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This unique book provides a comprehensive review of the latest science on a key aspect of appetite control. It brings together contributions by leading researchers worldwide who approach this complex, multifaceted issue from a variety of differing perspectives, including those of food science, psychology, nutrition, and medicine, among others.
It is well known that products that require greater oral processing tend to be more sating. At the same time, the orosensory exposure hypothesis holds that flavor and texture in the mouth are critical in determining meal-size. They may act as key predictors of nutritional benefits and so promote better processing of foods. These two related ideas are at the forefront of current thinking on flavor-satiety interactions. Yet, until Flavor, Satiety and Food Intake no book has offered an integrated treatment of both concepts. The only single-source reference of its kind, it brings health professionals, product developers, and students up to speed on the latest thinking and practices in this fascinating and important area of research.
- Provides readers with a unique and timely summary of critical recent developments in research on the impact of flavor on satiety
- Explores a topic of central importance both for food professionals seeking to develop healthier products and health professionals concerned with obesity and over-eating
- Brings together relevant topics from the fields of food science, psychology, nutrition and medicine
Flavor, Satiety and Food Intake provides product developers with valuable information on how to integrate sensory evaluation with product formulation and marketing. It will also serve as a useful resource for health professionals and is a must-read for students of a range of disciplines in which appetite and satiety are studied.
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CONTENTS
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright
Titles in the IFT Press Series
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Introducing Sensory and Cognitive Influences on Satiation and Satiety
1.1 Appetite Control in Context
1.2 Satiation and Satiety: A Brief Overview
1.3 Sensory Influences on Satiation and Satiety: A Brief History
1.4 New Directions
1.5 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 2: Satiety and Liking Intertwined
2.1 Chapter Overview
2.2 Liking
2.3 Postingestive Satiety
2.4 The Five-Factor Satiety Questionnaire
2.5 The Intertwining of Liking and Satiety
2.6 Sensory-Specific Satiety, A Relative Change in Liking
2.7 Summary
References
Chapter 3: The Chemical Senses and Nutrition: The Role of Taste and Smell in the Regulation of Food Intake
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Role of Taste in Food Intake
3.3 The Role of Odour in Food Intake
3.4 Discussion
References
Chapter 4: Sweetness and Satiety
4.1 Sweet Taste Detection
4.2 Sweetness and Satiety
4.3 Sweetness and Reward
4.4 Summary and Considerations
References
Chapter 5: Reinforcing Value of Food, Satiety, and Weight Status
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Reinforcing Value
5.3 How is the Reinforcing Value of Food Measured?
5.4 Relationship between Food Reinforcement and AD Libitum Energy Intake
5.5 Relationship between the Reinforcing Value of Food and Obesity
5.6 Satiety and Satiation
5.7 How does the Reinforcing Value of Food Influence Satiation and Satiety?
5.8 Can We Alter the Reinforcing Value of Food?
5.9 Implications of Reinforcing Value of Food Research
5.10 Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Cognitive and Sensory Enhanced Satiety
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Cognitions and Consumption
6.3 Oro-Sensory Influences on Satiety
6.4 Case Study: Optimising Beverages for Satiety
6.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Umami and the Control of Appetite
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Umami Taste Perception
7.3 Where in the Diet Does Glutamate Occur?
7.4 Umami, Palatability and the Stimulation of Appetite
7.5 Umami, Satiation and Satiety
7.6 The Uniqueness of Umami: A Biphasic Impact on Appetite
7.7 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Colour, Flavour and Haptic Influences on Satiety
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Colour Contributions to the Perception and Consumption of Food
8.3 Haptic Influences on Food Perception and Satiety
8.4 Concluding Notes
References
Chapter 9: Engineering Satiety
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Emulsions
9.3 Viscous, Gelling and Fermentable Polysaccharides
9.4 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Table 2.1
Table 7.1
Table 7.2
Table 9.1
List of Illustrations
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Flavor, Satiety and Food Intake
Edited by
Beverly Tepper
Rutgers University, NJ, USA
Martin Yeomans
University of Sussex, UK
This edition first published 2017
© 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd and the Institute of Food Technologists
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
[9781119044895]
Names: Tepper, Beverly J., editor. | Yeomans, Martin, editor.
