Essentials of Temperament Assessment E-Book

Diana Joyce

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Essentials of Psychological Assessment
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 368

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2010

Beschreibung

Quickly acquire the knowledge and skills you need to effectively conduct a comprehensive temperament assessment Understanding temperament has the potential to better inform treatment and intervention choices as well as promote awareness for qualities that are somewhat malleable. Essentials of Temperament Assessment presents balanced coverage of those instruments that directly measure temperament qualities in adults and children. This guide enables mental health professionals to select the method that best fits the situations, groups of people, and programs that are involved. With an overview of clinical applications of temperament assessments, Essentials of Temperament Assessment gathers as many resources as possible to enable professionals to make their own judgment about the most appropriate temperament assessments, including: * New York Longitudinal Scales Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ) * Carey Temperament Scales (CTS) * Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI®) * Student Styles Questionnaire (SSQ) Like all the volumes in the Essentials of Psychological Assessment series, this book is designed to help busy mental health professionals, and those in training, quickly acquire the knowledge and skills they need to make optimal use of major psychological assessment instruments. Each concise chapter features numerous callout boxes highlighting key concepts, bulleted points, and extensive illustrative material, as well as test questions that help you gauge and reinforce your grasp of the information covered. Offering a myriad of ways to assess temperament, Essentials of Temperament Assessment arms professionals with the most appropriate technique or combination of techniques for their particular temperament assessment purposes.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Essentials of Psychological Assessment Series

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication

List of Tables

Series Preface

Acknowledgements

One - OVERVIEW OF TEMPERAMENT THEORY

CLASSIC TO MODERN HISTORY OF TEMPERAMENT THEORY

PSYCHOLOGICAL TEMPERAMENT TYPES

TEMPERAMENT THEORY EMBEDDED IN BROAD PERSONALITY MEASURES

TEMPERAMENT THEORY AS APPLIED TO THE ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN

Two - EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR TEMPERAMENT THEORY

EVIDENCE FROM HERITABILITY STUDIES

EVIDENCE FROM BIOLOGICAL CORRELATES

EVIDENCE FROM CONTINUALITY AND STABILITY OF TEMPERAMENT

EVIDENCE FROM CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES

Three - VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN TEMPERAMENT ASSESSMENT

CONSIDERATIONS IN ASSESSMENT METHODS

STANDARDS FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Four - INTERPRETING TEMPERAMENT MEASURES

TRAITS VERSUS STATES AND STABILITY OF TEMPERAMENT

INTERPRETING CONTINUOUS VERSUS DICHOTOMOUS VARIABLES

BEST PRACTICES IN MULTI-FACETED ASSESSMENT

Five - STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF TEMPERAMENT ASSESSMENT

TEMPERAMENT MEASUREMENT AS A STRENGTHS-BASED ASSESSMENT METHOD

UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN NON-PATHOLOGICAL LANGUAGE

MALLEABILITY OF TEMPERAMENT QUALITIES

Six - CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF TEMPERAMENT ASSESSMENT

APPLICATIONS IN PEDAGOGY

RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION MODEL (Rtl)

RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION—IMPLICATIONS FOR USE OF TEMPERAMENT ASSESSMENT

APPLICATIONS IN COUNSELING

CAREER COUNSELING AND BUSINESS

LIMITATIONS

Seven - ILLUSTRATIVE CASE REPORTS

EVALUATION REPORTS—EARLY CHILDHOOD SAMPLES

EVALUATION REPORTS: ADOLESCENTS

EVALUATION RESULTS

EVALUATION REPORT—ADULT SAMPLE

Appendix - Definitions of Temperament Terms

References

Annotated Bibliography

Index

About the Author

List of Tables

Table 3.1 Select Temperament Measures

Essentials of Psychological Assessment Series

Series Editors, Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of 16 PF® Assessmentby Heather E.-P. Cattell and James M. Schuerger

Essentials of Assessment Report Writingby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Nancy Mather, Nadeen L. Kaufman, and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Assessment with Brief Intelligence Testsby Susan R. Homack and Cecil R. Reynolds

Essentials of Bayley Scales of Infant Development-II Assessmentby Maureen M. Black and Kathleen Matula

Essentials of Behavioral Assessmentby Michael C. Ramsay, Cecil R. Reynolds, and R. W. Kamphaus

Essentials of Career Interest Assessmentby Jeffrey P. Prince and Lisa J. Heiser

Essentials of CAS Assessmentby Jack A. Naglieri

Essentials of Cognitive Assessment with KAIT and Other KaufmanMeasuresby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Debra Broadbooks, and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of Conners Behavior Assessments™by Elizabeth P. Sparrow

Essentials of Creativity Assessmentby James C. Kaufman, Jonathan A. Plucker, and John Baer

Essentials of Cross-Battery Assessment, Second Editionby Dawn P. Flanagan, Samuel O. Ortiz, and Vincent C. Alfonso

Essentials of DAS-II® Assessmentby Ron Dumont, John O. Willis, and Colin D. Elliot

Essentials of Evidence-Based Academic Interventionsby Barbara J. Wendling and Nancy Mather

Essentials of Forensic Psychological Assessment, Second Editionby Marc J. Ackerman

Essentials of Individual Achievement Assessmentby Douglas K. Smith

Essentials of KABC-II Assessmentby Alan S. Kaufman, Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, and Nadeen L. Kaufman

