Food Security E-Book

Bryan L. McDonald

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Dimensions of Security
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 364

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Throughout history, human societies have struggled to ensure that all people have access to sufficient food to lead active and healthy lives. Despite great global effort, events of the early 21st century clearly demonstrate that food remains a pressing challenge which has significant implications for security. In this book, Bryan McDonald explores how processes of globalization and global change have reshaped food systems in ways that have significant impacts for the national security of states and the human of communities and individuals. Over the past few decades, local, regional, and national food systems have increasingly become intertwined in an emerging global food network. This complex web of relations includes the production, harvest, processing, transport, and consumption of food. While this global food network provides new opportunities for improving health and well-being, it also gives rise to new sources of security threats and vulnerabilities.

This detailed and comprehensive introduction to the major issues impacting global food security will be essential reading for students and scholars in security studies, international politics, and environmental studies.

Leseprobe

Food Security

To Kate, and for Jed

Food Security

BRYAN L. McDONALD

polity

Copyright © Bryan L. McDonald 2010

The right of Bryan L. McDonald to be identified as Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

First published in 2010 by Polity Press

Polity Press

65 Bridge Street

Cambridge CB2 1UR, UK

Polity Press

350 Main Street

Malden, MA 02148, USA

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

ISBN-13: 978-0-7456-5929-9

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Typeset in 10.5 on 13 pt Minion

by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire

Printed and bound by MPG Books Group Ltd

The publisher has used its best endeavours to ensure that the URLs for external websites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press. However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate.

Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publisher will be pleased to include any necessary credits in any subsequent reprint or edition.

For further information on Polity, visit our website: www.politybooks.com

Contents

Acknowledgments

List of Abbreviations

Introduction: Twenty-first Century Challenges to Food Security

1

Food Security and the Global Food System

2

From Local to Global: Shift s in World Food Systems

3

Global Trends Impacting Food Security

4

Ensuring Proper Nutrition: The Challenge of Malnutrition in an Era of Global Change

5

Managing Global Environmental Change: The Environmental Impacts of Agriculture and Food Production

6

Optimizing Food Safety: Threats to Health and Food Security from Disease, Contamination, and Biological Weapons

Conclusion: Sustainable Food Security

References

Index

Acknowledgments

This book is the result of years of research and thus also the accumulation of numerous debts. I would like to thank Richard Matthew for encouraging me to study the intersection of environment, politics, and security. I also wish to express my gratitude to Joseph DiMento, Timothy W. Luke, and Daniel Stokols for their support of the dissertation this book is based upon. Comments and suggestions offered by a number of colleagues have improved my work; I am especially grateful to Geoffrey D. Dabelko, Helen Ingram, Cecelia Lynch, Kenneth R. Rutherford, and George Shambaugh. Research included in this book was presented at a number of conferences and I benefited from the thoughtful comments provided by discussants, including Kristine J. Kalanges, Marilyn McMorrow, Craig N. Murphy, J. P. Singh, and Matthew J. Hoffmann.

I am grateful to the Samueli Foundation and the Center for Unconventional Security Affairs at the University of California, Irvine for their generous support of this project. This book emerged out of a dissertation project that was supported by a number of grants, fellowships, and funding agencies. I am indebted to the following for their support: the Center for Unconventional Security Affairs; the National Science Foundation (Project #0624165); the UCI Newkirk Center for Science and Society; the University of California Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation (IGCC); the University of California, Irvine Chancellor’s Club Fund for Excellence; the School of Social Ecology Dean’s Dissertation Fellowship; the Department of Planning, Policy and Design at the University of California, Irvine; the Justice Stephen K. Tamura Fellowship; the Drew, Chace, and Erin Warmington Chair in the Social Ecology of Peace and International Cooperation; and the UCI Center for Global Peace and Conflict Studies.

An earlier form of portions of chapter 6 were included in Bryan McDonald, “Global Health and Human Security: Addressing Impacts from Globalization and Environmental Change,” in Richard A. Matthew, Jon Barnett, Bryan McDonald and Karen L. O’Brien (eds), Global Environmental Change and Human Security (MIT Press, 2009). I am grateful to MIT Press for permission to include this material here. An early version of the argument presented in this book was explored in a chapter on “Environmental Ethics,” by Richard A. Matthew, Bryan McDonald, and Heather Goldsworthy in Antonio Franceschet (ed.), The Ethics of Global Governance (Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2009). I am grateful to Lynne Rienner Publishers for granting me permission to include this material.

I would also like to acknowledge Kate Merkel-Hess and two anonymous reviewers who provided comments and suggestions that greatly improved the final volume. I would also like to thank my editor at Polity, Louise Knight, for her interest in and support for this project.