Title: Flavor, satiety and food intake / edited by Beverly Tepper, Rutgers University, NJ, US, Martin Yeomans, University of Sussex, UK.
Description: Chichester, UK ; Hoboken, NJ, USA : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016057158| ISBN 9781119044895 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119044925 (epub) 9781119044932 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Appetite. | Flavor. | Taste. | Nutrition.
Classification: LCC QP136 .F54 2017 | DDC 612.3–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016057158
Cover design: Wiley
Cover images: (Food) © Annabelle Breakey/Gettyimages;
(Brain) © Henrik5000/Gettyimages;
(People) © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
Titles in the IFT Press Series
Accelerating New Food Product Design and Development
(Jacqueline H. Beckley, Elizabeth J. Topp, M. Michele Foley, J.C. Huang, and Witoon Prinyawiwatkul)
Advances in Dairy Ingredients
(Geoffrey W. Smithers and Mary Ann Augustin)
Anti-Ageing Nutrients: Evidence-based Prevention of Age-Associated Diseases
(Deliminda Neves)
Bioactive Compounds from Marine Foods: Plant and Animal Sources
(Blanca Hernández-Ledesma and Miguel Herrero)
Bioactive Proteins and Peptides as Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals
(Yoshinori Mine, Eunice Li - Chan, and Bo Jiang)
Biofilms in the Food Environment, second Edition
(Anthony L. Pometti III and Ali Demicri)
Bitterness: Perception, Chemistry and Food Processing
(Michel Aliani and Michael N.A. Eskin)
Calorimetry in Food Processing: Analysis and Design of Food Systems
(G ö n ü l Kaletunç)
Coffee: Emerging Health Effects and Disease Prevention
(YiFang Chu)
Flavor, Satiety and Food Intake
(Beverly Tepper, Martin Yeomans)
Food Carbohydrate Chemistry
(Ronald E. Wrolstad)
Food Carotenoids: Chemistry, Biology and Technology
(Delia B. Rodriguez-Amaya)
Food Industry Design, Technology & Innovation
(Helmut Traitler, Birgit Coleman and Karen Hofmann)
Food Ingredients for the Global Market
(Yao - Wen Huang and Claire L. Kruger)
Food Irradiation Research and Technology, second edition
(Christoper H. Sommers and Xuetong Fan)
Foodborne Pathogens in the Food Processing Environment: Sources, Detection and Control
(Sadhana Ravishankar, Vijay K. Juneja, and Divya Jaroni)
Food Oligosaccharides: Production, Analysis and Bioactivity
(F. Javier Moreno and Maria Luz Sanz
Food Texture Design and Optimization
(Yadunandan Dar and Joseph Light)
High Pressure Processing of Foods
(Christopher J. Doona and Florence E. Feeherry)
Hydrocolloids in Food Processing
(Thomas R. Laaman)
Improving Import Food Safety
(Wayne C. Ellefson, Lorna Zach, and Darryl Sullivan)
Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation
(Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, Peter Roupas, and Cornelis Versteeg)
Mathematical and Statistical Methods in Food Science and Technology
(Daniel Granato and Gastón Ares)
Membrane Processes for Dairy Ingredient Separation
(Kang Hu and James Dickson)
Microbial Safety of Fresh Produce
(Xuetong Fan, Brendan A. Niemira, Christopher J. Doona, Florence E. Feeherry, and Robert B. Gravani)
Microbiology and Technology of Fermented Foods
(Robert W. Hutkins)
Multiphysics Simulation of Emerging Food Processing Technologies
(Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, Peter Roupas and Cornelis Versteeg)
Multivariate and Probabilistic Analyses of Sensory Science Problems
(Jean - Fran ç ois Meullenet, Rui Xiong, and Christopher J. Findlay
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in Food Systems
(Hongda Chen)
Nanotechnology and Functional Foods: Effective Delivery of Bioactive Ingredients
(Cristina Sabliov, Hongda Chen and Rickey Yada)
Natural Food Flavors and Colorants, second edition
(Mathew Attokaran)
Nondestructive Testing of Food Quality
(Joseph Irudayaraj and Christoph Reh)
Nondigestible Carbohydrates and Digestive Health
(Teresa M. Paeschke and William R. Aimutis)
Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Food
(Howard Q. Zhang, Gustavo V. Barbosa - C á novas, V.M. Balasubramaniam, C. Patrick Dunne, Daniel F. Farkas, and James T.C. Yuan)
Nutraceuticals, Glycemic Health and Type 2 Diabetes
(Vijai K. Pasupuleti and James W. Anderson)
Organic Meat Production and Processing
(Steven C. Ricke, Ellen J. Van Loo, Michael G. Johnson, and Corliss A. O' Bryan)
Packaging for Nonthermal Processing of Food
