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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
A building fire is dynamic. A continually changing hostile fire environment influences time relationships that affect fire defenses and risks to people and building functions. The fire and fire defenses in each building interact with different sequences and distinct ways. Risks are characterized by the building’s performance.
Significantly updated and restructured new edition
Fire Performance Analysis for Buildings, 2nd Edition organizes the complex interactions into an analytical framework to evaluate any building - at any location - built under any regulatory jurisdiction or era. Systematic, logical procedures evaluate individual component behavior and integrate results to understand holistic performance. The Interactive Performance Information (IPI) chart structures complex time-related interactions among the fire, fire defenses, and associated risks. Quantification uses state-of-the-art deterministic methods of fire safety engineering and fire science. Managing uncertainty is specifically addressed.
Key features:
- Emphasizes fire performance analysis for new or existing buildings.
- Augments fire dynamics calculation methods with qualitative methods to form a more complete understanding of the effects of hostile fire characteristics on building performance.
- Describes fire ground operations for engineers with no fire service experience. An analysis evaluates ways the site and building design help or hinder manual fire suppression.
- Establishes a transition from traditional structural requirements to modern calculation based structural analysis and design for fire conditions. Structural concepts are described for non-structural engineers to enable the roles of each profession to be integrated into comprehensive performance evaluations.
- Addresses techniques of managing uncertainty to improve understanding and communication with professionals of other disciplines.
- Describes methods of risk management using information from the building’s performance analysis.
Fire Performance Analysis for Buildings, 2nd Edition has been completely restructured around a performance based framework. Applications integrate traditional fire defenses with fire science and engineering to combine component performance with holistic performance.
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Seitenzahl: 1109
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Preface
Acknowledgements
1 Fire Performance and Buildings
1.1 The Dynamics of Building Fire Performance
1.2 The Anatomy of Building Fire Safety
1.3 Analysis and Design
1.4 Performance Analysis
1.5 Quantification
1.6 The Organization
Part I: The Foundation
2 Preliminary Organization
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview of Evaluations
PART ONE: ORGANIZATIONAL CONCEPTS
2.3 The Diagnostic Fire
2.4 Anatomy of a Representative Fire
2.5 Fire Prevention
2.6 Fire Scenarios
PART TWO: BARRIERS, SPACES, AND CONNECTIVITY
2.7 Spaces and Barriers
2.8 Barriers and Fire
2.9 Barrier Performance
2.10 Space–Barrier Connectivity
2.11 Virtual Barriers
2.12 Virtual Barrier Applications
2.13 Space–Barrier Discussion
PART THREE: FIRE DEFENSES
2.14 Fire Defenses
2.15 Active Fire Defenses
2.16 Passive Fire Defenses
2.17 Closure
3 Tools of Analysis
3.1 Introduction
PART ONE: THE LOGIC
3.2 The Framework Logic
3.3 The Major Parts
3.4 Event Logic Diagrams
3.5 Event Logic Observations
3.6 Logic Networks
3.7 Decomposing Logic Networks
3.8 Network Diagram Observations
3.9 Single Value Networks
3.10 Time Relationships Using Event Trees
3.11 Continuous Value Networks
3.12 The IPI Chart
3.13 Coding
PART TWO: SPACE–BARRIER CONNECTIVITY
3.14 Introduction
3.15 Room Connectivity
3.16 Building Interconnectivity
3.17 Segmenting Buildings
3.18 Summary
PART THREE: ADDITIONAL TOOLS
3.19 Networks and Charts
3.20 Organizational Charts
3.21 Organizational Networks
3.22 Closure
4 An Introduction to the Interactive Performance Information Chart
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Basic Template
4.3 The Working Template
4.4 Reading IPI Charts
4.5 Building Comparisons
4.6 IPI Enhancements
4.7 Summary
5 Quantification
5.1 Performance Evaluations
5.2 Information Accessibility
5.3 Quantification
5.4 Performance Estimates
5.5 Uncertainty in Performance Estimates
5.6 Philosophical Reflections
5.7 Closure
Part II: The Parts
6 The Room Fire
6.1 Introduction
PART ONE: ROOM FIRE CONCEPTS
6.2 Fire
6.3 The Role of Heat: Ignition
6.4 The Role of Heat: Heat of Combustion and Heat Release Rate
6.5 The Role of Heat: Heat Transfer
6.6 Realms of Fire Growth
6.7 Fire Development: Fire Free Status to EB
6.8 Room Fires
6.9 Feedback
6.10 Flashover
6.11 Fully Developed Fire
6.12 The Role of Ventilation
6.13 The Role of Barriers
6.14 The Fire Development Process: EB to FO
6.15 The Fire Development Process: FO to Burnout
6.16 Summary
PART TWO: ROOM FIRE DESCRIPTORS
6.17 Introduction
6.18 Fuels
6.19 Fuel Packages and Fuel Groups
6.20 Heat Release Rate
6.21 Fire Size Measures
6.22 Overview of Factors that Affect Room Fire Behavior
6.23 Flashover
6.24
αt
Fires
6.25 Realm 6: Fully Developed Fire
6.26 Limits of Applicability
6.27 Large Rooms: Full Room Involvement
6.28 Fire Safety Engineering in the Information Age
6.29 Closure
7 The Room Fire: Qualitative Analysis
7.1 The Role of Qualitative Analysis
7.2 Qualitative Estimates for Room Fires
PART ONE: BOTTOM‐UP ESTIMATES
7.3 Bottom‐up Scenario Estimates
7.4 Time and the Fire Growth Potential
7.5 FGP Adjustments
7.6 Estimating Spread‐over Scenarios
PART TWO: TOP‐DOWN ESTIMATES
7.7 Qualitative Room Classifications