Abbreviations

BMI  

Body Mass Index

BSE  

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

BTWC  

Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention

CAFOs  

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations

CBD  

Convention on Biological Diversity

CDC  

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

DEFRA  

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

FAO  

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FFPI  

FAO Food Price Index

GHG  

Greenhouse Gas

GM  

Genetic Modification

GMO  

Genetically Modified Organism

IFOAM  

International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

IPCC  

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

MDG  

Millennium Development Goal

SARS  

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

UNDP  

United Nations Development Program

UNEP  

United Nations Environment Program

UNFPA  

United Nations Population Fund

UNHCR  

United Nations Refugee Agency

UNICEF  

United Nations Children’s Fund

USDA  

United States Department of Agriculture

WCED  

World Commission on Environment and Development

WFP  

United Nations World Food Program

WFS  

World Food Summit

WGBU  

German Advisory Council on Global Change

WHO  

World Health Organization

WMO  

World Meteorological Organization

WTO  

World Trade Organization

Introduction: Twenty-first Century Challenges to Food Security

Throughout time, human societies have struggled to ensure that all people have access to sufficient food to lead active and healthy lives. Despite great global effort in recent decades, events of the early twenty-first century clearly demonstrate that providing sufficient food to all people remains an urgent problem situated at the nexus of nature, society, and technology. In recent years, rising food prices have motivated unrest in many parts of the world and increased the number of people who do not receive proper nutrition to levels not seen in decades. Agricultural and food production activities have been recognized as key drivers of environmental and climate changes at the same time that studies have revealed that food production could face significant and widespread impacts from these changes in coming decades. National and international food safety incidents have raised awareness of the continued peril that food systems can transmit health threats among human populations. This book explores these threats and vulnerabilities in the emerging network of global food systems. Through analysis of three central challenges to food security − nutrition, global environmental change, and food safety − this book considers how globalization and global change are reshaping the food security landscape in ways that have significant impacts on human, national, and international security. Building on the growing scholarly and policy interest in the interconnections between food security and human security, this book asserts that a clearer understanding of these interconnections is critical to facing world food problems in the twenty-first century.

The aim of this book is to analyze the ways the global food system has been changed as a result of the development of a more interconnected world, and to consider both the chronic and sudden challenges these new connections raise. Globalization has given rise to a complex, transnational network of food systems that includes a range of activities and processes involved in the production (which entails a variety of methods including farming, fishing, hunting, raising livestock and gathering), harvesting, processing, transportation, and consumption of food. The network of global food systems that now connect almost all human populations brings new opportunities, from a greater variety of foods to development and economic growth. However, a full investigation of the global food system reveals that, alongside many benefits, increased interconnection has created a more complex landscape of world food problems by creating new risks and amplifying traditional sources of threats and vulnerabilities that impact food security.

Food security – the idea that all people at all times have access (including physical, social and economic access) to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food necessary to lead active and healthy lives (FAO 2009) – is critical to this book’s exploration of the risks and opportunities posed by globalization and global environmental change. The notion of food security encompasses examinations of a variety of ecological, social, economic, and political factors to identify the choices and challenges that determine whether people have the food they need. These examinations are conducted at multiple levels of analysis, including individual, household or community, national, international, and global (see for example Sen 1982, 1999; Pottier 1999; Smil 2000, 2001; Alston, Taylor, and Pardey 2001; Devereux and Maxwell 2001; Webb and Weinberger 2001; Fogel 2004; Federico 2005; Brown 2009; Clapp and Fuchs 2009). By drawing on the deep body of scholarship on food security across fields as diverse as agricultural sciences, ecology, ethics, public health, and sociology, to name a few, this book posits that, without an understanding of the intersection of recent globalizing processes with the challenges and opportunities of food security, food networks cannot be used to their full potential to address pressing global problems. As events in the early twenty-first century have demonstrated, food security remains an important area of global concern. Lack of sufficient, safe, and nutritious food has significant impacts on the health, well-being, and livelihoods of people around the world.