(Jung H. Han)
Practical Ethics for the Food Professional: Ethics in Research, Education and the Workplace
(J. Peter Clark and Christopher Ritson)
Preharvest and Postharvest Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions
(Ross C. Beier, Suresh D. Pillai, and Timothy D. Phillips, Editors; Richard L. Ziprin, Associate Editor)
Processing and Nutrition of Fats and Oils
(Ernesto M. Hernandez and Afaf Kamal - Eldin)
Processing Organic Foods for the Global Market
(Gwendolyn V. Wyard, Anne Plotto, Jessica Walden, and Kathryn Schuett)
Regulation of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: A Global Perspective
(Clare M. Hasler)
Resistant Starch: Sources, Applications and Health Benefits
(Yong - Cheng Shi and Clodualdo Maningat)
Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development
(Howard R. Moskowitz, Jacqueline H. Beckley, and Anna V.A. Resurreccion)
Spray Drying Techniques for Food Ingredient Encapsulation
(C. Anandharamakrishnan and Padma Ishwarya S.)
Sustainability in the Food Industry
(Cheryl J. Baldwin)
Thermal Processing of Foods: Control and Automation
(K.P. Sandeep)
Trait - Modified Oils in Foods
(Frank T. Orthoefer and Gary R. List)
Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications
(Gustavo V. Barbosa - Cánovas, Anthony J. Fontana Jr., Shelly J. Schmidt, and Theodore P. Labuza)
Whey Processing, Functionality and Health Benefits
(Charles I. Onwulata and Peter J. Huth)
List of Contributors
Sanne Boesveldt, Ph.D.
Wageningen University and Research Centre, the Netherlands
Cees de Graaf, Ph.D.
Division of Human Nutrition, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, the Netherlands
Betina Piqueras Fiszman, Ph.D.
Marketing and Consumer Behaviour Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
Pleunie Hogenkamp, Ph.D.
Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Aaron Mitchell Lett, Ph.D.
School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
Una Masic, Ph.D.
Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
Keri McCrickerd, Ph.D.
Clinical Nutrition Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, Singapore
Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
Jennifer Norton, Ph.D.
School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
Jennifer L. Temple, Ph.D.
Associate Professor, Departments of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences and Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY
Zata Vickers, Ph.D.
Professor, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN
Martin R. Yeomans, Ph.D.
School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
Preface
The food industry faces competing demands from different quarters: from consumers who want products that are highly palatable yet meet a growing number of health needs; from legislators who seek to reduce the levels of food components that are seen as deleterious for long-term health (e.g. sugar, fat and salt); and from health professionals battling a worldwide epidemic in obesity and related health problems.
To balance these needs, all of those with an interest in the production and promotion of more healthy food options need to stay informed on recent advances in our fundamental understanding of the complicated inter-relationships between our sensory experience of food and its subsequent effects on our appetite and body weight. By bringing together key researchers who approach these complex issues from very different perspectives, this book provides the reader with a unique and timely summary of key recent developments in the impact of flavour on satiety.
The benefit to the reader will vary between user groups. Students exposed to a disparate range of courses which encompass appetite from different perspectives (food science, dietetics, nutrition, psychology, etc.) will benefit from concise summaries of key developments in this area, something that they cannot get from reading the broader primary research material. Product developers will get insights into novel ways of integrating sensory evaluation with product formulation and marketing to help develop new products that are better suited to consumer needs and aspirations. Health professionals (such as dieticians etc.) will benefit from having a single reference source to bring their knowledge in this area up to speed as part of their continued professional development.