7.8 FGP Comparisons
7.9 Interior Design and Model Rooms
7.10 FGP Classification Groups
7.11 Selecting FGP Groups
7.13 Closure
8 Beyond the Room of Origin
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Inspection Plan
PART ONE: BARRIER EFFECTIVENESS
8.3 Barrier Functions in Buildings
8.4 Barrier Fire Functions
8.5 Concepts for Barrier Evaluations
8.6 Barrier Failure Modes
8.7 Barrier Failures and Building Performance
Part Two: Barrier–Space Modules
8.8 Introduction
8.9 Barrier–Space Modules
8.10 Massive Barrier Failure (
)
8.11 Hot‐spot Barrier Failure (
)
8.12 The Role of Interior Finish
8.13 Virtual Barriers
8.14 Qualitative Diagnostic Fire Analysis: Room Classifications
8.15 Qualitative Diagnostic Fire Analysis: Barrier Contributions
8.16 Qualitative Diagnostic Fire Analysis: Modules
PART THREE: QUALITATIVE FIRE ANALYSIS
8.17 Introduction
8.18 The Process
8.19 Discussion
8.20 Information Technology Enhancements
9 Smoke Analysis
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Plan
9.3 Smoke
9.4 Buoyancy Forces
9.5 Natural Air Movement
9.6 Wind
9.7 Tenability Considerations
9.8 Smoke Movement Analysis
9.9 Smoke Movement Networks
9.10 Qualitative Smoke Movement Analysis
9.11 Quantitative Analysis
9.12 Discussion
10 The Diagnostic Fire
10.1 Diagnostic Fires
10.2 Interactive Performance Information (IPI) Chart and the Diagnostic Fire
10.3 Closure
11 Fire Detection
11.1 Introduction
PART ONE: AUTOMATIC DETECTION
11.2 Instrument Detection
11.3 Detection Instruments
11.4 Automatic Detection Analysis
11.5 Instrument Reliability
PART TWO: HUMAN DETECTION
11.6 Concepts in Human Fire Detection
11.7 Human Detection Analysis
11.8 Closure
12 Alarm: Actions After Detection
12.1 Introduction
PART ONE: ALERT OCCUPANTS
12.2 Focus on Alert
12.3 Alerting Occupants
12.4 Summary
PART TWO: NOTIFY LOCAL FIRE DEPARTMENT
12.5 Introduction
12.6 Human Notification (MN)
12.7 Discussion
12.8 Automated Notification Services
12.9 Discussion
PART THREE: BUILDING SYSTEM INTERFACES
12.10 Release Services
13 Fire Department Extinguishment: Arrival
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Organizing the Topic
PART ONE: MANUAL EXTINGUISHMENT OVERVIEW
13.3 The Role of the Fire Department
13.4 Building Analysis Overview
13.5 Part A: Ignition to Notification
13.6 Part B: Notification to Arrival
13.7 Part C: Arrival to Extinguishment
PART TWO: COMMUNITY FIRE DEPARTMENTS
13.8 Fire Department Organizations
13.9 Fire Companies
13.10 Building Fire Brigades
PART THREE: COMMUNITY FIRE RESPONSE
13.11 Fire Department Response Time
13.12 Communications Centers
13.13 Alarm Handling Time
13.14 Turnout Time
13.15 Travel Time
13.16 Response Time Analysis
14 Fire Department Extinguishment: First Water (MA)
THE FIRE FIGHTER AND THE ENGINEER
14.1 Introduction
PART ONE: AN OVERVIEW OF MANUAL EXTINGUISHMENT ANALYSIS
14.2 The Process
14.3 Phase 1: Initial Water Application (MA)
14.4 Summary
PART TWO: A BRIEF LOOK AT FIRE FIGHTING
14.5 Initial Fire Ground Actions
14.6 Information
14.7 Pause for Discussion
14.8 Manual Fire Fighting
14.9 No Two Fires Are Alike
14.10 Summary
PART THREE: SUPPLY WATER ANALYSIS
14.11 Introduction
14.12 Scenario Analysis
14.13 Supply Water Analysis
14.14 Supply Water Discussion
14.15 Project Analysis
14.16 Task Modules
14.17 Time and Tasks
14.18 Variability
14.19 General Analysis
14.20 Work Breakdown Structure
14.21 Task Precedence
14.22 Network Construction
14.23 Network Calculations
14.24 Variation Analysis
14.25 Additional Examples
14.26 Levels of Detail
14.27 Time Coordination
14.28 Discussion
PART FOUR: INTERIOR FIRE ATTACK ANALYSIS
14.29 Introduction
14.30 Overview of Stretching Interior Attack Lines
14.31 Task Modules
14.32 Architectural Segments
14.33 Architectural Obstacles
14.34 ALP Pre‐movement
14.35 Multiple Attack Lines
14.36 Variables
14.37 Time Estimates
14.38 Attack Route Analysis
PART FIVE: PHASE 1 ANALYSIS
14.39 Introduction
14.40 Phase 1 Comments
14.41 Calculating Time Durations
14.42 If…
14.43 What If…
14.44 The IPI Chart
14.45 Summary
15 Fire Department Extinguishment
15.1 First Water Applied… Now What?
15.2 The Engineer and the Incident Commander
15.3 Pause to Review Available Information
15.4 Phase 2 Assessments
15.5 Offensive Attack
15.6 Defensive Fire Fighting
15.7 Barrier Functions in Fire Fighting
15.8 Exposure Protection
15.9 Constraints
15.10 Critical Fire Conditions
15.11 Fire Control (MC)
15.12 Fire Extinguishment (ME)
15.13 Summary
16 Automatic Sprinkler Suppression
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Sprinkler System Performance
PART ONE: SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
16.3 Sprinkler Extinguishment
16.4 The Sprinkler System
16.5 Types of Sprinkler Systems
PART TWO: SPRINKLER PERFORMANCE
16.6 Organization for Thinking
16.7 Agent Application (AA)
16.8 Agent Application Events
16.9 Operational Effectiveness Observations
16.10 Sprinkler Fusing (fac)
16.11 Water Discharge (dac)
16.12 Water Flow Continuity (cac)
16.13 Obstructions (wac)
16.14 Operational Effectiveness Guidelines
16.15 Analysis and the IPI Chart
16.16 Auxiliary Equipment and Other Conditions
16.17 Partially Sprinklered Buildings
16.18 Fire Department Mutual Aid
16.19 Automatic Suppression
16.20 Closure
17 The Composite Fire
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Fire Limit (L)
17.3 Composite Fire
17.4 Theoretical Completeness
17.5 Summary
18 Materials, Codes, Standards, Practices, and Performance
18.1 Introduction
PART ONE: BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
18.2 The Structural Frame
18.3 Material Behavior in Fires
PART TWO: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
18.4 The Built Environment Around World War I