In addition to altering many aspects of the global food system, globalization has resulted in considerable turbulence in world affairs and led to transformations in the global security landscape. In recent decades, changes in technology, interconnectedness, and mobility have amplified traditional national and international security challenges and given rise to new threats and vulnerabilities. Traditional security threats such as interstate war, nuclear proliferation, and peacekeeping operations remain vital elements in national and international security affairs. However, many contemporary security challenges − such as infectious disease, terrorism, and trafficking in drugs, people, or illegal goods − operate in different ways than traditional security challenges. These new security threats are transnational, crossing borders but generally not directly linked to foreign policies and state behaviors (Matthew and Shambaugh 1998). While transnational security threats have impacts on national and international security, these new threats are most often felt in people’s daily lives through events such as ill health, attacks by terrorists or insurgent groups, and reduced livelihoods, well-being and life-choices due to environmental change or natural disasters. Human security addresses these day-to-day concerns, asserting that the achievement of human security includes protecting people by providing freedom from fear and want as well as empowering individuals and communities to take action on their own behalf (UNDP 1994; Commission on Human Security 2003). The enduring wisdom of core security lessons of the twentieth century, such as the ability of want and instability in one country to have global security impacts, has been underscored by recent global experiences with disease pandemics, attacks in the United States, Spain, United Kingdom and many other places linked or inspired by transnational terrorist networks, and natural disasters − such as devastating earthquakes in Haiti and Chile and the global disruption in air travel and transport prompted by the eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland − that have significant social and economic impacts.

The absence of food security, also described as “food insecurity,” is a daily reality for billions of people around the world, making their lives and livelihoods less secure. This volume examines challenges to ensuring food security in the twenty-first century by considering the primary ways that food insecurity is felt in the daily lives of people and communities around the world. The first problem is the classical food security challenge of malnutrition which remains a significant and widespread form of food insecurity. Though often popularly conceptualized as hunger, malnutrition is actually a set of three distinctive problems (often referred to as the “triple burden of malnutrition”): energy deficiencies, nutrient deficiencies, and excessive net energy intake (Pinstrup-Andersen 2007). Large numbers of people in the world are chronically hungry, meaning they are undernourished because they don’t receive enough energy to lead active lives (FAO 2009). While chronic hunger has been an issue of global concern for decades, recent events, including a global recession and rising food prices, have significantly increased the number of chronically hungry people. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that in 2009 there were more than 1 billion chronically hungry people in the world, 85 million more than in 2008 and the highest number of energy deficient people since 1970. While the continued magnitude of chronic hunger is alarming, energy deficiency is not the only way malnutrition influences people’s health and welfare. Deficiencies of key vitamins and nutrients (including vitamin A, iodine, iron, zinc, and folate) affect billions around the world and these deficiencies cause and contribute to a range of problems, such as increased maternal death rates, birth defects, blindness, and reduced resistance to diseases (Micronutrient Initiative 2009). Finally, more and more people in developed countries, and also increasingly in developing countries, are confronting problems related to consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods combined with reduced levels of physical activity which result in overweight, obesity, and chronic diseases such as type-2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension (WHO 2003). Around the world, more than 1 billion adults are overweight and at least 300 million of them are obese; however, even more rapid and alarming increases in overweight and obesity are occurring among children (World Bank 2006; Pinstrup-Andersen 2007).

Concerns about food insecurity have motivated tremendous effort to increase global food supplies through infrastructure development and poverty reduction. These efforts are not new. Ensuring food security has been a prominent feature of global agreements since World War II, some of which set ambitious targets to address food insecurity. For example, the World Food Summit of 1996 sought to halve the number of undernourished by 2015, while the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), set in 2000, aspired to reduce by half the proportion of people suffering from hunger. While these efforts have led to significant increases in food and agricultural system productivity, improvements in standards of living, and considerable gains in human health, well-being and security, they have not guaranteed universal food security. Given the magnitude and complexity of factors contributing to world food problems, food security thus remains a key challenge in the twenty-first century. It is not a problem that will be less complex in the future. Scholars and researchers from a variety of perspectives stress that contemporary food insecurity is driven by trends such as population growth and urbanization, rises in food prices, a global economic crisis and changing diets and food consumption patterns, and processes such as environmental and climate change (Smil 2000; Pinstrup-Andersen 2007; Brown 2009). Concern about the impacts and likely directions of these driving forces have led many analysts to conclude that the world faces a significant set of challenges in the coming years as impacts of climate change, population growth, water scarcity, and energy shortages will all contribute to and magnify the impacts of food insecurity (Beddington 2009).