Beverly TepperMartin Yeomans
Acknowledgements
The impetus for this book arose from the enthusiastic response to the symposium entitled ‘What is the Measure of Your Pleasure – Understanding the Relationship Between Satiety and Liking’, presented at the 2013 Institute of Food Technologists Annual Meeting in Chicago, Illinois (organized and moderated by Beverly J Tepper and Katherine Nolen Oftedal). The three featured speakers, Zata Vickers, PhD (Foods and Nutrition, University of Minnesota); Betina Pequeras-Fiszman, PhD, (Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, UK) and Martin Yeomans, DPhil (Psychology, University of Sussex, UK) generously agreed to contribute chapters to this volume, and their combined works serve as the foundation for this text. The editors gratefully acknowledge their participation in this effort and extend our thanks to all our contributors.
Beverly TepperMartin Yeomans
1Introducing Sensory and Cognitive Influences on Satiation and Satiety
Martin R. Yeomans, Ph.D.
1.1 Appetite Control in Context
The worldwide increase in incidence of overweight and obesity represents one of the biggest public health challenges of recent times. Statistics on obesity are startling: the proportion of the population in the United States who meet World Health Organisation (WHO) criteria for obesity have risen from around 7% in 1985 to 30% in 2015. In 2014, more than one in four people were obese in countries as diverse as New Zealand, Mexico, Canada, Hungary and Chile. The WHO estimated that by 2014 39% of the world's population met the criteria for overweight, and 13% were obese, with more people overweight than malnourished for the first time in recorded history.
These statistics make understanding causes of weight gain an imperative. Weight gain is the consequence of storage of excess nutrients when there is an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. Thus when intake of sources of energy in the diet, primarily fat and carbohydrate, exceeds short-term energy needs (the sum of basal metabolism, thermogenesis and energy needed for exercise and cognitive activity), the excess is stored. Most of the excess is converted to body fat, either directly by processing of ingested fat or through conversion of excess carbohydrate into fat by the liver. However, excess intake arises only when factors that encourage short-term intake are not regulated by the systems involved in promoting energy expenditure and, crucially in the context of this book, inhibiting further food intake. It is noteworthy that despite the worldwide increase in obesity, many consumers maintain a stable weight. This implies that even in the modern obesogenic environment it is possible to maintain an appropriate balance between energy input and output, but that individual differences in sensitivity to external cues promoting intake and homeostatic processes regulating appetite make some individuals prone to over-consumption. Since humans typically eat at prescribed times dictated by cultural convention, it has been argued that understanding the processes that lead to suppression of appetite after a meal are key to understanding how altering the food environment may help promote individual appetite regulation [1–5].
1.2 Satiation and Satiety: A Brief Overview
The modern interpretation of the terms “satiation” and “satiety” are most clearly encapsulated in the description of processes involved in appetite control commonly referred to as the “satiety cascade” [6]. In that descriptive model, satiation was defined as the processes that bring a meal to an end and satiety as the suppression of appetite post-ingestion. This specific interpretation of satiation and satiety is now widely accepted. The chapters in this book all examine aspects of two types of influence on satiation and satiety. The primary focus here is on how the sensory features of the foods and drinks we ingest influence the decisions that lead to meal termination (satiation) and also modify the processes that suppress appetite after ingestion (satiety). There are also chapters that highlight more cognitive elements that also modify both the interpretation of sensory cues and satiation and satiety more directly. Although models such as the satiety cascade fully recognised the importance of these cognitive and sensory influences, the majority of research on satiety remains focussed on physiological signals arising in the gut as a consequence of food ingestion. However, an understanding of these gut-derived signals is needed in order to put the main chapters in this volume into a broader context. The reader can find a more detailed description and discussion of these gut-based satiety signals in one of a number of more detailed reviews [3,7–10].
