10,00 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: Eland Publishing
- Kategorie: Lebensstil
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
Ethiopia is one of only a handful of countries that shock the traveller with their unique perspective. These places awaken a deep sense of wonder and offer a rare opportunity to observe the world from a different angle, to see things anew. Ethiopia: through writers' eyes is the perfect companion to any exploration of this idiosyncratic country, be it from the precarious saddle of an Abyssinian mule, or the comfortable folds of an armchair. A compendium of all things Ethiopian, with excerpts translated from writings in a number of languages including Amharic, the book peoples the land with a caste of priest-kings descended from Solomon and Sheba, and with many of the eccentric adventurers who have been drawn there: Jesuit explorers and missionaries, foolish would-be conquerors and writers of all stripes.
Das E-Book können Sie in Legimi-Apps oder einer beliebigen App lesen, die das folgende Format unterstützen:
Ähnliche
ETHIOPIA
Through Writers’ Eyes
Edited by
YVES-MARIE STRANGER
In Memoriam
Jean-Michel Cornu de Lenclos
Saigon, Vietnam 1956, Phnom Pen, Cambodia, 2014
‘Like all those possessing a library, Aurelian was aware that he was guilty of not knowing his in its entirety.’
The Theologians, JORGE LUIS BORGES
‘Believe nothing that is written in books, until you observe them and find them to be true.’
Hatata, ZARA YACOB
‘They’re using pancakes as spoons!’
‘Ooo, let’s see what else they do wrong.’
The Simpsons visit Little Ethiopia
Disclaimer
I thank early readers for their advice and discerning criticism – but claim as my own any Abyssinian idiosyncrasies in the choices retained here. Spellings, however idiosyncratic, have been kept, for the larger part, as in their original renderings, save when they would have presented the reader with unnecessary difficulties. The word Ethiopian will be used throughout this book, where contemporary usage would often divide the people into their smallest common denominators. There is nothing wrong per se in this essentialism – ‘Unity in Diversity’ is after all one of the Federal Republic’s mottoes. But if Ethiopia has indeed long been famous for its multiplicity, this reductive view seems to hark back to the Italian invaders’ catalogue-like definition for the country: ‘Ethiopia: the Museum of Peoples’. While there is indeed beauty in diversity, the ties that bind are stronger than the dividing chasms that rend the Ethiopian high plateau. The texts anthologised here are of their time and may use vocabulary, or express ideas, in a way that is considered derogatory today. Terms such as ‘Fuzzy-Wuzzy’ (for Beni Amer), ‘Galla’ (for Oromo), ‘Falasha’ (for Beta Israel), or ‘Moor’ (for Arabs and Muslims), are to be read as historical. Any lack of correction of these terms should in no way be understood as an endorsement of their contemporary usage by the editor or the publishers.
Y-M S
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to Eloi Ficquet, Solomon Demeke, Lydia Stranger, Abebe Zegeye, Deborah Ghirmai and Fabio Ferraresi for reading first drafts, and to Jean-Michel le Dain (and the French Embassy in Ethiopia) for their willingness to support the translation of a number of texts which were only available to this day in French. The task of sourcing rare travel accounts would have been near impossible without the friendly help of the staff of the libraries of the French Centre for Ethiopian Studies in Kebena, and of the Library of Ethiopian Studies itself, in the melancholic palace that became Addis Ababa University’s first abode. A number of authors have kindly given their permission for extracts from their books to feature here: Sébastien de Courtois, Hugues Fontaine, Philip Marsden, Dervla Murphy, Kevin Rushby, Ian Campbell, Jacques Mercier, Aberra Jembere’s son Nurlin Aberra (and Shama Books), Charlie Walker, Aida Edemariam and Sammy Asfaw. Warm thanks to all of them. Eloi Ficquet also kindly allowed me to use an extract from the Chronicle of the Imans of Wollo that he was yet to publish. We also acknowledge permission to reprint other copyright material as follows: Penguin Books Ltd for permission for the extract from Remote People by Evelyn Waugh (© Evelyn Waugh 1932), Curtis Brown Group Ltd, London on behalf of Thomas Packenham for permission to quote from The Mountains of Rasselas (© Thomas Packenham, 1959), Curtis Brown Group Ltd, London on behalf of the Beneficiary of the Estate of Wilfred Thesiger for permission to use an extract from The Life of My Choice (© Wilfred Thesiger, 1980) and the Guardian for permission to use the article by Aida Edemariam from 1 September 2007.
Remerciements aussi à Joseph Stranger for tracking down books; to Rose Baring and Andrew R. Knight for their Gypaetus barbatus-eyed editing, as well as to Yoadan Girma for her impeccable translating and secretarial skills. Special thanks to Richard and Rita Pankhurst, who not only allowed me to quote from Richard’s book (Travellers in Ethiopia), but also to republish here his informative article on ‘Caves Around Addis Ababa’ from the Ethiopian Observer. Et un grand merci à Mark Ellingham, from Sort of Books – without whom the library of Mount Abora would have continued to lack an indispensable, if necessarily summary, appendix.
Y-M S
Contents
1
GENESIS
Introduction
Can the Ethiopian change his skin – can the leopard change its spots?
JEREMIAH 13:23
Jorge Luis Borges – who once wrote a fable called The Immortal that began and circuitously ended inside the margins of Ethiopia – set forth that ‘all good authors create their precursors’. In turn, following in his footsteps, one could venture to say that all countries worth their salt create their own geography – from myths, old maps and wishful thinking.
