied customer. This requires ‘Supply Chain Management’ that takes into account all of the participants in the process of satisfying customer needs. These participants may be located in various parts of the world and so transport and logistics will also be important parts of the equation.
In order to explain this consider a car manufacturer that will usually have as its core competency the design and assembly of its models. The manufacturers of contributing elements such as the tyres, windscreen, electric window motors and the electronic engine control module (ECM) will all be done by other manufacturers who have these products as their core competencies. These companies will require further companies to supply them with the raw materials such as rubber, glass, copper, steel and, in the case of the ECM manufacturer, electronic components. Also, the car manufacturer has to consider the market demand and individual customer requirements and in order to get the product to the customer will use intermediaries, for example, a distributor to take the product to the retailer who will then sell directly to the customer. This all has to be orchestrated to ensure that the supply of the product matches the demand for the product. This means that the product has to be of the right quality, price and quantity, and be available at the correct time and place in order to have a satisfied customer. A simplified example for one component in a car is shown in Figure 1.2. However, it is evident that there will be thousands of individual components contributing to the finished car all of which will have to be carefully managed.
Figure 1.2 A simplified supply chain for one component contributing to a finished car assembly.
As the supply chain may span the globe with suppliers, retailers and customers widespread so the need for real‐time data collection and information is essential as is the need for good communication between components of the supply chain. With complex products, the chain may also resemble a network with various suppliers needing to coordinate supplies to the final manufacturer and also integrate with logistics companies for on time deliveries. Also anticipating changes in market demand, costs of materials, environmental and legal issues, technological developments and political developments are important. All of this real‐time activity is facilitated by the Internet. As well as the electronic transfer of information through Internet‐based software, emails and telephones, the Internet also provides the platform for the World Wide Web, which is an essential element for data gathering and distributing information. Additionally, ‘cloud computing’ facilities allow storage of, and access to, large amounts of data that can be held securely yet also be made available to all necessary elements of the supply chain. The physical structures for this that include fibre‐optic and copper cables, short‐ and long‐range wireless systems, communication satellites and, of course computers, are constantly being improved and extended.
1.5 Conclusion
This chapter has attempted to explain what wealth and prosperity are, and how a healthy manufacturing industry is essential for creation of that wealth and prosperity. It has also tried to indicate the breadth of modern manufacturing and how a modern manufacturing company relies on close relationships with suppliers and customers all of who may be spread around the world. Chapter 2 now considers how manufacturing industry has developed over the years to reach its present level of importance.
Review Questions
1 What is a Market Economy?
2 How can the wealth of a country be measured?
3 Describe the three levels of industry present in an economy and discuss their composition.
4 Explain what you understand by the term ‘value added’.
5 In your own words discuss why a healthy manufacturing industry is essential for a successful economy.
6 Why is it important for a modern manufacturing company to fully understand its own supply chain?
2Manufacturing History
2.1 Toolmaking Humans
In a classic science fiction film from half a century ago, ‘2001 A Space Odyssey’, there is a short scene that captures the essence of the following discussion. It occurs when what may be an early hominid, specifically a hominim, throws a bone into the air in triumph after discovering its usefulness as a weapon. As it spins upwards, it is transformed by the camera into a rotating toroidal space station ‘waltzing’ to the strains of ‘The Blue Danube’. Whether or not the ape‐like creature is a valid representation of early man the imagery is powerful. From the first use of simple primitive tools for weapons, humans have developed the manufacturing technology and culture of today. In fact, some sources suggest the word ‘tool’ comes from the Old Norse ‘tol’ meaning ‘weapon’.
Although this scene is poetically inspiring, it also highlights the fact that humans are unique in the animal kingdom in their ability to design and make tools. Humans progressed from the selective phase of simply picking a natural object from the environment to use as a tool, just as a chimpanzee selects a twig to poke into anthills to catch ants or a fish uses a stone to crack a snail shell. Humans also passed through the adaptive phase where a stone was chipped to create a sharp cutting edge. Now the inventive phase has been reached where an object not found in nature is conceived and manufactured; for example, a bow and arrow or a supersonic aircraft.
An early manlike creature, Australopithecus, is thought to have made a simple cutting and chipping tool by striking the edge of one stone against another to produce a sharp edge. Since these creatures lacked dexterity the tool would have been held crudely, with the thick blunt end pressed against the palm while being used to cut meat, see Figure 2.1. Australopithecus lived from about four million years ago in the open in Africa and they probably cooperated in hunting. However, stone tools are not likely to have been generally used until around two or three million years ago.
Figure 2.1 How one of the first stone tools may have been used.
Peking man, a form of Homo erectus, possibly lived as long as 750 000 years ago. They were hunters and travellers but built camps and primitive‐huts for shelter. Many stone ‘chopper’ type tools of varying size and shape have been found from this period, though they do not differ much from those used during the previous two million years. There is evidence, however, that fire was used to harden the tips of sharpened wooden tools and weapons.
Between 70 000 and 40 000 years ago there lived Neanderthal man, an early member of Homo sapiens