Essentials of Millon™ Inventories Assessment, Third Editionby Stephen Strack

Essentials of MMPI-A™ Assessmentby Robert P. Archer and Radhika Krishnamurthy

Essentials of MMPI-2 ™ Assessmentby David S. Nichols

Essentials of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®Assessment, Second Editionby Naomi Quenk

Essentials of NEPSY®-II Assessmentby Sally L. Kemp and Marit Korkman

Essentials of Neuropsychological Assessment, Second Editionby Nancy Hebben and William Milberg

Essentials of Nonverbal Assessmentby Steve McCallum, Bruce Bracken, and John Wasserman

Essentials of PAI®Assessmentby Leslie C. Morey

Essentials of Processing Assessmentby Milton J. Dehn

Essentials of Response to Interventionby Amanda M. VanDerHeyden and Matthew K. Burns

Essentials of Rorschach®Assessmentby Tara Rose, Nancy Kaser-Boyd, and Michael P. Maloney

Essentials of School Neuropsychological Assessmentby Daniel C. Miller

Essentials of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5) Assessmentby Gale H. Roid and R. Andrew Barram

Essentials of TAT and Other Storytelling Assessments, Second Editionby Hedwig Teglasi

Essentials of Temperament Assessmentby Diana Joyce

Essentials of WAIS®-IV Assessmentby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WIAT®-III and KTEA-II Assessmentby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Kristina C. Breaux

Essentials of WISC-III®and WPPSI-R®Assessmentby Alan S. Kaufman and Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger

Essentials of WISC®-IV Assessment, Second Editionby Dawn P. Flanagan and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WJ III™ Cognitive Abilities Assessmentby Fredrick A. Schrank, Dawn P. Flanagan, Richard W. Woodcock, and Jennifer T. Mascolo

Essentials of WJ III™ Tests of Achievement Assessmentby Nancy Mather, Barbara J. Wendling, and Richard W. Woodcock

Essentials of WMS®-III Assessmentby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger, Alan S. Kaufman, and Zona C. Lai

Essentials of WNV™ Assessmentby Kimberly A. Brunnert, Jack A. Naglieri, and Steven T. Hardy-Braz

Essentials of WPPSI ™-III Assessmentby Elizabeth O. Lichtenberger and Alan S. Kaufman

Essentials of WRAML2 and TOMAL-2 Assessmentby Wayne Adams and Cecil R. Reynolds

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone].

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If legal, accounting, medical, psychological or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. In all instances where John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is aware of a claim, the product names appear in initial capital or all capital letters. Readers, however, should contact the appropriate companies for more complete information regarding trademarks and registration.

For general information on our other products and services please contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at [phone], outside the United States at [phone] or fax [phone].

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our website at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Joyce, Diana.

Essentials of temperament assessment / Diana Joyce.

p. cm. - (Essentials of psychological assessment series)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

eISBN : 978-0-470-59404-9

1. Temperament. 2. Temperament-Testing. I. Title.

BF798.J69 2010

155.2’8-dc22

2009035134

To Dawn Sherie Grove, my daughter, who provides boundless inspiration through her visionary temperament qualities (ENTJ).

Series Preface

In the Essentials of Psychological Assessment series, we have attempted to provide the reader with books that will deliver key practical information in the most efficient and accessible style. The series features instruments in a variety of domains, such as cognition, personality, education, and neuropsychology. For the experienced clinician, books in the series offer a concise, yet thorough way to master utilization of the continuously evolving supply of new and revised instruments, as well as a convenient method for keeping up to date on the tried-and-true measures. The novice will find here a prioritized assembly of all the information and techniques that must be at one’s fingertips to begin the complicated process of individual psychological diagnosis.

Wherever feasible, visual shortcuts to highlight key points are utilized alongside systematic, step-by-step guidelines. Chapters are focused and succinct. Topics are targeted for an easy understanding of the essentials of, interpretation and clinical application. Theory and research are continually woven into the fabric of each book, but always to enhance clinical inference, never to sidetrack or overwhelm. We have long been advocates of “intelligent” testing—the notion that a profile of test scores is meaningless unless it is brought to life by the clinical observations and astute detective work of knowledgeable examiners. Test profiles must be used to make a difference in the child’s or adult’s life, or why bother to test? We want this series to help our readers become the best intelligent testers they can be.

In Essentials of Temperament Assessment, Dr. Diana Joyce reviews the theoretical foundations of temperament constructs as well as the assessment instruments designed to measure those qualities. Considerations in selecting evaluation methods and tests are reviewed. The book also highlights features and discusses interpretation strategies for a wide range of temperament measures from infancy through adulthood. Clinicians will find the sample reports to be of special value as they illustrate numerous practical applications for utilizing temperament data in pedagogy, counseling, and professional development.

Alan S. Kaufman, PhD, and Nadeen L. Kaufman, EdD, Series Editors Yale University School of Medicine

Acknowledgments

The theoretical foundation and clinical expertise required for our profession are an invaluable gift from past and present visionaries who have dedicated their lives to understanding others. These brilliant minds, and their legacy of scholarship, make this text and line of inquiry possible. I am especially appreciative to Thomas Oakland, who first introduced me to the topic of temperament and has provided countless professional insights over the years. His quest to understand temperament across gender, ethnicity, and cultures beyond our national boundaries is admirable. It also has been my pleasure to work with Isabel Pratt, editor, Susan Moran, senior production editor, Kara Borbely, senior editorial assistant, and Stevie Belchak, editorial assistant, at John Wiley & Sons, as well as the Series Editors Alan and Nadeen Kaufman. Their comments, suggestions, positive regard, and expertise are greatly appreciated.