Today, we may be sure Ethiopia is a country in north-east Africa, but the country’s borders have not always been so well defined. Depending on the whims and knowledge of writers and geographers, Ethiopia was at times made up of all of sub-Saharan Africa – with a coastline that wandered from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean – or was solely the area circumscribed between the northern reach of Egypt’s desert, the confluence of the Blue and White Niles and the Atbara river. In a later incarnation, the country became a saintly empire administered by an anointed priest-king, known as Prester John: an empire so munificent and kaleidoscopic that it was found in the Congo, in Mongolia, in Syria and, finally, in the Christian kingdom of the hinterlands of the Red Sea. The Greek Bible had the spawn of Shem, Kush and Ham go and multiply in Egypt and Aethiopia – a tale later reprised in a legend that has Axum’s first capital founded by none other than Ityopis, son of Kush. Later the Ethiopian Queen Kandace’s eunuch is converted by the Apostle Philip on the road to Damascus – and returns to convert queen and kingdom to Christianity. Research has revealed that biblical transcribers and interpreters had rendered Kandace from the Meroitic for Queen or Queen Mother. This title, in various guises and local languages, was used until the twentieth century to denote the Ethiopian queen.
It is this intertexual play carried out on a mind’s eye map, which is so fascinating to the amateur Ethiopianist, and to the visitor to Ethiopia. No country can be better grasped from the depths of an armchair, and a library is as good a place as any to make out the ancient contours of the land of Prester John, Mandeville and Rasselas, as well as the new outlines of a country that today is attempting with great vigour to shake off the modern myth it was saddled with – of Korem and the 1970s famine, of the Derg’s Red Terror, and of poverty and refugee camps. The BBC’s John Buerk and Jonathan Dimbleby’s pronouncements on Ethiopia have had as much, if not more, resonance in the modern era as all of the Classical and Enlightenment authors put together. And yet – when John Buerk began his famous intervention at dawn in Korem, he too harked back to the text and the myth, when he intoned on camera those now famous words: ‘Dawn, and as the sun breaks through the piercing chill of night on the plain outside Korem, it lights up a biblical famine, now, in the twentieth century.’
One could be forgiven for thinking that these references are so many worn-out palimpsests now lying unused by the young, and certainly never used by Ethiopians themselves. But one would be wrong. For however bland and annoying those references to biblical imagery may seem to be the epithet ‘biblical’ is etched on the land itself. For a country that has so many illiterates, the Ethiopians’ own knowledge of historical works, myths, and books referencing their country is quite astounding. As is their respect for the word, for rhetoric and their love of poetry. Since time immemorial, ‘magic scrolls’, consisting in wide-eyed angel sketches and verses from the Psalms of David, have been worn tightly rolled up in cartouches around necks to ward off the evil eye. And it is said that Emperor Zera Yacob (1399–1468) – himself a scholar who penned various religious treatises – so much believed in the power of the word that he promulgated that all his subjects should have ‘I renounce Satan’ tattooed on their wrists.
Ethiopia likes to call itself a country of the Book and – from rustic magic scrolls to the carefully wrought Liber Axumae horse-skin vellum – the word is often seen as panacea as well as origin. Witness the practice of granting children names to tease out self-fulfilling prophecy: Kassahun (Be-My-Compensation); Afewerk (Mouth-of-Gold); Assefa (Expand-the-Borders). But, if a naturalistic novel such as Love unto the Grave, by the author and politician Addis Alemayehu (I-Saw-a-New-World, as his name can be rendered into English), is much loved, it is not so much because it has been read, but because it has been broadcast over the radio countless times since it was written after World War II.
Today, Ethiopia would like to shed some of its biblical imagery, at least when it comes to that stock phrase ‘a biblical famine’. A quick glance round a bookshop will reveal that most Amharic-language bestsellers today stray far from biblical exegesis: cheap translations of … Agatha Christie and Danielle Steel, although you can also find a book such as Anna Karenina. The themes and language of nineteenth-century Russia translate surprisingly well both into Amharic and into Ethiopian reality. And Anna Karenina has also been broadcast over the radio to great acclaim. But if Ethiopia is overwhelmingly religious and devout – and not just Christian, as the country has one of the oldest Muslim cultures in the world – Ethiopia, always a land of paradox, is a religious country that has been led by lay regimes for more than forty years, first by the avowedly atheistic regime of the military Derg junta, and today by the secular government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Although Ethiopia likes to portray itself as monotheistic and monolithic – both to itself and to the outside world – the reality is much more complex. Beliefs in spirits, good and bad, and possession cults are widespread throughout the country. Seers and oracles are consulted by Muslim and Christian alike (they often pay their respects in the same shrines), and adbars(trees that harbour spirits) are covered in clarified butter near to Addis Ababa to this day. There is also a special class of lay clergy in the Orthodox Church, the debtara (loosely translated as deacon), which specialises in writing out charms, and calculating people’s futures with numerology, often based on the Psalms of David. But an outsider would never know this: little is written on the subject, less is spoken. Jacques Mercier’s Asres (anthologised here), an intimate portrait of a seer, charlatan and wise men, is as good a portrait as you will find of this invisible but all-pervasive spiritual world.