18.5 Structural Practice Around World War I
18.6 A Century of Evolution
18.7 Fire Safety Around World War I
18.8 The Fire Safety Solution
18.9 Building Code Organization for Fire Safety
18.10 Structural Fire Topics Around World War I
18.11 Building Code Observations
PART THREE: FIRE ENDURANCE TESTING
18.12 Fire Test Interpretations
18.13 The Standard Fire Endurance Test
18.14 Fire Endurance Test Discussion
PART FOUR: FIRE SEVERITY
18.15 Introduction
18.16 Fuel Loads
18.17 The Ingberg Correlation
18.18 Room Fire Discussion
18.19 Fire Severity Theories
18.20 Fire Severity Comparisons
18.21 Awareness Pause
18.22 Estimating Burnout Time
18.23 Influences on Barrier Performance
18.24 Automatic Protection and Barriers
PART FIVE: TRANSITIONS
18.25 The Issue
19 Concepts in Structural Analysis for Fire Conditions
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Structural Fire Performance
PART ONE: BUILDING DESIGN
19.3 The Development Process
19.4 Building Design
19.5 Information Technology
PART TWO: STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING AND BUILDING DESIGN
19.6 The Master Builder
19.7 The Rise of Engineering
19.8 The Building
19.9 The Emergence of Structural Engineering
19.10 A Brief Pause about 1950
19.11 The Great Leap Forward
19.12 Structural Design for Fire Conditions
PART THREE: STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
19.13 Introduction
19.14 Beam Analysis
19.15 Structures and Materials
19.16 Structural Engineering
19.17 Structural Engineering and Building Design
PART FOUR: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS FOR FIRE CONDITIONS
19.18 Introduction
19.19 Outcomes
19.20 Pause for Discussion
19.21 The Process
19.22 Structural Mechanics
19.23 Protection Methods
19.24 Diagnostic Fire
19.25 Heat Transfer
19.26 Structural Performance
19.27 Reinforced Concrete
19.28 Mechanical Properties
19.29 Flexural Members in Reinforced Concrete
19.30 Concrete Members at Elevated Temperatures
19.31 Pause for Discussion
19.32 Other Materials
19.33 Summary
20 Target Spaces and Smoke
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Orientation
20.3 Tenability Measures for Humans
20.4 Visibility in Smoke
20.5 Equipment and Data Storage
20.6 Overview of Target Space Analysis
20.7 Target Rooms
20.8 Barrier Effectiveness
20.9 Mechanical Pressurization
20.10 Fire Department Ventilation
20.11 Summary
21 Life Safety
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Human Reaction to Products of Combustion
21.3 Tenability
21.4 Fire Fighter Safety
22 Risk Characterizations
22.1 Introduction
22.2 The Exposed
PART ONE: HUMAN SAFETY
22.3 Life Safety
22.4 Overview of Life Safety Alternatives
22.5 Prescriptive Code Egress
22.6 Plans Approval for Prescriptive Code Egress
22.7 Overview of Egress Risk Characterizations
22.8 Discussion
22.9 Pre‐evacuation Activities
22.10 Pre‐evacuation Evaluations
22.11 Travel Times
22.12 Defend in Place
22.13 Areas of Refuge
22.14 Fire Department Rescue I
22.15 Risk Characterizations for Life Safety
PART TWO: OTHER RISKS
22.16 Property Protection
22.17 Continuity of Operations
22.18 Threat to Neighboring Exposures
22.19 Threat to Environment
22.20 Closure
23 Fire Prevention
23.1 Introduction
PART ONE: PREVENT ESTABLISHED BURNING
23.2 Prevent EB
23.3 Occupant Extinguishment
23.4 Portable Fire Extinguishers
23.5 Evaluating Extinguisher Effectiveness
23.6 Discussion
PART TWO: AUTOMATIC SPECIAL HAZARD SUPPRESSION
23.7 Introduction
23.8 Carbon Dioxide Systems
23.9 Clean Agent Systems
23.10 Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems
23.11 Water‐spray Extinguishing Systems
23.12 Fine Water Mist Extinguishing Systems
23.13 Foam Extinguishing Systems
23.14 Explosion Suppression Systems
23.15 Building Evaluations for Special Hazard Installations
23.16 Closure
Part III: The Analysis
24 Fire Performance
24.1 Organizational Concepts
24.2 Performance Evaluations
24.3 Analytical Framework
24.4 Fire, Risk, and Buildings
25 The Diagnostic Fire
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Top‐down Estimates
25.3 Modular Estimates
25.4 Bottom‐up Scenario Analysis
25.5 Network Estimates
25.6 Scenario Applications
25.7 Interactive Performance Information (IPI) Chart Applications
26 Fire Detection
26.1 Introduction
PART ONE: AUTOMATIC DETECTION
26.2 Detection Analysis
26.3 Detection Example
26.4 Detection Estimate
26.5 Detector Reliability
PART TWO: HUMAN DETECTION
26.6 Concepts in Human Detection Analysis
26.7 Human Detection Analysis
26.8 Closure
27 Fire Department Notification
27.1 Introduction
27.2 The Human Link in Notification
27.3 Human Notification Analysis
27.4 Human Notification
27.5 Automated Notification Analysis
27.6 Closure
28 Fire Department Extinguishment
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Framework for Analysis
28.3 Notification to Arrival
28.4 Fire Department Response
28.5 Arrival to Extinguishment
28.6 Phase 1 Analysis
28.7 Phase 2 Analysis
28.8 Phase 3 Analysis
28.9 Putting It Together
28.10 Discussion
28.11 Closure
29 Automatic Sprinkler Suppression
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Agent Application (AA)
29.3 Design Effectiveness (AC)
29.4 Automatic Sprinkler Suppression (A)
29.5 Automatic Sprinkler System Analysis
29.6 Sprinkler Reliability
29.7 Closure
30 The Composite Fire
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Event Logic Description
30.3 Network Description
30.4 Summary
31 Structural Performance
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Interactive Performance Information (IPI) Documentation
31.3 IPI Numerical Estimates
31.4 Summary
32 Target Space Smoke Analysis
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Success or Failure?