I am grateful to my family of extroverts who always understood and appreciated my introverted qualities and shared my judging characteristics that required organization. Thank you, Don & Carol Joyce, Buddy & Phyllis Joyce, Wanda & Dan Yadon, and Allen & Lisa Joyce.

One

OVERVIEW OF TEMPERAMENT THEORY

Interest in temperament as an explanation for the nature of personal characteristics is long-standing, even pre-dating the formal discipline of psychology. Ancient scholars, philosophers, and historians first postulated temperament explanations for behavioral patterns they had observed across humanity. Classic Greek writings often linked their behavioral observations with intriguing and primitive speculations regarding internal functions of the human body (Galen, trans. 1916; trans. 1992). Temperament terminology included descriptions of dispositions, humors, moods, and tempers. These descriptions ascribed combinations of moral character, personality, and sometimes disparaging assumptions about individuals to physiological attributes.

During the Middle Ages, literature on temperament was less prominent. However, mental health hospital treatment for some of the pathology symptoms (e.g., depression, cycling moods) linked to original temperament theory appeared as early as the eighth century. Those treatment facilities are mentioned in medieval Islamic medical records, with one of the first mental health hospital units reportedly located in Baghdad ( Syed, 2002 ). Physicians were trained in the early Greek temperament philosophies of Hippocrates and Galen, as well as others, and embraced humane treatment practices for mental health symptoms. Clinical training included an emphasis on identifying many of the physical characteristics that Greek literature had associated with temperaments (e.g., yellow jaundiced skin, melancholy) as well as clinical observation of behavior. Medical diagnosis and treatment for perceived emotional illnesses within hospitals later emerged in Persia during the 11th century ( Syed, 2002 ) and in Europe during the 13th century ( Shorter, 1997 ).

In the 1600s, with the advent of the pre-modern period, governments in Europe began systemically establishing public hospitals and often included physicians who treated mental health illnesses ( Shorter, 1997 ). Unfortunately, many early institutions lacked effective or dignified treatment for mental health issues and engaged in a variety of ill-conceived and sometimes punitive treatments. Medicine, including surgery, could be practiced without formal education, competency exams, or licensure by a variety of persons, including barbers ( Fu, 1998 ). These practices resulted in poor outcomes and often patients were institutionalized for a lifetime. Interpretations of temperament and other mental health or personality qualities were left to laypersons and self-proclaimed healers. This period in European history is noted to have lacked enlightenment on understanding human behaviors related to personality or mental health and yielded few major philosophical or scientific advancements in treatment. However, the continued prominence of temperament ideas in identifying human behavior patterns for everyday life is evident through the popular culture of that era. Temperament prototypes were the inspiration for both protagonists in literature and playwrights’ characters in many theatrical works. For example, several of Shakespeare’s (1564/1616) manuscripts depicted Galen’s four humors; Hamlet as the melancholy prince, Sir John Falstaff as the phlegmatic knight, Lady Macbeth as the choleric villainess, and Viola as the sanguine heroine ( Fahey, 2008).

Reform in the 1700s encouraged physicians to seek better methods of understanding and treating mental health symptoms. The term psychiatry originated with Johann Christina Reil in 1808, and the medical specialization in mental health treatment became firmly established across Europe at that time ( Marneros, 2008). The institutionalization of public service hospitals marks a critical juncture in psychology, as many were associated with university training centers. This alignment fostered renewed study of psychological concepts accompanied by rigorous training standards for practice. From the late 1800s to the 1920s the number of mental health patients in Europe grew exponentially. By the early 1900s, asylums also had emerged in the United States with thousands of patients and an expanding interest in psychological theories and effective treatments ( Shorter, 1997 ).

Modern 19th and 20th century psychiatrists brought a resurgence of interest in the concept of temperament. New hypotheses reflected an emphasis on tendencies and dominant qualities. Temperament perspectives now included references to personal traits, behavioral concepts, self-regulatory factors, and motivational attributes. Today, definitions of temperament are multi-dimensional with sophisticated and more complex theory. A number of quantitative temperament measures also have emerged since the 1950s and validation of test constructs is now subject to the rigor of scientific methods. Research on temperament has evolved to include international and interdisciplinary studies, conducted across the fields of developmental and child psychology, psychiatry, and educational psychology ( Goldsmith & Rieser-Danner, 1992 ).