All happy countries resemble each other, while all unhappy countries are unhappy in their own special way – Ethiopia, always idiosyncratic in its economic malpractices and a byword for famine, has now been at peace for over twenty years and has become a stabilising influence in East Africa. The building blocks for the country’s long-term stability and growth are rapidly being set up. The economy is booming, roads are being built, and the bulging population, now said to be around one hundred million, is vastly made up of youth hungry for change. Hydroelectric dams bisect all of the country’s great rivers, and the biggest dam of them all, the Renaissance Dam, is being laid across that river famous since antiquity, the Nile. This last dam is seen as a threat by Egyptians – a colonial-era, British-brokered treaty grants them close to 90 per cent of the river’s water – and as a cure to all their woes by Ethiopians, who feel aggrieved by such a markedly unjust treaty, and feel, rightly or wrongly, that if they harness their country’s water resources, prosperity and riches will come at last to their homeland, nay, will restore their country to its position of eminence among the world’s nations:
O Nile, you are the majestic blood line of my African glory
That shower my blessings upon the starved of the world
You are the eloquence that rings the Ethiopian bell across the deaf world.
TSEGAYE GEBRE-MEDHIN* (‘NILE’)
Fast-growing populations can be a bonanza, or a time bomb, so it is too early today to say if this new vision of a prosperous, water-powered Ethiopia will become a reality. But as the word renaissance implies, for there to be a rebirth, there must have been a first parturition, and modern Ethiopian youth, with their Facebook pages and love of mobile phones, still hark back to a perceived manifest destiny for Ethiopia first cast by Greek writers looking up the Nile and along the shores of the Red Sea to a remote other – the ‘most distant men’ as Homer called them.
Contemporary young Ethiopians often wear t-shirts featuring the Emperor Theodore to mark their support for their national heritage. Theodore is the wild, unhinged figure of Ethiopian unity from the mid-nineteenth century. He would have industrialised his country by the force of his will, but ended up taking his own life on his mountain redoubt of Magdala rather than surrender to Robert Napier (later 1st Baron Napier of Magdala) and the British expeditionary force sent from India to bring him to reason.
The emperor is an obvious romantic icon. And his beautiful and delicate face, with its typical Ethiopian braids, is a common sight on t-shirts and bar murals in Addis Ababa. Theodore has the advantage of being shrouded in the mists of time, in a country that is diverse religiously and ethnically. His massacres and divisions have long been forgotten (Theodore had a particular inclination for throwing trussed-up prisoners off cliffs). Moreover, the noble hero featured on t-shirts lived in a time when photography had barely made its appearance on the scene, and had certainly not reached his mountaintop fortress. The quasi-official portrait that today’s Ethiopian youth like so much is in fact a line drawing made by an English newspaper artist whose editor needed illustrations for the increasingly popular articles on the Napier expedition. The artist’s remit was ‘to draw a noble Ethiopian emperor’. And this he did, with great success.
A similar artistic licence is the recent vogue for the name Rasselas – you can meet young people in Addis Ababa and Little Ethiopia in Washington DC proudly bearing the name – which although familiar to Western readers of Doctor Johnson’s The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia, should not really be a name in Ethiopia at all. Johnson invented the portmanteau moniker by combining the title Ras, an equivalent to Duke, and the name Selas, that he had encountered in his first literary endeavour: a translation (from the French) of Jeronimo Lobos’s Ethiopian Itinerário, in which Ras Selas features prominently as the brother of the Ethiopian emperor and a staunch supporter of Catholicism. It seems that this trope of substituting titles for names – calling the Hendeke Kandace, the queen Queen – is an Ethiopian speciality. Witness the name (and title) Ras Tafari, or Duke Who-is-Fearsome, Haile Selassie’s pre-coronation name, which gave the Ras moniker Rastafarians themselves often claim as mantle – an exodus to a promised land in which all men will be, if not kings, at least dukes …
But no matter – in today’s Ethiopia (a Greek word), you can meet young men called Rasselas (an English novelist’s invention by way of a translation of a book by a Portuguese Jesuit), proudly displaying t-shirts featuring a British newspaper artist’s vision of what an Ethiopian emperor should look like. Ethiopia continues to create its precursors with great energy. Vive la renaissance!
* Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin (1936–2006), Ethiopian poet, dramatist and writer. Also well known for his translations into Amharic of Shakespeare and Molière.
YVES-MARIE STRANGER
FROMLe Syllabaire Abyssin, 2016
Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds
Lucy already had a burnt face back then, spindly legs, and arms that hung down by her thighs as she shuffled along the river. She sought out frogs, nesting birds and fawns hidden among the bushes. She did not know the age she had reached, Lucy, although she was of age to give birth – her first blood had been received with coming of age rites in which she was isolated on a distant hill. Her ilk had covered her whole body in cataplasms of clay, mingled with green and red leaves and purple berries.
Lucy wallows in the peat bogs along the river, having spent the morning foraging, from dawn to high noon. It smells good on the river bank, and the cavity in which Lucy curls up cools her extremities and trunk. Midges cannot alight on her splattered skin nor can mosquitoes pierce the muddy crust. Lucy loses her odour; there is only her breath, which is slight, to betray her to big cats, apes and to those of her ilk. She sinks into the bog, disgruntled warthogs thrashing about before taking flight. Lucy reposes, at ease, wrapped up in her second skin of moist earths. Lucy has a dream, always the same. She dreams of a vast cavern, of obscure shadows, with a roof of twinkling stars. Lucy lies on her back in her dream, and in front of her face are invisible walls. She can touch them, look at them, but cannot go through them. On the other side of these walls, pale spectres press themselves. They examine her, weighing and measuring her up with their gaze. These spectral apparitions seem themselves to be holding their breath – as if they did not wish for Lucy to detect their presence.