The view of satiety most commonly described when discussing the role of gut-based satiety signals sees the gut effectively as a sensor that sends signals about the nutrients it can detect to the brain [3,11,12]. This gut-to-brain signalling is clearly a major component of the physiological basis of satiety experienced post-ingestion. However, what the present volume clearly demonstrates is that these gut-derived physiological signals are only part of the story and that both cognitive and sensory cues at the point of ingestion can clearly modify the way the body experiences satiety from the same set of nutrients depending on the context in which those nutrients were ingested. Thus understanding gut-derived physiological signals is an important component of satiety, but they can only be interpreted in the context of all signals relating to ingestion, including those arising from both the sensory experience of food and beliefs about the likely effects of that food on appetite.
What then are the principle gut-derived signals? Arguably the most important signals are specific peptides released in the gut in response to specific nutrient signals and whose purpose is to regulate the passage of food though the gut to optimise digestion and nutrient absorption. One key aspect of that control process is to modify ingestion to ensure an appropriate supply of nutrients, and it is likely that the gut-based satiety signals have evolved at least partly for that reason. The first such signal to be identified was cholecystokinin, first shown to modify ingestion in rats in 1973 [13], but since then many more gut-based signals have been identified, most of which appear to have roles in suppressing appetite (and are described as satiety signals), including glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1), polypeptide YY (PYY), oxyntomodulin (OXM) and pancreatic polypeptide (PP). A further gut-derived signal, ghrelin, has the opposite effect, increasing the experience of appetite in humans and increasing food intake in humans [14–17] and other species [18,19]: see Hussain and Bloom and Guyenet and Schwartz [12,20] for recent reviews. Thus ghrelin stands apart as the only gut-derived hormonal “hunger signal”. The evidence supporting specific roles of these different gut signals in satiety typically involves a combination of studies in animals showing reduced food intake after administration of these compounds, evidence that such effects are consistent with a normal cessation of feeding rather than an indirect effect through malaise, and studies showing both reduced rated appetite and food intake in humans, again in the absence of any confounding malaise: this evidence has been reviewed at length by many authors [3,7,10,21], and a full review is beyond the scope of this introduction. What the current volume does do, however, is put these physiological satiety cues into the broader context of other signals associated with food ingestion, particularly those derived from the sensory characteristics of foods and drinks.
1.3 Sensory Influences on Satiation and Satiety: A Brief History
The chapters in this volume provide timely summaries of recent progress in understanding sensory and cognitive influences on satiation and satiety that build on ideas founded in classic studies in recent decades. Arguably the most influential concept during this time has been sensory specific satiety (SSS), and this concept is discussed from different perspectives in the chapters by Vickers (Chapter 2), De Graaf and Boesveldt (Chapter 3) and Piqueras Fiszman (Chapter 8). Sensory specific satiety is a concept founded in changes in liking for foods as a consequence of ingestion. The key observation is that liking for a food that is being consumed decreases, but liking for other foods which are not being consumed is maintained. The original observations came from studies in rats by the pioneering appetite researcher Jacques Le Magnen [22]: he observed that rats ate considerably more when provided with a variety of different-flavoured foods than when offered just a single food. The actual term SSS, however, came from seminal studies by Barbara and Edmund Rolls showing how rated liking for a consumed food decreased, but liking was unaltered for other non-consumed foods [23]. Although the change in liking occurs during ingestion and so may be better thought of as relating to satiation than satiety in our modern classification of appetite control, the term SSS has become such a clear label for this phenomenon that it remains. The key finding that there were neural correlates of SSS in the responses of single neurones in the lateral hypothalamus of monkeys [24] provided strong support for the idea that SSS is a key component of satiation and is often viewed as one of three key sensory or cognitive influences on meal size (the others being conditioned satiety and gustatory alliesthesia). SSS remains the most widely cited explanation for the role of variety in increasing food intake [25–28]. Given its importance in this context, SSS is an important element of this book.