As with many psychological premises, consensus on a definition for temperament is still evolving. There are variations in defining temperament due in part to training and dominant psychological perspectives of the individual theorists (e.g., psychoanalytic, developmental, behavioral, or biological). However, the metamorphosis of theories has lead to commonly accepted agreement on several important factors. First, temperament has a biological basis and individual differences are evident early in life ( Bates, Wachs, & Emde, 1994). Secondly, these predispositions are relatively stable while also influenced by environmental factors (Goldsmith & Rieser-Danner, 1986; Chess & Thomas & Chess, 1984, 1986). Thirdly, temperament is perceived as bidirectional as specific attributes can elicit particular responses from others (Chess & Thomas, 1984, 1986; Thomas & Chess, 1977, 1989). Temperament also is perceived as somewhat malleable as personal behavioral choices can be altered based on an understanding of one’s own temperament qualities ( Myers & Myers, 1980; Oakland, Glutting, & Horton, 1996; Tegalsi, 1998). Lastly, temperament is related to but not synonymous with personality. It may in fact, shape the early foundations for later development of personality based on one’s temperament-related propensities (Costa & McCrae, 2001; McCrae et al., 2000). Kagan and Snidman (2004, p. 218-219) describe temperament as a possible biologically based reactivity sequence on an individual’s quality of mood, through a series of physiological responses (e.g., circuitry between heart, blood vessels, muscles, amygdale, and prefrontal cortex). A person experiences these responses holistically creating a feeling tone or quality of mood that if mild elicits interpretation such as fatigue but if aversive provokes “an emotion, that in our culture, invites an interpretation of a personal flaw.”

In addition to the areas of agreement regarding temperament, there also are a number of divergent perspectives. Major points of disagreement include the extent to which temperament is heritable, biologically based, or malleable, which has implications for the efficacy of influencing temperament through educational or therapy approaches. The boundaries between definitions of personality and temperament also are sometimes nebulous or overlapping, which makes distinguishing components for measurement challenging. In addition, there are numerous proposals as to which specific components comprise temperament dimensions (Goldsmith et al., 1987). A review of all the proposed temperament qualities is beyond the scope of this text. In fact, Goldberg (1982) proposed over 900 elements that could be included in his conceptualization of temperament. The next section will review several predominant theories. Broad definitions of temperament as compared to personality are provided in Rapid Reference 1.1.

Rapid Reference 1.1

Comparing Definitions: Personality Versus Temperament

Personality

Personality is defi ned as, “enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts” (American Psychiatric Association, 2000, p. 686). “Personality is the sum total of the physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristics of an individual. Personality is a global concept that includes all those characteristics that make every person an individual, different from every other person. Personality is not static; it is developed over the years and is always in the process of becoming” (Rice, 1992, p. 228).

Temperament

“Temperament refers to the characteristic phenomena of an individual’s emotional nature, including his susceptibility to emotional stimulation, his customary strength and speed of response, the quality of his prevailing mood, and all the peculiarities of fl uctuation and intensity of mood, these phenomena being regarded as dependent upon constitutional make-up and therefore largely hereditary in origin” (Allport, 1961, p. 34).

We (Buss and Plomin) “defi ne temperament as a set of inherited personality traits that appear early in life. Thus, there are two defi ning characteristics. First, the traits are genetic in origin, like other psychological dispositions that are inherited (e.g., intelligence). Second traits appear in infancy—more specifi - cally, during the fi rst year of life—which distinguishes temperament from other groups of personality traits, both inherited and acquired” (Goldsmith et al., 1987, p. 508).

We (Thomas and Chess) “conceptualize temperament as the stylistic component of behavior—that is, the how of behavior as differentiated from motivation, the why of behavior, and abilities, the what of behavior. A group of individuals—children and adults—may have the same motivation and a similar level of ability for a particular task or social activity. But they may differ markedly as to how they perform in terms of their motor activity, their intensity and quality of mood expression, their ease of adaptability, their persistence, or their degree of distractibility in the process of functioning. These later characteristics, among others, would represent components of temperament” (Goldsmith et al., 1987, p. 508).

Contrasting Definitions of Personality and Temperament

Personality refers to a wide variety of personal qualities, demeanor characteristics including social appeal and expressive energy, traits, cognitive attributions, emotional response patterns, behaviors, and temperament that together form a unique constellation recognized by others as the individual’s persona. However, any of these factors separately also can be identifi ed as personality variables common to many persons. It is the unique combination and degree of expression of personality traits that is specifi c to the individual rather than the actual traits. The temperament components of personality are considered predispositions with a stronger biological basis than personality traits, are developmentally evident earlier, and are less mediated by environmental infl uences. However, temperament theory does acknowledge the reciprocal nature of biological and environmental influences as well as the brain’s plasticity in generating or sustaining neural connections that can shift temperament qualities over time. Temperament may be conceptualized as a foundational substrate for the subsequent development of personality through its effect on response instincts and thus the self-selection of environmental experiences (e.g., personal interactions, activities) that will further strengthen or diminish predispositions.

CLASSIC TO MODERN HISTORY OF TEMPERAMENT THEORY

A review of the development of temperament theory can provide further insights into the concepts that form the foundations for current research and assessment instruments. The earliest known writings on temperament date to the work of Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.) and Plato (427-347 B.C.). The influence of this work is again evident several years later in the orations of Plato’s student, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). As philosophers who melded their viewpoints from the science, literature, early medicine, and politics of their era, they often made broad conclusions that paired temperament with other attributes. As an example, in his writings, Aristotle paired melancholy temperament with genius, noting that men of greatness were always by nature melancholy (Akiskal & Akiskal, 2007).