Lucy wakes up, in fits and starts. She remembers headlong races in the savannah. She recalls the sound and odour of dry grasses crackling as they are consumed during the dry season fires. She remembers wild escapes from the fire itself, as her ilk ran in the company of antelopes, dikdik, sabre-toothed tigers and caves hyenas. The dikdik were no more afraid of Lucy and hers, than the latter hesitated to brush up against hyena during the time of the fire. It is the truce of the savannah. Flee as fast as possible, as far as your legs will carry you. The fire running out – no more vegetation to consume, a liquid barrier: all then slink away. Dikdik make for boulders, hers coming together in a glade. Who is missing? Who stumbled? Who is now lying, their hot body still smoking in the pretty savannah? One of her ilk picks up a smoking ember and places it down in the middle of the glade. That evening, the predatory shadows come up against a new invisible wall and the sleep of all is untroubled.
Lucy also remembers helter-skelter races through the trees with her play companions – they swing from branch to branch, squabbling with monkeys over ripe fruit and dove nests lined with fat chicks. They tear out the fluff from their chests before biting into them like warm figs. The great apes are hairier, stronger; they swing better, they climb quicker. But it is them, Lucy and her ilk, who push them back into the forests, along the river, when they find an antelope, a smoking zebra on the plain, brought down and scorched by the fire. They tear off shreds of skin and flesh, eating these soft meats as much with their fingers as with their teeth. They gnaw bones, break them with rocks and suck on the marrow. Lucy looks up. She looks towards the heights of the mountains to the west, a barrier like a great green and white wall, a mottled mix of cliffs, boulders and forest. This is the end of the low plains full of silt-laden rivers, and of countless herds of beasts, in which her ilk range, from rains to dry season, between too abundant waters and green grasses, and the droughts and their storms of fire.
When the dry season of the year of her blood came, a bad wind began to blow, such as the fire breathes itself, a hot tongue which precedes the lick of the flame and harries you on as surely as the arm projects the hand in front of itself. This wind blew even before the fire, drying out the plain and making the grasses as brittle and transparent as dragonfly wings. When the sky’s fire came down – the black clouds that tore themselves up on the western wall had been massing for several days already – the savannah erupted in a sea of flames in such a manner as Lucy could not remember, and the escape of her ilk and of all that had leg and wing was desperate. A cavalcade of dust, smoke and flame full of the acrid smell of the fire itself and of a thousand beasts pressed against one another in the heart of the raging storm: the jackal against the hyrax, the mottled cheetah beside the maroon antelope – the leopard leaping on together with the scampering baboon.
The river bank was as she remembered it, and the marshy bog alone seemed still in the midst of the fury of the universe, as Lucy slid her body into the mire. Only the tingling of smoke in her nose, the glowing embers rising to the skies, and the iridescent purple and yellow reflections beyond the trees of the river bank, to remind her of the raging fire. Lucy never knew the exact moment in which the smoke stopped prickling her nose, as she never knew if she was awaking from, rather than entering, a long dream, in which diamonds studded the roof of her cavern for eternity.
Le Syllabaire Abyssin recounts the lives of 33 Ethiopian figures (corresponding to the 33 main symbols of the Ethiopian syllabary), and echoes Marcel Schwob’s Imaginary Lives. This is the life of Lucy (Australopithecus Afarensis), one of our oldest ancestors, who lived around 3.4 million years ago and whose skeleton was found in 1974 in the Afar Depression. The Beatles song ‘Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds’ was playing that day on the dig – and the name stuck.
HERODOTUS
FROMThe Histories, 440 BC
The Most Remote of Men
I went as far as Elephantine to see what I could with my own eyes, but for the country still further south I had to be content with what I was told in answer to my questions. South of Elephantine the country is inhabited by Ethiopians […] Beyond the island is a great lake, and round its shores live nomadic tribes of Ethiopians. After crossing the lake one comes again to the stream of the Nile, which flows into it […] After forty days’ journey on land along the river, one takes another boat and in twelve days reaches a big city named Meroë, said to be the capital city of the Ethiopians. The inhabitants worship Zeus and Dionysus alone of the Gods, holding them in great honour. There is an oracle of Zeus there, and they make war according to its pronouncements, taking it from both the occasion and the object of their various expeditions […] After this Cambyses [the King of Persia] took counsel with himself, and planned three expeditions. One was against the Carthaginians, another against the Ammonians, and a third against the long-lived Ethiopians, who dwelt in that part of Libya which borders upon the southern sea […] while his spies went into Ethiopia, under the pretence of carrying presents to the king, but in reality to take note of all they saw, and especially to observe whether there was really what is called ‘the table of the Sun’ in Ethiopia. Now the table of the Sun according to the accounts given of it may be thus described: it is a meadow in the skirts of their city full of the boiled flesh of all manner of beasts, which the magistrates are careful to store with meat every night, and where whoever likes may come and eat during the day. The people of the land say that the earth itself brings forth the food. Such is the description which is given of this table.