Alliesthesia, or negative gustatory alliesthesia, to use its full name, was a concept introduced in 1968 by Michel Cabanac to discuss how liking for specific sensory characteristics of a food, most notably a sweet taste, was modified by homeostatic signals relating to internal state [29]. His fundamental argument was that liking for signals relating to energy, such as sweet taste, was greater when hungry than when sated [30], and Cabanac published extensively on this. (See Cabanac [31–33]). Although the term alliesthesia is used much less often by current researchers, key questions around the role of sweetness in satiety have become very important, and the role of sweetness in particular is consequently discussed in two chapters here: De Graaf and Boesveldt (Chapter 3) discuss sweetness more broadly from a perspective of sensory signals influencing appetite, while Hogenkamp (Chapter 4) asks more specifically the extent to which sweetness acts as a satiety signal, specifically focussing on the effects of low-energy sweeteners. Several recent developments make the issue of sweetness particularly relevant, most dramatically the claim that sugar may be addictive [34–36] and cause over-eating [37,38], and that as a consequence, several countries are introducing specific financial disincentives to dissuade over-consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages in particular (“sugar taxes”). Although the focus on sweetness has moved on from the early discussion of alliesthesia, sweetness rightly remains a critical area of discussion in relation to sensory influences on satiety.
Alliesthesia was founded in the homeostatic tradition which considered how expression of liking for foods was related to energetic needs. Since the concept of alliesthesia was developed, there has been increasing interest in the rewarding nature of eating. In its extreme form, an alliesthesia hedonic evaluation was seen, at least in part, as an expression of the need for a particular set of nutrients. However, an area that has changed markedly since the initial ideas of alliesthesia were developed is how we conceive food reward. In discussing the relationship between food reward and satiety, Temple (Chapter 5), reminds us that “our drive to eat results from the integration of central and peripheral physiological cues along with psychological input that can modify, modulate, and override these physiological signals”, building on what was discussed earlier in this brief introduction. What Temple adds to this volume is a timely discussion of the importance of the relative reinforcing value of food in this context. She notes how highly rewarding foods can override satiation to promote short-term over-consumption and then explores how the concept of relative reinforcing value might predict the extent to which an individual may be prone to over-consumption and consequent weight gain, offering a potential mechanism to explain the individual differences in propensity to obesity discussed at the opening of this introduction. These ideas draw heavily on concepts drawn from broader motivated behaviours, including drug addiction, and in doing so help put the current work into a wider context of individual sensitivity to reward.
The third traditional cognitive/sensory theory relating to satiation was conditioned satiety, a phenomenon which again can be traced back to the work of Jacques Le Magnen [39]. However, the person whose work brought this concept to prominence was David Booth, who has written extensively on conditioned satiety [40–42]. In essence, the claim for conditioned satiety is that co-experience of a particular food with a mildly aversive gastric experience such as bloating leads to the sensory characteristic of that food acting to control the size of subsequent meals. Some of the clearest evidence for this came from studies of the meal size of rats switching from low- to high-protein diets [43]: initially meal size remained the same, but meal frequency was reduced (since the diets were more nutrient-dense); over a few days, meal size decreased, interpreted as the rats learning to reduce intake to avoid the unpleasant effects of over-satiation. Although Booth went on to report studies which were interpreted as supporting the conditioned satiety idea in humans [44,45], many subsequent studies have failed to find evidence that fits with the conditioned satiety hypothesis [46–48]. A recent review of all studies which explored conditioned satiety in humans found that only 25% of studies reporting positive findings [49]. It may be that in real life we rarely consume foods in a manner that creates the specific conditions that result in conditioned satiety.
However, it could be argued that the study of conditioned satiety was one of the drivers for recent interest in other sensory and cognitive influences on satiation and satiety, most notably the idea that the specific sensory characteristics of foods lead to measurable expectations about how ingestion of that food will alter appetite [50,51]. These expectations have been argued to arise through past associations between the sensory characteristics of foods and the actual post-ingestive experience of satiety [50]. For example, estimates of expected satiety are more closely related to actual nutrient content for familiar foods, where there would have been an opportunity to learn, than for less familiar foods [52]. The chapter by McCrickerd (Chapter 6) draws on these recent ideas to develop a model of satiety based on matching the expectations generated by sensory and cognitive cues at the point of ingestion to the actual experience of satiety after ingestion. These cognitive influences on satiety are clearly distinct from the very specific idea of conditioned satiety, but the core ideas can be seen as an extension of the premise that our real experience of the effects of foods on our appetite and satiety are key factors that shape the way we respond to the sight, smell and taste of food and so determine how much to consume.