Hippocrates was a physician who conceptualized the body as having four critical fluids (i.e., phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile ) that moderated health and wellness. The four components could result in both positive and negative effects. However, this was dependent on maintaining the appropriate balance within the human body. Hippocrates perceived an imbalance, excess or shortage of one of the four fluids would result in a variety of physical and/or behavioral symptoms (Hippocrates, trans. 1939; 1988; 1994).

Nearly 500 years later, Galen ( 130-200 A.D.), also a physician, further delineated Hippocrates’ concept of four humors as physical and emotional characteristics of four temperaments, he called choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic, and sanguine (Galen, trans. 1992; Hergenhahn, 2001; Hippocrates, trans. 1939). Individuals were considered fools and choleric if they were irascible exhibiting irritability, quick tempered, easily angered, and readily changed moods. The phlegmatic temperament was denoted as slow, lethargic, pale, weak, mild-mannered, and prone to fantasy as well as somatic complaints (e.g., gas, epilepsy). Extreme happiness, malaise, sadness or depression was deemed a melancholic temperament. The fourth temperament, sanguine, was described as being a gracious speaker, loving, hairy, and optimistic (Galen, trans. 1992; Hergenhahn, 2001).

Interest in temperament theory again piqued at the beginning of the 20th century with the advent of psychiatry as a profession. In 1921, three influential psychiatrists, from the psychoanalytic tradition, each published theories of temperament based on their clinical observations of patients and interpretations of behavioral patterns. These theorists included Ernst Kretschmer (1888-1964), Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922), and Carl Jung (1875-1963). Ernst Kretschmer’s theory of temperament was titled Physique and Character (i.e., Körperbau und Charakter). His early work linked temperament with physical attributes, as Hippocrates and Galen had. Kretschmer proposed three body types; thin ( i.e., asthenic ), athletic ( later combined with asthenic and called asthenic/ leptosomic ) or overweight (i.e., pyknic) and delineated associated traits as well as potential psychopathologies. He attributed friendliness and gregarious personality traits to overweight persons with a propensity toward manic-depressive illness for those who were obese. Introversion and a timid demeanor were associated with the thin or athletic body type and if pathology were present it manifested similar to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia (Kretschmer, 1936; Pedrosa-Gil, Weber, & Burgmair, 2002). Ernest’s theory did not garner wide acceptance, although a variation by William Sheldon (1898-1977) appeared in the 1940s. Sheldon (1940, 1954) adapted Kretschmer’s three body physique type theory, arguing for three somatotypes that he termed Endomorphy, Mesophorphy, and Ectomorphy. Each somatotype was named by its perceived relationship to one of the three embryonic cell layers that later evolve to support specific body systems (i.e., endoderm or inner skin supporting digestive functions, mesoderm or middle skin the precursor to muscle and circulatory system development, and ectoderm or outer layer contributing to nervous system development). The Endomorphic (endoderm) had a soft body with a rounded shape and underdeveloped muscles. Associated traits included a Viscerotonia temperament that loves food and comfort, is tolerant, displays even emotions, is sociable, and has a good sense of humor. The Mesomorphic (mesoderm) body was toned, muscular, and overly mature with good posture. Their temperament qualities (Somatotonia) were described as adventurous with a desire for power and dominance, courageous, and competitive. The last type, Ectomorphic (ectoderm) was described as thin, delicate, tall, and stoop-shouldered. The Ectomorph was considered to have Cerebrotonia temperament qualities including sensitivity, introversion, self-consciousness, and emotional restraint with a propensity for artistic ability. Sheldon (1954) tried to create a systematic approach to measuring male body types that he titled the Atlas of Men; however, his system and theory lacked wide acceptance. Over time, interest in body types as a marker for temperament waned, whereas endorsement for psychological types in temperament flourished.

Both Rorschach (i.e., Psychodiagnostik) and Jung (i.e., Psychological Typen) published manuscripts on temperament that included the concepts of introversion and extroversion. Rorschach, although disavowing any endorsement or similarity to Jung’s ideas, claimed he could provide an objective measurement of introversion and extroversion (Wehr, 1971). Prior to this assertion, temperament qualities were attributed to patients based solely on interviews, observations, and the clinical judgment of the psychiatrist. Rorschach’s test was one of the first attempts at measurement of temperament. However, studies of the instrument as an assessment of introversion-extroversion were not supported ( Brawer & Spiegelman, 1964).

PSYCHOLOGICAL TEMPERAMENT TYPES

Throughout the 21st century, several temperament theories and subsequent measures were developed based on a dichotomous conceptualization of temperament. These theories proposed a variety of dimensions that measured opposing qualities and resulted in ascribing typologies or categorical distinctions. Measures typically include forced choice items for two contrasting characteristics on each dimension and yield scores that vary from a mild to strong preference for one of the two qualities. The scores place individuals within a category and the overarching combination of preferred categories result in a typology that is considered as the best level of interpretation rather than the continuous score.

Carl Jung’s Theory of Temperament

Carl Jung’s theory of temperament evolved from his clinical practice in a Zurich psychiatric hospital and observation of patients. After a number of years of collecting notes on his patients’ behaviors, he perceived reoccurring patterns of personal qualities that correlated with particular psychopathology or adjustment problems. His writings discussed how extroversion patients more frequently experienced aggressive or outwardly demonstrative behaviors ( Jung, 1921/1971). In patients with hysteria, despite their emotional state, they maintained awareness of the external environment and interacted with the therapist, thus were considered extroversion. In patients with schizophrenia, Jung thought introversion was dominant as they withdrew from the world around them (Storr, 1991). Jung (1915/1954, 1920/1926, 1930/1933, 1928/1945, 1943/1953, 1954/1967, 1921/1971) mentions the historical underpinnings of his theory as associated with the early ideas from Hippocrates, Galen, Ostwald, and others. However, he differentiated his temperament theory as a psychological typology.