The Ethiopians to whom this embassy was sent are said to be the tallest and handsomest men in the whole world. In their customs they differ greatly from the rest of mankind, and particularly in the way they choose their kings; for they find out the man who is the tallest of all the citizens, and of strength equal to his height, and appoint him to rule over them […] The spies were told that most of them lived to be a hundred and twenty years old, while some even went beyond that age – they ate boiled flesh, and had for their drink nothing but milk. Among these Ethiopians copper is of all metals the most scarce and valuable. Also, last of all, they were allowed to behold the coffins of the Ethiopians, which are made – according to report – of crystal, after the following fashion: when the dead body has been dried, either in the Egyptian, or in some other manner, they cover the whole with gypsum, and adorn it with painting until it is as like the living man as possible. Then they place the body in a crystal pillar which has been hollowed out to receive it, crystal being dug up in great abundance in their country, and of a kind very easy to work. You may see the corpse through the pillar within which it lies; and it neither gives out any unpleasant odour, nor is it in any respect unseemly; yet there is no part that is not as plainly visible as if the body were bare. The next of kin keep the crystal pillar in their houses for a full year from the time of the death, and give it the first fruits continually, and honour it with sacrifice. After the year is out they bear the pillar forth, and set it up near the town […]
Where the south declines towards the setting sun lies the country called Ethiopia, the last inhabited land in that direction. There gold is obtained in great plenty, huge elephants abound, with wild trees of all sorts, and ebony; and the men are taller, handsomer, and longer lived than anywhere else. The Ethiopians were clothed in the skins of leopards and lions, and had long bows made of the stem of the palmleaf, not less than four cubits in length. On these they laid short arrows made of reed, and armed at the tip, not with iron, but with a piece of stone, sharpened to a point, of the kind used in engraving seals. They carried likewise spears, the head of which was the sharpened horn of an antelope; and in addition they had knotted clubs. When they went into battle they painted their bodies, half with chalk, and half with vermilion.
*
Herodotus (c.484–425 BC), ‘The Father of History’, referenced Ethiopia and Ethiopians widely in his Histories – the question being what exactly he was referring to. The word Ethiopia is itself a Greek invention for anyone with ‘a burnt face’, and Aethiopia shorthand for the foreigner, the other, the barbarian from countries far away (that is to say beyond Egypt and Libya) – indeed Herodotus, like Homer, calls the Ethiopians ‘the most distant of men’, and he and other Greek writers imagine their gods playing and resting in this most exotic of locales – and we all know that when it comes to sending the gods off somewhere, it is better to choose a place so distant as to both make a good story, and so that you don’t need to worry too much about the details.
Of the details of Herodotus’ own life, George Rawlinson said that ‘The data are so few – they rest upon such late and slight authority; they are so improbable or so contradictory, that to compile them into a biography is like building a house of cards, which the first breath of criticism will blow to the ground.’ It has often been said that he never travelled from Greece – let alone made it to Egypt, and that most of his writings on such distant people as the Ethiopians are nothing but invention, story and myth – and indeed Herodotus since his own times has also been known as ‘The Father of Lies’. But despite this, he remains the main source for many antique references and, if the flooding of the Nile is not due to snow melt inside the continent, it remains that as many elements as have been found to be fabricated have been corroborated by modern historiography. And Ethiopia today does indeed exist, if only because Herodotus put pen to paper and made the name part of the known world.
STRABO
FROMGeographica, c.7 BC, first ‘modern’ edition 1469
The Foodies’ Guide to the Horn of Africa
In the intervening space, a branch of the river Astaboras discharges itself. It has its source in a lake, and empties part of its waters into the bay, but the larger portion it contributes to the Nile. Then follow six islands, called Latomiae, after these the Sabaïtic mouth, as it is called, and in the inland parts a fortress built by Suchus. Then a lake called Elaea, and the island of Strato; next Saba, a port, and a hunting-ground for elephants of the same name. The country deep in the interior is called Tenessis [this could roughly correspond to modern Eritrea]. It is occupied by those Egyptians who took refuge from the government of Psamtik III. They are surnamed Sembritae, as being strangers. They are governed by a queen, to whom also Meroë, an island in the Nile near these places, is subject. Above this, at no great distance, is another island in the river, a settlement occupied by the same fugitives. From Meroë to this sea is a journey of fifteen days for an active person. Near Meroë is the confluence of the Astaboras, the Astapus, and of the Astasobas [the White and Blue Niles].
On the banks of these rivers live the Rhizophagi [root-eaters] and Heleii [marsh-men]. They have their name from digging roots in the adjacent marsh, bruising them with stones, and forming them into cakes, which they dry in the sun for food. These countries are the haunts of lions. The wild beasts are driven out of these places, at the time of the rising of the dog-star, by large gnats. Near these people live the Spermophagi [seed-eaters], who, when seeds of plants fail, subsist upon seeds of trees, which they prepare in the same manner as the Rhizophagi prepare their roots. Next to Elaea are the watchtowers of Demetrius, and the altars of Conan. In the interior Indian reeds grow in abundance. The country there is called the country of Coracius [modern-day Eritrea].
Far in the interior was a place called Endera [modern Tigray, in Ethiopia] inhabited by a naked tribe who use bows and reed arrows, the points of which are hardened in the fire. They generally shoot the animals from trees, sometimes from the ground. They have numerous herds of wild cattle among them, on the flesh of which they subsist, and on that of other wild animals. When they have taken nothing in the chase, they dress dried skins upon hot coals, and are satisfied with food of this kind. It is their custom to propose trials of skill in archery for those who have not attained manhood. Next to the altars of Conan is the port of Melinus, and above it is a fortress called that of Coraus and the chase of Coraus, also another fortress and more hunting-grounds. Then follows the harbour of Antiphilus, and above this a tribe, the Creophagi, whose men are circumcised and whose women are excised after the Jewish custom.
Further still towards the south are the Cynamolgi, called by the natives Agrii, with long hair and long beards, who keep a breed of very large dogs for hunting the Indian cattle which come into their country from the neighbouring district, driven there either by wild beasts or by scarcity of pasturage. The time of their incursion is from the summer solstice to the middle of winter. Next to the harbour of Antiphilus is a port called the Grove of the Colobi [the Mutilated], the city Berenice of the Sabae, and Sabae, a considerable city; then the grove of Eumenes.