32.3 Target Room Performance Bounds
33 Life Safety Analysis
33.1 Introduction
33.2 The Exposed
33.3 The Exposure
33.4 The Window of Time
33.5 Pre‐movement Time for Egress
33.6 Occupant Life Safety (LS)
33.7 Discussion
33.8 Defend in Place
33.9 Closure
34 Prevent Established Burning
34.1 Introduction
PART ONE: ESTABLISHED BURNING PREVENTION
34.2 Ignition Potential
34.3 Established Burning Evaluation
34.4 Scenario Selection
34.5 Prevent EB: Discussion
PART TWO: SPECIAL HAZARDS PROTECTION
34.6 The Role of Special Hazards Suppression
34.7 Framework for Analysis
34.8 Special Hazards Analysis
34.9 Protection Combinations
34.10 Closure
Part IV: Managing Uncertainty
35 Understanding Uncertainty
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Window of Uncertainty
35.3 Calibrating Uncertainty
35.4 Degree‐of‐Belief Estimations
35.5 The Role of the Analytical Framework
35.6 Sprinkler Analysis Networks
35.7 Sprinkler Control (AC)
35.8 Pause to Organize Thoughts
35.9 Calculating Single Value Outcomes
35.10 Graphing Results
35.11 Cumulative Evaluations
35.12 Sprinkler Reliability (AA)
35.13 Sprinkler System Performance (A)
35.14 Control and Extinguishment
35.15 Sprinkler Performance for a Building
35.16 Visual Thinking
35.17 The IPI Chart
35.18 The Narrative
35.19 Sprinklers and the Fire Department
35.20 Other Components
35.21 Summary
36 Visual Thinking
36.1 Introduction
36.2 A Case Study
36.3 A Way of Thinking
36.4 The Interactive Performance Information (IPI) Chart Relation
36.5 Performance Evaluators
36.6 Reading Performance Curves
36.7 The L Curve
36.8 L Curve Illustration
36.9 Variability and Reliability
36.10 Summary
37 Introduction to Risk Management
37.1 Introduction
PART ONE: THE PROCESS
37.2 Audience
37.3 Fire Safety Management
37.4 Decisions and Uncertainty
37.5 Management Applications
37.6 Comparisons
37.7 Process Overview
PART TWO: INFORMATION ACQUISITION
37.8 Introduction
37.9 Understand the Problem
37.10 Describe the Building
37.11 Evaluate Performance
37.12 Characterize Risk
PART THREE: DEVELOP A RISK MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
37.13 Structure a Risk Management Program
37.14 Evaluate “Prevent EB”
37.15 Evaluate Special Hazards Protection
37.16 Emergency Preparedness
37.17 Decision Analysis
37.18 Prepare the Presentation
37.19 Decision‐making
38 Analytical Foundations
38.1 Historical Origins
PART ONE: LOGIC DIAGRAMS AND NETWORKS
38.2 Event Trees
38.3 Fault and Success Trees
38.4 Fault and Success Tree Calculations
38.5 Fault and Success Trees Beyond the Room of Origin
38.6 Network Organization
38.7 Network Calculations
38.8 Sequential Path Analysis
38.9 Rooms Beyond the Room of Origin
38.10 Modular Analysis
38.11 Closure
PART TWO: PROBABILITY
38.12 Meanings of Probability
38.13 Fire Safety Applications
38.14 Degree of Belief
38.15 Mathematics of Probability
38.16 Assessment Quality
PART THREE: THE ROLE OF JUDGMENT
38.17 Introduction
38.18 Building Decisions
38.19 Judgment in Engineering
38.20 Language and Culture
38.21 Uncertainty and Performance
38.22 Summary
Appendix A: Organizational Structure
A.1 The Organizational Framework
A.2 Basic Organization
A.3 The Composite Fire
A.4 The Diagnostic Fire (Ī)
A.5 Fire Department Manual Extinguishment
A.6 Detection
A.7 Notification
A.8 Notification to Arrival
A.9 Arrival to Extinguishment
A.10 Automatic Sprinkler System
A.11 Building Response: Structural Behavior
A.12 Building Response: Space Tenability
A.13 Risk Characterizations
A.14 Occupant Movement
A.15 Other Risks
A.16 Prevent Established Burning (EB): Occupant Extinguishment
A.17 Prevent EB: Special Hazards Protection
A.18 Closure
Appendix B: Model Building
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 06
Table 6.1 Ignition temperature comparison.
Table 6.2 Forms of fuel.
Table 6.3 Heat release rate comparison.
Table 6.4 Room fire growth factors.
Chapter 07
Table 7.1 Room fire growth potential factors.
Table 7.2 Example 7.1: fire growth potential transition rationale.
Table 7.3 Example 7.2: fire growth potential transition rationale.
Table 7.4 Room A description.
Table 7.5 Room A classification rationale.
Table 7.6 Room B description.
Table 7.7 Classification adjustments: changing Room A to Room B.
Table 7.8 Room C description.
Table 7.9 Classification adjustments: changing Room A to Room C.
Table 7.10 Room D description.
Table 7.11 Classification adjustments: changing Room A to Room D.
Chapter 08
Table 8.1 Example 8.1: fire growth potential room classifications.
Table 8.2 Example 8.1: time to flashover (FO) estimates.
Table 8.3 Example 8.1: barrier construction estimates.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Example 14.7: work breakdown structure (WBS)
Table 14.2 Example 14.8: work breakdown structure (WBS)
Table 14.3 Example 14.9: work breakdown structure
Table 14.4 Example 14.10: work breakdown structure
Table 14.5 Example 14.12: attack line information.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Common factors affecting performance of the critical events.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Recommended allowable heights and areas in factory buildings (based on Ira Woolson’s fire service survey).
Table 18.2 Example 18.1: weights of cellulosic and plastic combustible contents.
Table 18.3 Tabulated results for Figure 18.5.
Table 18.4 Typical Comparisons for Room Conditions and Standard Test Fires.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Travel speed comparisons
Chapter 35
Table 35.1 Example 29.1: degree‐of‐belief performance estimates.
Table 35.2 Example 29.1: reliability‐adjusted performance estimates.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure A.1 System organization.
Figure A.2 Limit (L) analysis networks.
Figure A.3 Diagnostic fire.
Figure A.4 Manual extinguishment.
Figure A.5 Detection.
Figure A.6 Fire department notification.
Figure A.7 Fire department response.
Figure A.8 Manual extinguishment analysis.
Figure A.9 Automatic sprinkler suppression.
Figure A.10 Structural performance.
Figure A.11 Smoke tenability analysis.
Figure A.12 Occupant egress analysis.
Figure A.13 Prevent established burning: occupant extinguishment.
Figure A.14 Prevent established burning: special hazards protection.
Chapter 01
Figure 1.1 System components.
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1 System components.
Figure 2.2 Characteristic room fire.
Figure 2.3 Space–barrier path.
Figure 2.4 Virtual barrier separation.
Figure 2.5 Fire propagation path.
Figure 2.6 Virtual barrier separation. (a) Smooth exterior façade. (b) Exterior façade with eyebrows.
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1 System components.
Figure 3.2 (a) Fault tree.
Figure 3.3 Active extinguishment (L) network.
Figure 3.4 Sprinkler suppression (A) network.
Figure 3.5 (a) M network. (b) M
Part A
network. (c) M
Part B
network. (d) M
Part C
network.
Figure 3.6 Event tree (M).
Figure 3.7 Event tree (M).
Figure 3.8 Working Interactive Performance Information chart.
Figure 3.9 Space–barrier modules.
Figure 3.10 (
Note: No Caption
)
Figure 3.11 Room (module) connectivity.
Figure 3.12 Organization chart: human detection.
Figure 3.13 Organization chart: instrument detection.
Figure 3.14 Organization network: life safety.
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1 System components.
Figure 4.2 Interactive Performance Information chart organization.
Figure 4.3 Interactive Performance Information chart: working template.
Figure 4.4 Interactive Performance Information: Building A.
Figure 4.5 Interactive Performance Information: Building B.
Figure 4.6 Building comparisons.
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1 Ignitability comparisons.
Figure 6.2 Heat transfer modes.