The foundation of Jung’s temperament concepts are based on two attitudes, introversion and extroversion and four psychological functions (see Rapid Reference 1.3). An attitude is described as “the psyche to act or react in a certain way” ( Jung, 1921/1971, p. 414). Jung did not characterize patients as unidimensional or only capable of exhibiting just introversion or extroversion in their behavior. He postulated that each individual possesses the ability to both introvert and extrovert; however, the individual has acquired a propensity to exhibit one of the attitudes over the other ( Jung, 1921/1971; Storr, 1991). As this attitude is preferred, it is utilized more often, and thus becomes increasingly more skilled than the other attitude. He noted, “There is no such thing as a pure extrovert or a pure introvert . . . those are only terms to designate a certain punction, a certain tendency” (Evans, Leppman, & Bergene, 1968). Jung also was careful to explain these qualities without judgment, noting introversion and extroversion qualities may be expressed in positive or negative behaviors depending on the personality and disposition of the individual (Wehr, 1971). Introversion and extroversion also can be conceptualized along a continuum in addition to categorically. Individuals may vary from strongly introverted to slightly introverted or from strongly extroversion to slightly extroversion.

Introverts are interested more in their own thoughts and their inner world of feelings. Thus they may shrink away from interest in others or objects. They acquire energy from within, prefer solitude or small groups, are introspective, hesitant in new circumstances, and prone to making decisions cautiously. Extroverts are more attuned to the environment. They are outgoing, foster attachments quickly, and have concern regarding others’ expectations ( Jung, 1921/1971; Wehr, 1971).

Jung’s temperament theory of psychological type also identified two additional dichotomies that created four psychological functions: sensation-intuition and thinking-feeling ( Jung, 1921/1971). Each of the functions may be exhibited in an extroversion or introverted manner. Within each dichotomy, one function was described as well developed and used on a conscious level while the alternate function is not well developed or used on a conscious level ( Jung, 1920/1926). Therefore, only one opposing function (e.g., thinking or feeling and sensation or intuition) can be operating on a conscious level at any particular time.

In describing the two functions responsible for how one prefers to acquire or assess information, Jung labeled the dimensions “sensation” and “intuition.” He also conceptualized these as opposing styles. He wrote, “Sensation is just as antagonistic to intuition as thinking is to feeling” ( Jung, 1930/1933, p. 106). The dichotomy of sensation and intuition are considered irrational decision-making styles ( Jung, 1921/1971). Intuition is a quick and holistic manner of assimilating information that gleans insight from experiences and unconscious perceptions. Intuition can infer meaning from perceptions of nebulous ideas, broad theories, and patterns with lesser attention to details or facts. Jung noted, “In intuitives a context presents itself whole and complete, without our being able to explain or discover how this context came into existence” ( Jung, 1921/1971, p. 453). In contrast, sensation function prefers direct experience, facts, and physical evidence. It is concerned with external stimuli (i.e., acquired through the five senses). Real-life experience is more dominant and sensation is a conscious perception.

Thinking and feeling were defined as rational functions ( Jung, 1921/1971) for decision making. Persons using the thinking function carefully deliberate their decisions with a preference for utilizing facts, logic, and objective data. They most value broad principles of justice and truth when pondering judgments. Feeling is a more subjective process that makes decisions based on a personal values system (e.g., empathy, well-being of others). This value creates a sense of liking, disliking, or overall mood that may incorporate experience and leads to accepting or rejecting a choice. “Feeling is a kind of judgment, differing from intellectual judgment in that its aim is not to establish conceptual relations but to set up a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection” ( Jung, 1921/1971, p. 434). Because the laws of reason are used in establishing subjective value, Jung (1921/1971) noted that feeling is a rational quality. Depending on the pairing of combinations of temperament components, an individual could be one of eight temperament types. Jung considered four of these types to be rational and four to be irrational.

Jung’s Rational Types

Extroversion-thinking, introverted-thinking, extroversion-feeling, and introverted-feeling were considered to be rational types. In describing his ideas, Jung made comparisons to influential personalities of his era. He considered Charles Darwin, with his emphasis on scientific evidence and fact, to be an example of the extroversion-thinking type. Immanuel Kant, with his emphasis on subjective reality and rationalist philosophy, was provided as an example of the introverted-thinking type. Both are strongly influenced by ideas, but the extroversion-thinking type is interested in objective data and will follow ideas externally. The introverted-thinking type is influenced by subjective ideas and will ponder those inwardly ( Jung, 1921/1971). Jung considered the extroversion-feeling and introverted-feeling types to be found most commonly among women. Later research would confirm this hypothesis (see Chapter Two). These types are guided by a personal value system comprised of subjective feelings and place strong value on harmony.