Above is the city Darada, and a hunting-ground for elephants, called ‘At the Well’. The district is inhabited by the Elephantophagi [Elephant-eaters], who are occupied in hunting them. When they descry from the trees a herd of elephants directing their course through the forest, they do not then attack, but they approach by stealth and hamstring the hindmost stragglers from the herd. Some kill them with bows and arrows, the latter being dipped in the gall of serpents. The shooting with the bow is performed by three men, two, advancing in front, hold the bow, and one draws the string. Others remark the trees against which the elephant is accustomed to rest, and, approaching on the opposite side, cut the trunk of the tree low down. When the animal comes and leans against it, the tree and the elephant fall down together. The elephant is unable to rise, because its legs are formed of one piece of bone which is inflexible; the hunters leap down from the trees, kill it, and cut it in pieces. The nomads call the hunters Acatharti, or impure.
Above this nation is situated a small tribe, the Struthophagi [Bird-eaters], in whose country are birds of the size of deer, which are unable to fly, but run with the swiftness of the ostrich. Some hunt them with bows and arrows, others covered with the skins of birds. They hide the right hand in the neck of the skin, and move it as the birds move their necks. With the left hand they scatter grain from a bag suspended to the side; they thus entice the birds, until they drive them into pits, where the hunters despatch them with cudgels. The skins are used both as clothes and as coverings for beds. The Ethiopians called Simi are at war with these people, and use as weapons the horns of antelopes.
Bordering on this people is a nation blacker in complexion than the others, shorter in stature, and very short-lived. They rarely live beyond forty years; for the flesh of their bodies is eaten up with worms. Their food consists of locusts, which the south-west and west winds, when they blow violently in the spring-time, drive in bodies into the country. The inhabitants catch them by throwing into the ravines materials which cause a great deal of smoke, and light them gently. The locusts, as they fly across the smoke, are blinded and fall down. They are pounded with salt, made into cakes, and eaten as food. Above these people is situated a desert tract with extensive pastures. It was abandoned in consequence of the multitudes of scorpions and tarantulas, called tetragnathi [four-jawed], which formerly abounded to so great a degree as to occasion a complete desertion of the place long since by its inhabitants.
Next to the harbour of Eumenes, as far as Deire and the straits opposite the six islands, live the Ichthyophagi, Creophagi, and Colobi, who extend into the interior. Many hunting-grounds for elephants, and obscure cities and islands, lie in front of the coast. The greater part are nomads; husbandmen are few in number. In the country occupied by some of these nations styrax grows in large quantity. The Icthyophagi, on the ebbing of the tide, collect fish, which they cast upon the rocks and dry in the sun. When they have well-broiled them, the bones are piled in heaps, and the flesh trodden with the feet is made into cakes, which are again exposed to the sun and used as food. In bad weather, when fish cannot be procured, the bones of which they have made heaps are pounded, made into cakes and eaten, but they suck the fresh bones. Some also live upon shellfish, when they are fattened, which is done by throwing them into holes and standing pools of the sea, where they are supplied with small fish, and used as food when other fish are scarce. They have various kinds of places for preserving and feeding fish, from whence they derive their supply.
Some of the inhabitants of that part of the coast which is without water go inland every five days, accompanied by all their families, with songs and rejoicings, to the watering places, where, throwing themselves on their faces, they drink as beasts until their stomachs are distended like a drum. They then return again to the sea-coast. They dwell in caves or cabins, with roofs consisting of beams and rafters made of the bones and spines of whales, and covered with branches of the olive tree. The Chelonophagi [Turtle-eaters] live under the cover of shells (of turtles), which are large enough to be used as boats. Some make of the sea-weed, which is thrown up in large quantities, lofty and hill-like heaps, which are hollowed out, and underneath which they live. They cast out the dead, which are carried away by the tide, as food for fish.
Strabo (64 BC – AD 24) was a Greek geographer, philosopher and historian, born in modern-day Amsya, Turkey, just 75 kilometres from the Black Sea. Unlike Herodotus, who compiled fragments from earlier writers and was said to have not even travelled out of Greece, Strabo travelled far and wide, and the observations in his Geographica are often based on first-hand experience, or on first-hand accounts he collected himself. Strabo began travelling as a student, first moving to Nysa (Sultanhisar, Turkey) where he studied rhetoric and grammar and developed a lifelong love for Homer, before continuing to Rome where he studied philosophy with Xenarchus and, importantly, geography under Tyrannion of Amisus. He completed his education with Athenodorus Cananites, a well-connected philosopher who gave him insights into stoicism. Strabo is most famous for his Geographica, which seeks to be descriptive and utilitarian in its perspective – of practical use for travellers, generals and traders – and as such was widely circulated and used after his death. He is said to have visited ‘Ethiopia’, but it is unsure what is meant by this term, which probably refers here to Nubia.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
FROM New Testament, fifth book, c. AD 80–90
A Eunuch’s Endowment
Then the angel of the Lord spoke to Philip, ‘Get up and head south on the road that goes down from Jerusalem to Gaza, the desert route.’ So he got up and set out. Now there was an Ethiopian eunuch, a court official of the Candace, that is, the Queen of the Ethiopians, in charge of her entire treasury, who had come to Jerusalem to worship, and was returning home. Seated in his chariot, he was reading the prophet Isaiah. The Spirit said to Philip, ‘Go and join up with that chariot.’ Philip ran up and heard him reading Isaiah the prophet and said, ‘Do you understand what you are reading?’ He replied, ‘How can I, unless someone instructs me?’ So he invited Philip to get in and sit with him. This was the scripture passage he was reading: Like a sheep he was led to the slaughter, and as a lamb before its shearer is silent, so he opened not his mouth. In his humiliation justice was denied him. Who will tell of his posterity? For his life is taken from the earth. Then the eunuch said to Philip in reply, ‘I beg you, about whom is the prophet saying this? About himself, or about someone else?’ Then Philip opened his mouth and, beginning with this scripture passage, he proclaimed Jesus to him. As they travelled along the road they came to some water, and the eunuch said, ‘Look, there is water. What is to prevent my being baptised?’ Then he ordered the chariot to stop, and Philip and the eunuch both went down into the water, and he baptised him. When they came out of the water, the Spirit of the Lord snatched Philip away, and the eunuch saw him no more, but continued on his way rejoicing.