1.4 New Directions
The classic study of satiety has focussed on a relatively narrow set of ideas based on interactions between sensory cues and physiological effects of nutrients: these ideas have moved our understanding of satiety a long way. But arguably, the real innovation in this book is the inclusion of areas of research which fall outside the traditional areas of focus for satiety. When key ideas such as SSS, alliesthesia and conditioned satiety were being formed and tested, we understood that orosensory chemoreceptors allowed detection of just four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. Of these, only one appeared to have relevance to satiety (sweetness, as discussed by De Graaf and Boesveldt in Chapter 3). The more recent inclusion of umami as the recognised fifth taste opened up the possibility that there was a new taste component that could be related to satiety, an idea explored in brief by De Graaf and Boesveldt (Chapter 3) and then explored in much greater detail by Yeomans and Masic (Chapter 7). The principle argument here is relatively simple: when Kikunae Ikeda first proposed umami as a specific flavour component [53], he suggested that perhaps umami served as a cue to predict the presence of protein in food. Since protein is often described as the most satiating macronutrient [54–58], the idea then follows that perhaps umami taste itself impacts satiety, and Yeomans and Masic (Chapter 7) provide clear evidence that this is so.
But the sensory experience of food is based on much more than taste perception: as Piqueras Fiszman explains in detail in Chapter 8, our perception of flavour involves the multi-sensory integration of cues arising from olfaction, gustation and somatosensation experienced when food is placed in the mouth [59–62]. It thus follows that sensory cues other than taste influence satiety, and the chapter by De Graaf and Boesveldt (Chapter 3) specifically explores the role of smell as well as taste in this context. However, as we have mentioned previously, the mere sight of a food can generate explicit satiety expectations (discussed by McCrickerd, Chapter 6). Piqueras Fiszman (Chapter 8) takes this further, exploring specifically how the colour and texture of food influence satiation and satiety, drawing on a diverse pool of evidence. The suggestion that texture plays a key role as a signal predicting likely nutrient content is a theme that emerges in many of these chapters and is an area ripe for further research. It is also an area where there is perhaps more potential for food manufacturers to use textural cues to increase satiety expectations when foods are consumed in order to increase the likelihood that consumers may better regulate their subsequent eating. A more applied angle is taken in the final chapter by Lett and Norton (Chapter 9), in which they discuss how the application of principles from chemical engineering can be used to manipulate the structure of products and thereby alter the satiating potential of these products.
1.5 Concluding Remarks
Sensory and cognitive influences on satiety are too frequently ignored. The focus of research into satiety on physiological and neural mechanisms has often ignored how consumer beliefs combined with sensory cues might help explain some of the great puzzles in satiety, such as why drinks generate weaker satiety whereas the same nutrients consumed in solid form can be very satiating. This book brings together a unique grouping of scientists from varied academic disciplines, including those approaching this issue from the perspective of sensory science, nutrition, food science, psychology and chemical engineering, to highlight many of the recent developments in the broad area of cognitive and sensory influences on satiation and satiety.
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2Satiety and Liking Intertwined
Zata Vickers, Ph.D.
2.1 Chapter Overview
Liking is closely related to many phrases consumers use to describe sensations of hunger and fullness. Consumers' concepts of both hunger and fullness are multisensory and include aspects of desire and satisfaction that depend on liking. People express less hunger and more mental fullness after eating better-liked versions of a food.
Sensory-specific satiety for foods is operationally defined as a relative change in liking of a food immediately after eating it compared to the change in liking of uneaten foods. Typical sensory-specific satiety protocols are designed to disentangle many feelings of hunger and fullness from the changes in liking. Foods clearly differ in the extent to which they produce sensory-specific satiety. Higher-protein foods produce more sensory-specific satiety than lower-protein foods. Breads produce less sensory-specific satiety than many other foods. Testing of other hypotheses to explain differences in the amount of sensory-specific satiety produced (i.e. initial liking, complexity, and added fiber content) has not provided support for the relevance of those attributes. Sensory-specific satiety crosses over to uneaten foods having sensory qualities similar to the eaten food. Thus consuming a sweet food will often diminish liking for other sweet foods; consuming salty foods can diminish liking for other salty foods. Measurements of sensory-specific satiety for foods in a specific product category such as potato chips can be useful for predicting patterns of switching among those products in both laboratory and real-life settings.