Jung’s Irrational Types

Jung’s four irrational types are (a) extroversion-intuitive, ( b) introverted-intuitive, (c) extroversion-sensing, and (d) introverted-sensing. His caricature of an introverted-intuitive type is that of a person who is a solitary dreamer or artist and engages in mystic ponderings. His description of the extroversion-intuitive is one of marked dependence on the external, seeking new possibilities. Each is strongly influenced by subjective factors and ideas. In contrast, the extroversion-sensing seeks external facts, concrete objects, and reality while the introverted-sensing studies or ponders such evidence.

DON’T FORGET

Carl Jung’s Rational and Irrational Types

Carl Jung’s rational and irrational types can be either introverted or extroversion. The distinguishing dimensions were thinking or feeling to be considered a rational type and sensation or intuition for irrational types.

Rational TypesJung’s Irrational TypesExtroversion - ThinkingExtroversion - SensationExtroversion - FeelingExtroversion - IntuitionIntrover ted - ThinkingIntroverted - SensationIntrover ted - FeelingIntrover ted - Intuition

Jung’s Falsification of Type

In conjunction with his theory of psychological types, Jung described a phenomenon he called falsification of type. He suggested that the best psychological health is promoted when persons can express and be recognized for their natural preferences and external forces do not dictate behaviors contrary to these preferences. Jung noted that persons who could utilize both qualities of a dimension when appropriate while maintaining their own personal strengths were best adjusted. As an example, if the work demands of an individual who may be introverted are consistent with introverted tasks, he or she is more likely to be successful, especially if the individual could extrovert when required for social situations. However, if an introverted person was constantly required to function in extroversion ways at work (e.g., high demand for public speaking engagements) or other social obligations, this becomes exhausting and soon the negative effects of relentless stress ensue ( Jung, 1921/1971).

Jung’s ideas on temperament were only one portion of his life’s work that also included analytical therapy techniques. There are several institutes that continue that work today (i.e., C.G. Jung Institute of New York, http://www.junginstitute.org) in the United States. His temperament theory enjoyed a significant period of acclaim following its publication in the 1920s and became the foundation for development of several current temperament and personality measures.

Myers and Briggs Theory of Temperament

At the same time that Jung had published his Psychological Types, Katharine C. Briggs (1875-1968) was endeavoring to identify common personality factors for highly accomplished individuals through extensive reviews of biographies. She became intrigued with Jung’s work adding a fourth dimension, judging and perceiving (see Rapid Reference 1.3). Judging or perceiving were concepts to describe how individuals structure their lives as related to the outside world ( Myers & Myers, 1980). Persons with a judging orientation prefer a self-regimented lifestyle, routinely engage in planning, are organized, prefer schedules, and seek closure on projects and tasks. Persons with a perceiving orientation prefer spontaneity, keeping options open, and are often highly tolerant, curious, and readily adaptive ( Myers & Myers, 1980).

In the summer of 1942, Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs-Myers (1896- 1980) began developing test items for an instrument to measure Jung’s psychological types. Subsequently, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI) was published in 1962 ( Myers & Myers, 1980). The MBTI combines Jung’s three temperament dimensions and adds Briggs’s fourth dimension to yield interpretations for 16 types (see Rapid Reference 1.2). Each of the 16 types can be interpreted holistically or within a more complex and sophisticated understanding of which dimensions are dominant, auxiliary, or tertiary. Detailed guidelines for administration, scoring, and interpretation of the MBTI are available in the Essentials of Myers-Brig gs Type Indicator Assessment, Second Edition (Quenk, 2009).

Katherine Briggs’s partnership with her daughter Isabel continued throughout her lifetime, initiating decades of research on the utility of the MBTI. Unlike some measures of personality, they conceptualized the MBTI as primarily a method for understanding others differences rather than an instrument to measure pathology. They intended for the MBTI to help “parents, teachers, students, counselors, clinicians, clergy, and all others who are concerned with the realization of human potential” ( Myers & Myers, 1980, p. xiii). The concepts of Jungian and Myers/Briggs temperament typology are now widely recognized, even appearing in a variety of secular media from George Balanchine’s ballet The Four Temperaments, to television series such as Northern Exposure, and endorsements by Dr. Niles Crane’s character in the sitcom series Fraser. Thus, whether through historical theatre of Shakespeare or modern technology media, our muses continue to recognize temperament qualities in everyday life and imbue those traits upon their characters.

Rapid Reference 1.2

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Psychological Types

The MBTI measure is utilized among a variety of psychologists (e.g., clinical, rehabilitation), as well as counselors, social workers, and other mental health providers. Today industrial/organizational (IO) psychologists also incorporate the measure into a variety of career assessments, employee training, and team-building programs for numerous Fortune 500 companies. In fact, the MBTI is reported by its publisher, Consulting Psychologists Press (CPP), to be the most widely administered personality assessment in the world with distribution of over two million copies annually. Sample reports are available online (https://www.cpp.com/products/mbti/index.aspx).

The Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT ) was founded by Isabel Briggs-Myers and Mary H. McCaulley in 1975. It is currently located in Gainesville, Florida, and offers online bibliography searches for over 10,000 MBTI entries, sample reports, web-based MBTI test administration, as well as subscription to the Journal of Psychological Type (http://www.capt.org/about-capt/home.htm).