The anonymous writers of The Acts of the Apostles are recounting an early version of the conversion of ‘Ethiopia’ – how Queen Kandace became a Christian after her own eunuch’s conversion. As we have seen in the Introduction, Kandace means ‘Ruling Queen’, and we do not know for sure which queen’s conversion is being alluded to in this story. What we do know is that Kandace was a queen of Meroe – a kingdom often given the name Ethiopia but in fact in modern-day Sudan. Ethiopia itself, with Axum as its capital, would only truly be proselytised from the fourth century onwards, and retains Christianity at its core to this day. The various Nubian and Sudanese Christian kingdoms, no doubt first converted by Egyptian Coptic missionaries, toppled one after another to Islam, with the last shrivelled-up Christian pocket falling at the beginning of the sixteenth century.
LUCIUS CASSIUS DIO
FROMRoman History, AD 180–235
What did the Romans ever do for Ethiopia?
About this same time the Ethiopians, who dwell beyond Egypt, advanced as far as the city called Elephantine [modern-day Aswan in Egypt], with the Candace as their leader, ravaging everything they encountered. At Elephantine, however, learning that Gaius Petronius, the governor of Egypt, was already moving, they hastily retreated before he arrived, hoping to make good their escape. But being overtaken on the road, they were defeated and thus drew him after them into their own country. There, too, he fought successfully with them, and took Napata, their capital, among other cities. This place was razed to the ground, and a garrison left at another point; for Petronius, finding himself unable either to advance farther, on account of the sand and the heat, or advantageously to remain where he was with his entire army, withdrew, taking the greater part of it with him. Thereupon the Ethiopians attacked the garrisons, but he again proceeded against them, rescued his own men, and compelled the Candace to make terms with him.
Dio Cassius’s (c. AD 155–235) history of Rome in eighty volumes was written in Greek over several decades and has survived into the modern era in many fragmentary texts, which give us insights both into actual happenings and into mythical stories and events in Roman history. Besides Rome, Italy and its empire, in which Dio served as a senator, a governor and even as a proconsul in Africa, his history gives early glimpses of ‘far away’ lands, such as Ethiopia – and even Britain, where Dio is one of only three authors to recount the revolt of the Celts under Boudica.
EZANA
FROM Rock Inscription, c. AD 350
Ezana was Here
Through the might of the Lord of All I took the field against the Nubians when the people of Noba revolted, when they boasted and said ‘He will not cross over the Takkaze,’ said the Nubians, when they did violence to the peoples Mangurto and Hasa and Barya, and the Black Nubians waged war on the Red Nubians and a second and a third time broke their oath and without consideration slew their neighbours and plundered our envoys and messengers whom I had sent to interrogate them, robbing them of their possessions and seizing their lances. When I sent again and they did not hear me, and reviled me, and made off, I took the field against them. And I armed myself with the power of the Lord of the Land and fought on the Takkaze at the ford of Kemalke. And thereupon they fled and stood not still, and I pursued the fugitives twenty-three days slaying them and capturing others and taking plunder from them, where I came; while prisoners and plunder were brought back by my own people who marched out; while I burnt their towns, those of masonry and those of straw, and seized their corn and their bronze and the dried meat and the images in their temples and destroyed the stocks of corn and cotton; and the enemy plunged into the river Seda, and many perished in the water, the number I know not, and as their vessels foundered a multitude of people, men and women were drowned […]
And I arrived at Kush, slaying them and taking others prisoner at the junction of the rivers Seda and Takkaze. And on the day after my arrival I dispatched into the field the troop of Mahaza and the Damawa and Falha and Sera up the Seda against the towns of masonry and of straw; their towns of masonry are called Alwa, Daro. And they slew and took prisoners and threw them into the water and they returned safe and sound, after they had terrified their enemies and had conquered through the power of the Lord of the Land. And I sent the troop Halen and the troop Laken and the troop Sabarat and Falha and Sera down the Seda against the towns of straw of the Nubians and Negues; the towns of masonry of the Kasu which the Nubians had taken were Tabito, Fertoti; and they arrived at the territory of the Red Nubians, and my people returned safe and sound after they had taken prisoners and slain others and had seized their plunder through the power of the Lord of Heaven. And I erected a throne at the junction of the rivers Seda and Takkaze, opposite the town of masonry which is on this peninsula.
Ezana (c.325–c.370), the first King of Axum to convert to Christianity, is attested by many sources – epigraphic, literary and numismatic. He is referred to in various documents from the Mediterranean Greek/Roman world as having accepted Christianity and having the bishop Frumentius by his side. There are various stellae and victory slabs written in Greek, Sabean and Geez that attest not only to Ezana’s subjugation of various foes but also – in the later victory inscription to commemorate the expedition against the Nobatae of Nubia – of the king’s own subjugation to a new monotheistic creed: Christianity. Coinage also attests to the kingdom’s adoption of a new official religion with the symbol of the cross making its appearance later in the king’s rule.