2.2 Liking
Liking is the pleasure one experiences when eating or using a product. Liking is of utmost importance to food manufacturers because it is central to people's choice to consume foods [1]. Liking is of utmost importance for nutrition because people generally eat food they like and do not eat food they don't like. We routinely measure liking using a scale where people can indicate the extent to which they like or dislike something.
2.3 Postingestive Satiety
Most laypeople have an understanding of satiety—how satisfied you are, how full you are, or at least that you aren't hungry. Understanding satiety depends partly on understanding hunger because satiety is closely related to having one's hunger satisfied. Measuring satiety is more complex than measuring liking. Rating the single attributes hunger and fullness doesn't seem to encompass all we may mean by satiety.
In response to the inadequacy of the two terms (hunger and fullness) for capturing the complexity of satiety and to inconsistencies in the measurement of satiety among studies reported in the literature, the Appetite Regulation Task Force was convened to examine the broad array of experimental methodologies related to appetite control. The need for this was stimulated partly by the desire to use specific foods to combat obesity and by the food industry's interest in providing those foods, and perhaps having label claims for them. The findings of the task force were summarized in a review [2] and included five key scales for measuring satiety: (1) How hungry are you; (2) How full are you; (3) How satiated are you; (4) How strong is your desire to eat; (5) How much do you think you could eat right now.
At that time, work in our laboratory by Murray and Vickers [3] and Karalus (neé Murray) [4] also noted frequent inconsistency in the satiety measurements used, which made comparing across studies difficult if not impossible. To address the proliferation and inconsistent use of rating scales, we conducted focus group discussions about feelings of hunger and satiety [3]. These discussions enabled us to better understand the breadth and depth of hunger and fullness feelings and guided the development of an improved methodology for measuring satiety.
People who came to the focus group discussions received a gift bag of breakfast foods the week prior to their visit. In that bag were five different breakfasts: instant oatmeal, a breakfast drink, Cheerios®, a granola bar, and two oranges. We asked participants to have one of these each day during the week prior to their scheduled focus group. They recorded their feelings of hunger/fullness after each of these meals in preparation for their focus group session.
We learned the following from these focus groups: (1) Feelings of hunger and satiety were highly complex. (2) Participants described two types of hunger (physical and mental). Physical hunger, as the word suggests, included sensations of emptiness, stomach pain, and growling; the other type of hunger, mental hunger, included irritability, a fixation on food, and the desire to eat. (3) Participants described two types of fullness (again physical and mental). Physical fullness included the feeling of food in the stomach, being stuffed or bloated. Mental fullness included feeling comfortable, energized, satisfied, and the lack of any desire to eat. (4) Participants clearly indicated that they could be both hungry and full at the same time. They illustrated this using their experience with having the oranges for breakfast. Eating two oranges made participants feel physically full, but they were still mentally hungry—looking for or wanting something else to eat. (If you have ever finished eating a meal and opened the cupboards or refrigerator looking for something else, you have experienced some residual mental hunger.)
2.4 The Five-Factor Satiety Questionnaire
Karalus [4] collected as many different rating scales as she could find from the hunger and satiety literature—a little over 100. She assembled them into a questionnaire, sent them out to Facebook® friends and friends of friends, and had over 200 people rate each of those items. From those data she used factor analysis to sort most of the items into five factors [4] (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1 Components of the Five-Factor Satiety Questionnaire. Two specific questions are listed here for each factor. The more comprehensive list of questions for each factor is available in Karalus [4] and Karalus et al. [5]. Figure designed by MZ Mattes.
The first four factors, as foretold by her focus group interviews, included physical fullness, mental fullness, physical hunger, and mental