Figure 6.3 Realms of fire growth.
Figure 6.4 Room fire: enclosure effects.
Figure 6.5 Feedback.
Figure 6.6 Fuel package‐fuel group definitions.
Figure 6.7 Room fire segmentation.
Figure 6.8 Furniture calorimeter.
Figure 6.9 Furniture calorimeter results.
Figure 6.10 Cone calorimeter.
Figure 6.11 Fire size measures.
Figure 6.12 Fuel continuity.
Figure 6.13 Wall effect.
Figure 6.14 Separation effect.
Figure 6.15 Ignitability.
Figure 6.16 Typical single‐person office in model building.
Figure 6.17
αt
2
fires.
Figure 6.18 Room fire ventilation effects.
Figure 6.19 Ventilation effect. (a) Relative comparison of the input detail and analysis effort with the output resolution among common fire hazards analysis tools. (b) Two‐zone input, output, and applicability.
Figure 6.20 Organization chart: room fire estimate.
Chapter 07
Figure 7.1 Factors: ignition.
Figure 7.2 Factors: established burning.
Figure 7.3 Factors: enclosure point.
Figure 7.4 Factors: ceiling point.
Figure 7.5 Factors: flashover.
Figure 7.6 Room fire transitions.
Figure 7.7 Flashover (FO) speeds.
Figure 7.8 Office ignition locations.
Figure 7.9 Factors: fire growth.
Figure 7.10 Factors: ignition.
Figure 7.11 Room fire growth potential comparisons.
Figure 7.12 Room classification groups.
Figure 7.13 Room classification characteristics.
Figure 7.14 Factors: room classification estimates.
Figure 7.15 Room classification comparisons.
Chapter 08
Figure 8.1 Barrier failure effects.
Figure 8.2 Barrier openings.
Figure 8.3 Barrier openings.
Figure 8.4 Exterior fire propagation.
Figure 8.5 Barriers.
Figure 8.6 Vertical shafts.
Figure 8.7 Barrier–space modules.
Figure 8.8 Massive failure effects.
Figure 8.9 Hot‐spot failure effects.
Figure 8.10 Room classification selections.
Figure 8.11 Example 8.1: room fire propagation.
Figure 8.12 Example 8.1: module interconnectivity.
Figure 8.13 Example 8.1: interconnectivity analysis.
Figure 8.14 Example 8.1: Interactive Performance Information (IPI) representation.
Figure 8.15 Example 8.2: interconnectivity analysis.
Figure 8.16 Example 8.2: Interactive Performance Information (IPI) representation.
Figure 8.17 Example 8.3: interconnectivity analysis.
Figure 8.18 Example 8.3: Interactive Performance Information (IPI) representation.
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1 Stack effect.
Figure 9.2 Venting effects.
Figure 9.3 Wind effects.
Figure 9.4 Example 9.1: smoke zoning.
Figure 9.5 Example 9.1: smoke zone network.
Figure 9.6 (a) Example 9.2: 3
rd
Floor smoke zone segments. (b) Example 9.2: 4
th
Floor smoke zone segments.
Figure 9.7 Example 9.2: smoke zone segments.
Figure 9.8 Example 9.3: fire‐smoke description. (a) Furniture calorimeter heat release rate (HRR) for the fire used in the simulation. (b) Smoke generation curve for this fire.
Figure 9.9 Example 9.3: smoke spread.
Figure 9.10 Example 9.3: Interactive Performance Information (IPI) representation.
Figure 9.11 Example 9.4: smoke spread.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Interactive Performance Information (IPI) diagnostic fire representation.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Organization chart: alarm actions.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 System components.
Figure 13.2 Event logic: fire department extinguishment (M).
Figure 13.3 Timeline: fire department extinguishment (M).
Figure 13.4 Timeline: fire department response.
Figure 13.5 Timeline: MN to MR.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Manual extinguishment (M) timeline.
Figure 14.2 Attack launch point.
Figure 14.3 Attack launch point (ALP) examples.
Figure 14.4 Model building plans.
Figure 14.5 Model building: Floors 1 and 3.
Figure 14.6 Model building: site plan. ALP, attack launch point.
Figure 14.7 Example 14.7: work breakdown structure (WBS).
Figure 14.8 Example 14.7: precedence grid.
Figure 14.9 Example 14.7: critical path network.
Figure 14.10 Example 14.7: critical path network.
Figure 14.11 Example 14.8: critical path network.
Figure 14.12 Example 14.9: critical path network.
Figure 14.13 Example 14.10: critical path network.
Figure 14.14 Example 14.7. (a) Interactive Performance Information (IPI) chart work activities. (b) IPI chart consolidated activities.
Figure 14.15 Example 14.8. (a) Interactive Performance Information (IPI) chart work activities.
(
b) IPI chart consolidated activities.
Figure 14.16 Interactive Performance Information (IPI) chart consolidated activities.
Figure 14.17 Model building: Floor 3.
Figure 14.18 Example 14.12: timeline.
Figure 14.19 Model building perspective.
Figure 14.20 Model building: Floor 3.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Manual extinguishment timeline.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Sprinkler.
Figure 16.2 Sprinkler system.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 System Components
Figure 17.2 Success Tree: Active Extinguishment.
Figure 17.3 Success Tree: Limit of Flame Movement.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Structural systems (Ching & Adams; © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This material is used by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).
Figure 18.2 Fire test information.
Figure 18.3 Example 18.1 room fire load.
Figure 18.4 Equivalent fire severity.
Figure 18.5 Ingberg correlation.
Figure 18.6 Temperature variation and ventilation.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Evaluations: code and performance.
Figure 19.2 Simple beam.
Figure 19.3 Structural steel: stress–strain relationships.
Figure 19.4 Structural steel: elasto‐plastic behavior.
Figure 19.5 Structural steel: moment–curvature relationship.
Figure 19.6 Structural steel: collapse mechanism.
Figure 19.7 Structural steel: progressive load behavior.
Figure 19.8 Representation: codes – standards – engineering methods – engineering practice.
Figure 19.9 Structural fire performance.
Figure 19.10 Structural steel at elevated temperatures.
Figure 19.11 Structural steel: mechanical properties at elevated temperatures. MOE, modulus of elasticity.
Figure 19.12 Structural steel insulation methods.
Figure 19.13 Diagnostic fires and structural analysis.
Figure 19.14 Heat transfer to structural steel.
Figure 19.15 Mechanical properties for structural steel and concrete.
Figure 19.16 Concrete: mechanical properties.
Figure 19.17 Reinforced concrete: progressive load behavior.
Figure 19.18 Heat transfer in reinforced concrete.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 System components.
Figure 20.2 Fire and target space separation.
Figure 20.3 Optical density and visibility.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Organization network: life safety.