Rapid Reference 1.3

Jungian and Myers-Briggs Dichotomies

Energy Orientation (Attitudes)

Extroversion (E)

Renew energy from external or outer world of people and objects, outgoing, foster attachments quickly, share ideas readily

Introversion (I)

Renew energy from inner world of thoughts and introspection, prefer solitude or small groups, self-refl ection

Perception or Learning Processes (Functions)

Sensing (S)

Acquire information from five senses; real-life, concrete experiences dominate; practical, realistic, pragmatic, detail oriented

Intuition (N)

Holistic assimilation of information; value insight, ideas, theories, interest in patterns with lesser attention to details

Decision-Making Process (Functions)

Thinking (T)

Deliberate decisions based on facts, logic, objective data; emphasize principles of justice and truth in decision, seek fairness

Feeling (F)

Decisions made with emphasis on subjective values such as empathy and well-being of others, seek harmony

Environment or Lifestyle Orientation (Attitudes)

Judging (J)

Prefer structure in daily interactions with outer world ; like routines, organization, schedules, planning ahead; seek closure on projects

Perceiving (P)

Prefer to approach the outer world in a spontaneous and flexible manner, tolerant, adaptive, like to keep options open

Keirsey Theory of Temperament

In the 1970s, David West Keirsey (born 1921), an educational psychologist and eventually chair of the California State University, Fullerton, Counseling Department, published a text providing a short, self-scoring, temperament measure, The Keirsey Temperament Sorter. The instrument yielded the MBTI 16 types (Keirsey & Bates, 1978). However, he argued for a modified interpretation of the original Jung-Briggs-Myers temperament model that groups the 16 types into four clusters for interpretation. Keirsey (1998, p. 15, 18) noted this structure was suggested by Myers and better reflected what Keirsey perceives as a four-type theoretical construct based on the work of multiple theorists (i.e., Ernst Kretschmer, Eduard Spranger, Eric Adickes, and Eric Fromm). Although he acknowledges each of the four temperaments within a cluster have differences, the overarching similarities are considered more important and definitive. In fact, Keirsey and Bates proposed that, “the real usefulness of the types comes not in memorizing the sixteen portraits, but in understanding the temperamental base of the types” endorsing Hippocrates’ idea that four core types exist (Keirsey & Bates, 1978, p. 26). The styles were described figuratively as similar to the characteristics manifest by four Greek mythology entities: Dionysus, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Apollo. The four clusters included sensing-judging, sensing-perceiving, intuition-thinking, and intuition-feeling. Over the next 20 years, Keirsey (1998) refined his temperament theory and published the revised Keirsey Temperament Sorter®-II ( p. 4-11) as well as a shorter version, the Keirsey Four-Types Sorter ( p. 348-350). His current model often is utilized in business and there is a modified self-administered short version available online (http://www.keirsey.com). The new model also ascribes new names to the four categories: Artisan, Guardian, Rational, and Idealist (see Rapid Reference 1.4). These are consistent with Plato’s original four temperament types and based more on individuals’ function within society. The names help facilitate understanding of the temperament profiles for laypersons that have little or no theoretical knowledge of temperament theory.

When referenced within this model (Keirsey, 1978, 1998), those with sensing-perceiving preferences are characterized as artistic, athletic, easy-going, tolerant, open-minded, adaptable, and persuasive. They enjoy exploring new experiences, discovery, and have a strong play ethic and need for freedom. The sensing-judging temperament is characterized as dutiful, responsible, conservative, stable, patient, dependable, and highly productive with a strong work ethic. They need a sense of belonging and traditions, thus are often caregivers. They thrive in well-defined roles, routine, and prefer to learn in a sequential manner. The intuition-thinking temperament is described as rational, analytical, systematic, curious, scientific, and research-oriented. They have a strong drive for success, competency, high standards and achievement. They also can be inquisitive, perfectionistic, and at times compulsive. They tend to emphasize work before recreation and even carry over their achievement drive to hobbies or leisure activities (e.g., self-imposed golfing expertise). The intuitive-feeling temperament is friendly, sympathetic, insightful, creative, intuitive, caring, and attuned to the needs of others. Their core value is personal integrity and self-actualization. They are often quite passionate about social causes and the impact of actions on humanity. Keirsey and Bates also make reference to the effects of temperament as observed in children, marriage compatibility, and note frequency patterns of particular temperaments by career.

Rapid Reference 1.4

Keirsey Temperament Sorter Types (1978 & 1998)

TEMPERAMENT THEORY EMBEDDED IN BROAD PERSONALITY MEASURES

In addition to unitary measures of temperament, there are many well-established personality instruments that incorporate one or more dimensions from temperament theory. Dimensional approaches provide continuous measures that can be interpreted as the strength of a characteristic. Although personality instruments are not the core topic of this text, a brief discussion of some major instruments is provided. There are evaluations, especially if pathology is suspected, where including these measures as a supplement to traditional temperament measures can provide additional insight. These measures differ from the temperament measures discussed thus far in a number of ways. First, many are considered atheoretical as the inclusion of items and scales was first determined based on empirical statistical methods rather than preconceived philosophical constructs. Secondly, they measure a broader spectrum of personal traits than temperament measures do. In addition, they often include characteristics noted as symptoms of pathology and are utilized in mental health diagnoses based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM ) criteria. They may also provide support for treatment planning. The instruments typically yield continuous scores rather than categorical, and this facilitates comparisons of particular traits to clinical populations as well as evidence of improvement for treatment outcomes.