TYRANNIUS RUFINUS
FROMThe Church History of Rufinus, c. AD 403
From the Monk’s Mouth
One Metrodorus, a philosopher, is said to have penetrated to further India [i.e. Ethiopia] in order to view places and see the world. Inspired by his example, one Meropius, a philosopher of Tyre, wished to visit India [probably Ethiopia] with a similar object, taking with him two small boys who were related to him and whom he was educating in the humanities. The younger of them was called Aedesius, the other Frumentius. When, having seen and taken note of what his soul fed upon, the philosopher had begun to return, the ship on which he travelled put in for water or some other necessary at a certain port. It is the custom of the barbarians of these parts that, if ever the neighbouring tribes report that their treaty with the Romans is broken, all Romans found among them should be massacred. The philosopher’s ship was boarded; all with himself were put to the sword.
The boys were found studying under a tree and preparing their lessons, and, preserved by the mercy of the barbarians, were taken to the king [this would probably be King Ella Amida]. He made one of them, Aedesius, his cupbearer. Frumentius, whom he had perceived to be sagacious and prudent, he made his treasurer and secretary. Thereafter, they were held in great honour and affection by the king. The king died, leaving his wife with an infant son [Ezana] as heir to the bereaved kingdom. He gave the young men liberty to do what they pleased but the queen besought them with tears, since she had no more faithful subjects in the whole kingdom, to share with her the cares of governing the kingdom until her son should grow up, especially Frumentius, whose ability was equal to guiding the kingdom – for the other, though loyal and honest of heart, was simple.
While they lived there and Frumentius held the reins of government in his hands, God stirred up his heart and he began to search out with care those of the Roman merchants who were Christians and to give them great influence and to urge them to establish in various places religious buildings to which they might resort for prayer in the Roman manner. He himself, moreover, did the same and so encouraged the others, attracting them with his favour and his benefits, providing them with whatever was needed, supplying sites for buildings and other necessaries, and in every way promoting the growth of the seed of Christianity in the country. When the prince for whom they exercised the regency had grown up, they completed and faithfully delivered over their trust, and, though the queen and her son sought greatly to detain them and begged them to remain, they returned to the Roman Empire.
Aedesius hastened to Tyre to revisit his parents and relatives. Frumentius went to Alexandria, saying that it was not right to hide the work of God. He laid the whole affair before the bishop and urged him to look for some worthy man to send as bishop over the many Christians already congregated and the churches built on barbarian soil. Then Athanasius – for he had recently assumed the episcopate – having carefully weighed and considered Frumentius’ words and deeds, declared in a council of the priests: ‘What other man shall we find in whom the Spirit of God is as in you, who can accomplish these things?’ And he consecrated him and bade him return in the grace of God whence he had come. And when he had arrived in India [Ethiopia] as bishop, such grace is said to have been given to him by God that apostolic miracles were wrought by him and a countless number of barbarians were converted by him to the faith. From which time Christian peoples and churches have been created in the parts of India [Ethiopia] and the priesthood has begun. These facts I know not from common report but from the mouth of Aedesius himself, who had been Frumentius’ companion and was later made a priest in Tyre.
*
Tyrannius Rufinus or Rufinus of Aquileia (344–410) was a monk, historian and theologian. Born in Italy to Christian parents, after a meeting with Jerome in the monastic community where he lived, Rufinus travelled to Alexandria where he studied under Didymus the Blind. During his time in Egypt, Rufinus cultivated relationships with the Desert Ascetics and when he later left to live in Jerusalem, he set up a monastery on the Mount of Olives, which combined elements of the ascetic life with a life of learning and theology. He renewed his friendship with Jerome before the two became embroiled in a series of published theological controversies. In later years Rufinus went back to Italy.
PROCOPIUS OF CAESAREA
FROMThe Wars of Justinian, AD 551
War by Proxy in the Red Sea
At that time the idea occurred to the Emperor Justinian to ally himself with the Ethiopians and the Omeritae, in order to injure the Persians […] About opposite the Omeritae on the opposite mainland dwell the Ethiopians who are called Auxumitae, because their king resides in the city of Auxomis. And the expanse of sea which lies between is crossed in a voyage of five days and nights, when a moderately favouring wind blows […]
From the city of Auxomis to the Egyptian boundaries of the Roman domain, where the city called Elephantine is situated, is a journey of thirty days for an unencumbered traveller. Within that space many nations are settled, and among them the Blemmyae and the Nobatae, who are very large nations. But the Blemmyae dwell in the central portion of the country, while the Nobatae possess the territory about the River Nile. Formerly this was not the limit of the Roman Empire, but it lay beyond there as far as one would advance in a seven days’ journey; but the Roman Emperor Diocletian came there, and observed that the tribute from these places was of the smallest possible account, since the land is at that point extremely narrow – for rocks rise to an exceedingly great height at no great distance from the Nile and spread over the rest of the country – while a very large body of soldiers had been stationed there from of old, the maintenance of which was an excessive burden upon the public; and at the same time the Nobatae who formerly dwelt about the city of Premnis used to plunder the whole region; so he persuaded these barbarians to move from their own habitations, and to settle along the River Nile, promising to bestow upon them great cities and land both extensive and incomparably better than that which they had previously occupied. For in this way he thought that they would no longer harass the country about Pselchis at least, and that they would possess themselves of the land given them, as being their own, and would probably beat off the Blemmyae and the other barbarians.