Figure 22.2 Organization chart: pre‐movement activities.
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 System components.
Figure 24.2 Working Interactive Performance Information (IPI) template.
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Fire growth hazard (FGH) estimate template.
Figure 25.2 Success tree: fire growth.
Figure 25.3 Network: fire growth.
Figure 25.4 Evaluation factors: (a) ignition (IG); (b) established burning (EB); (c) enclosure point (EP); (d) ceiling point (CP); (e) flashover (FO).
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Organization chart: instrument detection.
Figure 26.2 Success tree: instrument actuation.
Figure 26.3 Network: instrument actuation.
Figure 26.4 Organization chart: detector analysis.
Figure 26.5 Example 26.1: floor layout.
Figure 26.6 Network: detector reliability.
Figure 26.7 Organization chart: human detection.
Figure 26.8 Organization chart: human detection.
Figure 26.9 Success tree: human detection.
Figure 26.10 Network: human detection.
Figure 26.11 Organization chart: human detection.
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 Success tree: fire department notification.
Figure 27.2 Network: fire department notification.
Figure 27.3 Organization chart: notification analysis.
Figure 27.4 Organization chart: fire department notification.
Figure 27.5 Network: fire department notification.
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 Success tree: fire department extinguishment.
Figure 28.2 Timeline: fire department extinguishment.
Figure 28.3 Network: fire department extinguishment.
Figure 28.4 Network: fire department extinguishment.
Figure 28.5 Timeline: fire department response.
Figure 28.6 Network: fire department response.
Figure 28.7 Organization chart: fire department response.
Figure 28.8 Network: first water application.
Figure 28.9 Organization chart: first water application.
Figure 28.10 Network: fire department controls fire.
Figure 28.11 Organization chart: fire department controls fire.
Figure 28.12 Network: fire department extinguishment.
Figure 28.13 Organization chart: fire extinguishment.
Figure 28.14 Example 28.1.
Figure 28.15 Example 28.1: Interactive Performance Information (IPI) description.
Chapter 29
Figure 29.1 Success tree: sprinkler system control.
Figure 29.2 Network: sprinkler system control.
Figure 29.3 Organization chart: sprinkler agent application.
Figure 29.4 Organization chart: sprinkler fuses.
Figure 29.5 Organization chart: sprinkler discharge density.
Figure 29.6 Organization chart: sprinkler water supply.
Figure 29.7 Organization chart: sprinkler obstructions.
Figure 29.8 Model building: partial sprinkler layout.
Figure 29.9 Continuous value network (CVN): sprinkler control.
Figure 29.10 Example 29.1: sprinkler layout.
Figure 29.11 Illustration: Diagnostic Fire Types and Sprinkler Response.
Chapter 30
Figure 30.1 Organization chart: composite fire.
Figure 30.2 Success tree: active extinguishment.
Figure 30.3 Network: limit fire.
Chapter 31
Figure 31.1 Responsibility divisions: fire safety engineer and structural engineer.
Figure 31.2 Representative structural performance.
Chapter 32
Figure 32.1 Success tree: target space tenability.
Figure 32.2 Network: target space tenability.
Chapter 33
Figure 33.1 Success tree: occupant leaves room.
Figure 33.2 Network: occupant leaves room.
Figure 33.3 Organization chart: occupant alert.
Figure 33.4 Organization chart: occupant leaves room.
Figure 33.5 Network: occupant egress.
Chapter 34
Figure 34.1 Success tree: prevent established burning.
Figure 34.2 Network: prevent established burning.
Figure 34.3 Organization chart: prevent ignition.
Figure 34.4 Ignition potential classifications.
Figure 34.5 Recognizing ignition potential.
Figure 34.6 Organization chart: prevent established burning.
Figure 34.7 Network: occupant extinguishment.
Figure 34.8 Organization chart: occupant extinguishment.
Figure 34.9 Success tree: special hazards extinguishment.
Figure 34.10 Network: special hazards extinguishment.
Figure 34.11 Organization chart: special hazards extinguishment.
Figure 34.12 Network: automatic systems analysis.
Chapter 35
Figure 35.1 Window of uncertainty.
Figure 35.2 Network: sprinkler system analysis.
Figure 35.3 Example 35.2: sprinkler control calculation.
Figure 35.4 Performance analysis graphical descriptors.
Figure 35.5 Fire defense performance.
Figure 35.6 Example 35.4: graphical descriptor performance.
Figure 35.7 Continuous value network: sprinkler performance.
Figure 35.8 Outcome descriptions.
Figure 35.9 Example 35.5: continuous value network calculations.
Figure 35.10 Example 35.5: graphical descriptor performance.
Figure 35.11 Example 35.6: sprinkler reliability.
Figure 35.12 Example 35.6: sprinkler system performance calculations.
Figure 35.13 Example 35.6: graphical descriptor performance.
Figure 35.14 Visual thinking.
Figure 35.15 Interactive Performance Information (IPI) chart: automatic sprinkler performance.
Chapter 36
Figure 36.1 Military Records Center: decision alternatives.
Figure 36.2 Performance analysis graphical descriptors.
Figure 36.3 Partial Floor 3.
Figure 36.4 Example 36.1: qualitative (Det) performance descriptors.
Figure 36.5 Example 36.2: qualitative (MN) performance descriptors.
Figure 36.6 Example 36.3: qualitative (A) performance descriptors.
Figure 36.7 Example 36.4: qualitative (M) performance descriptors.
Figure 36.8 Characteristic L curve.
Figure 36.9 Network analysis: L curve.
Figure 36.10 L curves.
Chapter 37
Figure 37.1 Risk management organization.
Figure 37.2 Organization chart: understand the problem.
Figure 37.3 Organization chart: identify building and site features.
Figure 37.4 Evaluation chart: evaluate performance.
Figure 37.5 Organization chart: characterize risk.
Figure 37.6 Organization chart: structure risk management program.
Figure 37.7 Organization chart: evaluate prevent established burning (EB).
Figure 37.8 Organization chart: evaluate special hazards protection.
Figure 37.9 Organization chart: develop emergency preparedness plans.
Figure 37.10 Organization chart: prepare decision analysis.
Chapter 38
Figure 38.1 Classical event tree.
Figure 38.2 Success tree.
Figure 38.3 Venn diagrams.
Figure 38.4 Network calculations.
Figure 38.5 Space–barrier description.
Figure 38.6 Barrier performance analysis. EB, established burning.
Figure 38.7 Multi‐room analysis. EB, established burning.
Figure 38.8 Barrier–space modular network.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Fire Performance Analysis for Buildings
Second Edition
Robert W. Fitzgerald and Brian J. Meacham
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, MA, USA
This edition first published 2017© 2017 John Wiley & Sons LtdFirst Edition published in 2004
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Fitzgerald, Robert W., author. | Meacham, Brian J., author.Title: Fire performance analysis for buildings / Robert W. Fitzgerald, Brian J. Meacham.Other titles: Building fire performance analysisDescription: Second edition. | Chichester, UK ; Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2017. | Revised edition of: Building fire performance analysis. 2004. | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016039775 (print) | LCCN 2016054258 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118657096 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118926499 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118926338 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Building, Fireproof. | Fire prevention–Inspection.Classification: LCC TH1065 .F574 2017 (print) | LCC TH1065 (ebook) | DDC 693.8/2–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016039775
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover image: Petr Student/ShutterstockCover design: Wiley
Preface
This book describes a framework to analyze the fire performance for any building – in any location, under any regulatory system, and constructed in any regulatory era.
The book is intended for any individual who wants to understand the fire performance of buildings. The approach allows one to examine the performance of specific components in isolation or to integrate them to describe holistic behavior.
It is anticipated that readers will have varied backgrounds and levels of knowledge in the subject. The book enables a reader to obtain specific information in isolation. For example, an individual may wish to increase their knowledge of fire behavior or the operational details of a specific fire defense. When such background knowledge is already known, the reader may go directly to the analytical techniques. Although a reader may move through specific topics in isolation, the content is structured in a logical progression.
Unit One describes the foundation on which the analytical framework is organized. Theory and practice are based on well‐established techniques. Because fire performance in buildings is dynamic, the Interactive Performance Integration (IPI) chart is given special attention. This chart is an essential tool to relate the fire and the phasing in and phasing out of fire defenses and risk characterizations.
Unit Two explains each part of the system of fire and buildings. Fire department operations are of particular interest in building analysis. The procedures are described for fire safety professionals with no experience in fire ground operations. Techniques relate the fire size to the time of water application and to damage estimates at eventual extinguishment.
Modern structural analysis and design for fire conditions is another important part of fire performance in which many fire safety professionals have little knowledge. Chapter 18 describes the evolution of structural requirements while Chapter 19 makes the transition from traditional regulations to modern calculation methods. The information enables a fire safety professional to work with a structural engineer to establish performance understanding of the building’s structural system.
Unit Three identifies the analytical framework for each component and for holistic performance. The organization is based on the framework of Unit One and the component behavior of Unit Two. The IPI chart is an essential tool for ordering the time‐related phases of fire and fire defenses.
Fire safety engineering is an evolving discipline. Although some components are now reaching early maturity, others are making a transition from infancy into adolescence. Uncertainty is inherent to all analysis and design. Unit Four describes ways to manage uncertainty and communicate credible knowledge to other individuals who are involved in the built environment.
Acknowledgements
Harold E. (Bud) Nelson created the foundation of performance analysis and design nearly half a century ago. This book represents the current status of the “Nelson Method.”
The acknowledgements in the first edition identified many of the pioneers who contributed significantly to the maturation of this structure for fire safety performance. Although their names are not repeated in this edition, their contributions should not be forgotten. Nevertheless, the names of Rexford Wilson and Rolf Jensen are again recognized because of their significance to the development of these procedures and to the history of performance based fire safety engineering.
The first edition attempted to describe performance analysis for unique, site‐specific buildings. Unfortunately, recognition of the analytical framework was obscured by emphasis of probabilistic performance descriptors that were used to sort out complicated interactions. This second edition emphasizes state‐of‐the‐art deterministic fire science and engineering in performance quantification. The role of the Interactive Performance Information (IPI) chart has been expanded to describe dynamic interactions.
The role and depiction of the framework and quantitative measures have been reorganized in this edition. Techniques for evaluating a building design for fire department extinguishment and analyzing structural performance have been upgraded. Essentially, this second edition is an entirely new book that is based on concepts of the first edition.
One of the important new techniques involves building analysis for fire department suppression. James F. Callery, District Chief (ret) Worcester (MA) Fire Department, Clifford S. Harvey, Assistant Chief (ret), Boulder (CO) Fire Department, Peter V. Mulvihill, Nevada State Fire Marshal, and Matthew T. Braley, District Chief, Worcester (MA) Fire Department have made valuable contributions. Professor Guillermo F. Salazar (WPI) provided support for BIM drawings and construction management procedures.
The state of the art of structural design for fire conditions has progressed significantly in recent years. The fire safety engineer and the structural engineer have interactive roles in understanding structural performance for fire conditions. Professor Leonard D. Albano (WPI) and Roger Wildt, P.E., gave valuable support for the structural engineering documentation.
The Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE) provided important support for this edition. Professor Tahar El Korchi of the WPI FPE Department funded students to test practices, develop numerical examples, draw figures, and format the product. Professor Roberto Pietroforte guided the architectural interface. Professor Robert C. Till (John Jay) used early drafts of the text to provide useful feedback. We are very grateful for the support of SFPE, WPI, and the following students: Ian Jutras, Drew Martin, Yu Liu, Yecheng Lyu, Young‐Geun You, Milad Zabeti Targhi, and Camille Levy.
A book of this type requires an enormous amount of time to organize, discuss, and prepare. We appreciate the tolerance and sacrifice given by our wives, Margaret and Sharon. Their support has been important to the completion of this project.
Robert W. FitzgeraldBrian J. Meacham
1Fire Performance and Buildings
1.1 The Dynamics of Building Fire Performance
A building fire is dynamic because hostile fire characteristics change minute by minute. The dynamic fire produces products of combustion that affect the building and its fire defenses. The continually changing building environment influences time relationships for risk characterizations involving occupants and building functions. These actions occur in a variety of sequences and ways for different buildings.
During a fire, some components complete their roles and become inactive before other components become operational. Additionally, actions of some parts of the system depend on the status and sequential phasing of other components. Performance evaluations analyze interactions that combine time‐dependent changes in the fire, building fire defenses, and people.
The goal of this book is to organize the complicated process into an analytical framework with which an engineer can evaluate fire performance. A performance evaluation enables one to understand specific component behavior as a part of holistic building performance.
Time is the common factor that links all of the important events.
1.2 The Anatomy of Building Fire Safety
Figure 1.1 shows the major parts of the complete system of fire performance for buildings. Initially, the system is organized into three major groups:
The
composite fire
combines a diagnostic fire and the active extinguishment actions provided by local fire department manual extinguishment and automatic sprinkler suppression, if present.
The
building response
is based on the flame‐heat and smoke‐gas products of combustion produced by the composite fire and their movement through the building. The process continues from ignition to extinguishment.
The
risk characterizations
for exposed people, property, and functions are based on the building’s response.
Figure 1.1 System components.
Figure 1.1 is a static representation of the major parts. At each minute into the fire, the status of each part changes.
The analytical framework decomposes each part into components that can be evaluated separately. The components are recombined to incorporate the influences of time, fire conditions, and other components within the system. This allows each component to be evaluated as an independent unit and the effects combined to describe holistic performance.
1.3 Analysis and Design
Analysis and design are two sides of the same coin. In its most basic form, all design involves trial and error. For example, a design process starts by gathering information about a building’s function, the design objectives, hazards to which the building will be subjected, the dimensional, material, economic and site constraints, and regulatory expectations. An initial trial design is formulated and then analyzed to evaluate the extent to which function, economics, and safety are acceptable. The design is then updated by changing parts of the trial design that did not perform in an acceptable manner. The iterative process of design–analyze–redesign continues until an updated design produces acceptable conditions for function, safety, and economy.
This book does not address building design, nor does it use any specific code or design standard. Rather, it describes how to analyze a building for a hostile fire. The results of the fire analysis provide a basis to characterize risk for people, property, and function. The goal is to describe a way to understand fire performance and risk characterizations for any existing building or proposed new building design. Although the book does not describe conventional procedures to accomplish design objectives, a performance analysis will give an insight into effective ways to achieve stated objectives.
1.4 Performance Analysis
A performance analysis creates an understanding of what to expect during a building fire. After evaluating the building’s performance, one can identify associated risk characterizations to people, property, operational continuity, neighbors, and the environment.
Evaluation procedures integrate two distinct parts:
An analytical framework to provide systematic, methodical procedures to structure individual component behavior and integrate all parts into a holistic entity.
Quantification to provide numerical measures of performance.
The primary goal of this book is to identify a framework for analyzing fire performance in buildings. However, a framework is sterile without ways to quantify the critical events. One cannot exist without the other.
Fire safety is an emerging engineering discipline. Consequently, all numerical measures for component quantification do not have the same level of development. Some components, such as structural fire analysis and detector actuation, are relatively well developed and one can have confidence in calculations. Room fire models can provide accurate representations of behavior within their limits of theory and input knowledge. On the other hand, certain aspects of manual fire extinguishment, automatic fire suppression, and barrier effectiveness are inadequate for comprehensive numerical analyses. Nevertheless, the framework uses existing knowledge for quantification and developing a performance understanding.
Quantification uses any information or calculation tool that is relevant and seems appropriate to obtain the necessary numerical measures. Sources such as computer programs, experimental data, calculated values, observed information, and failure analyses become resources for quantification. Quantification procedures may be viewed as a set of tools. An engineer selects appropriate and available tools for each need. The framework organizes the analysis to incorporate quantitative measures of performance.
1.5 Quantification
The goal of a performance analysis is to understand expected building behavior and the associated risk characterizations during a fire. Building evaluations use specific fire scenarios to acquire this understanding.
A scenario evaluation uses three types of analysis. A quantitative analysis calculates outcomes using available information. Fire safety has not yet evolved to provide reliable, unique source quantification for the range of conditions routinely encountered in buildings. Therefore, the quantitative analysis is augmented by a qualitative analysis to provide a sense of proportion for expected behavior. A qualitative analysis incorporates many features that affect outcomes for interpreting numerical calculations.
Quantitative analyses and qualitative analyses are used together in an evaluation. Often, a quantitative analysis is a primary source for performance measures. The qualitative analysis helps to ensure that an outcome incorporates all of the important features and provides reasonable values. At other times, a qualitative analysis is the dominant evaluative tool and quantitative information is used to augment or give confidence to the estimates. Qualitative analyses are often used to select initial scenarios that become the basis for a performance analysis.
Both quantitative and qualitative analyses are sensitive to changes in condition. For example, the status of a door being open or closed may significantly affect performance. Fuel packages may use differing construction materials that can have significantly different burning characteristics. This produces different time‐related outcomes that, in turn, may affect the performance of other components.
Often, “what if” questions become evident during the decision‐making function of scenario identification and one may wish to examine performance differences that could occur. A variability analysis provides a basis for ascertaining if possible changes will significantly affect performance outcomes or will have only a relatively benign influence. A variability analysis examines important questions that could affect quantitative or qualitative outcomes. Variability analyses establish “windows of behavior” to better understand building features that affect fire safety.
1.6 The Organization
This book organizes the complex system of fire in buildings in a way that enables one to understand both an individual component’s behavior and its effect on holistic building performance. This involves:
Identification of a comprehensive analytical framework. This framework is logically structured and consistent to be adaptable for any building and geographical location.
Use of deterministic component evaluations that combine state‐of‐the‐art fire science with engineering knowledge and information.
Use of organizational charts to record key information and to visualize time‐related complexity in a way that performance expectations may be explained to other professions.
The analytical framework is the primary focus of attention, and different aspects of the framework and its quantification are presented in each of the four units of this book:
Unit One: The Foundation
. This unit describes the structure of the organizational framework. The framework adapts established techniques of other disciplines for fire safety evaluations. The Interactive Performance Information (IPI) chart becomes the central tool to relate time sequencing with critical events for performance evaluations.
Unit Two: The Parts
. The functional behavior and operation of the major components are described in the context of the analytical framework. Functional and quantitative relationships provide guidelines for evaluation.
Unit Three: The Analysis
. The descriptive base for the components of Unit Two is organized into networks that structure performance analysis. The networks, in combination with the IPI chart, enable variability analyses to be integrated efficiently into performance understanding.
Unit Four: Managing Uncertainty
. Uncertainty and variability are unavoidable in building analysis. This unit introduces different ways to manage uncertainty and to communicate results to non‐fire safety professionals.
Collectively, the four units address different aspects of fire safety analysis to provide a comprehensive treatment of a way to consistently evaluate the performance of any building.
In general, the chapters are “stand‐alone” units that allow a reader to select topics that satisfy specific needs. Although there is a thematic structure, one need not move sequentially through intervening chapters. Rather, specific topics may be selected to augment information for component functions, operations, quantification, and analysis.
Part IThe Foundation
The primary objective of this book is to identify a framework to analyze the fire performance for any building.
The analytical framework is universal. It is not restricted by any geographical location, any jurisdiction that writes or enforces codes and standards, or any fire protection devices or actions that are intended to make the building perform better.
Although the framework is universal, quantification is local. Quantification is dependent on the building design, its location and all existing features that influence performance. The human element is also an important part of performance outcomes.
A performance analysis evaluates fire scenarios that link the fire, active and passive fire defenses, people, building architecture, and site conditions. Each component plays a role in the process. A performance analysis produces a clear understanding of what to expect during a building fire. This understanding becomes the basis of risk characterizations for people, property, operational continuity, exposed buildings and enterprises, and the environment.