If current trends continue as expected, the number of hungry will grow. Future discussions of how to address food shortages and other food crises will likely take the shape of earlier efforts – addressing the immediate, short-term needs of hungry people. Out of such necessity, food security discussions often focus on sudden and hurtful disruptions – issues such as wars, famines, and natural disasters – as these disruptions attract considerable attention from policymakers, the media, and international organizations. However, fully confronting contemporary world food problems, and particularly the most critical problems of the coming decades, such as malnutrition from nutrient deficiencies and excessive net energy intake and the impacts of global climate change, requires also addressing the chronic aspects of food insecurity. These issues, along with factors such as ill health and lack of clean water, also have major impacts in the lives of many people and, at an aggregate level, on societies and states. In order to bring these critical issues to the fore, this book focuses on the human security implications of world food problems. Like food security, the definition of “human security” emphasizes the provision for and freedom to lead a full life. According to the most influential formulation from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the concept of human security has two main aspects: “It means, first, safety from such chronic threats as hunger, disease and repression. And second, it means protection from sudden and harmful disruptions in the patterns of daily life” (UNDP 1994: 23). The guarantee of food security can thus be understood as a key component of human security. At the same time, adopting a human security perspective allows us to consider both chronic and sudden challenges to food security, while also encouraging us to move beyond consideration of issues that have impacts at the state level to consider security from a more comprehensive perspective that includes the economic, health, environmental, personal, community, and political dimensions of food security.

While the particular form of and specific causal factors of food insecurity varies from place to place and even from person to person, it is possible to identify patterns in food insecurity. Undertaking a comprehensive review of world food problems, this book identifies three primary sets of disruptors, or unexpected destabilizing factors, which present core challenges to food security in the twenty-first century. First is the necessity to develop policies and methods to address all three aspects of malnutrition: energy deficiencies, nutrient deficiencies, and excessive net energy intake. Second is the need to manage global environmental change to confront the environmental impacts of food and agricultural production as well as impacts that processes of environmental change, including localized environmental modifications as well as global climate change, are having and will likely have on food and agricultural production. Last is the requirement to make sure that food safety is optimized to keep crops, livestock, and food supplies free from infectious diseases and contaminants, and to protect food supplies from actors with nefarious intent who might intentionally wish to cause harm.

While each of these sets of issues − ensuring nutrition, managing global environmental change, and optimizing food safety − represents a pressing area for action, their complexity is enhanced even further by recognizing that these concerns are also complex and interactive and each challenge has synergistic feedback effects on the others. Efforts to reduce food prices by increasing food production could increase the environmental impacts of agricultural and food production systems. Efforts by the poor to gain access to needed food through hunting and fishing could amplify health and food safety dangers by exposing them to new diseases and increasing the environmental impact of informal strategies like poaching and overfishing. Efforts to manage environmental change and address climate change could cause significant hardship if they are done without full consideration of impacts on food production. In a time when policy agendas are crowded with complex problems that have multiple causes, it is important to consider the ways interactions and feedback effects can complicate efforts to address food security. In this way, it is possible to identify strategies wherein efforts in one area of activity can also lead to the enhancement of human livelihoods and well-being. Given the magnitude and persistence of food security problems, there is an imperative need to understand why, despite significant global action, food insecurity remains a complex and enduring problem confronting human societies.

The need for examinations of food security has been underscored by global events in recent years. Rising food prices, natural disasters, and high-profile reports on the likely impacts of climate change have resulted in media organizations, policymakers, international agencies, and nongovernmental organizations devoting attention to the complex causes of food insecurity. A range of causal factors has been identified to explain the sudden re-emergence of high food prices and record levels of, side-by-side, chronic hunger and overweight and obesity including: global population growth, rising demands for resource-intensive products like meat, growing consumer purchasing power in countries such as China and India, changes and variability in climate and severe weather events that reduced harvests of key food crops, high oil prices that increased the costs of producing and transporting food and raised costs of inputs like fertilizers and pesticides, speculation in global financial markets, and impacts on food prices and availability from efforts to promote biofuels from sources such as corn (Ban 2008). At the same time, growing awareness of the contributions of food and agricultural production systems to climate change and the likely impacts that climate change will have on food and agricultural production systems have raised interest in mitigating or reducing the magnitude of impacts, and reducing the vulnerability of human and natural systems to climate change (IPCC 2007). Policy and public interest in the global food system has also been motivated by high-profile cases of food system contamination, raising questions about the advantages and disadvantages of an increasingly global network of food systems that rapidly transfers food from producers to consumers (WHO 2007d). Built on thousands of years of interactions and intermingling between humans and nature, the emerging network of global food systems is a hybrid of natural systems and human societies (Luke 2001b). This book aims to examine the food system as a nexus − and one with a rich history that has shaped both the benefits and dilemmas it poses for us today − that brings together nature, society, and technology. Today’s global food problems emerge out of a complex mix of economic, environmental, political, and social factors that impact food security, human society, and nation-states, but also, at the most basic level, determine what ends up (or doesn’t end up) on people’s plates.

The first chapter reviews connections between food security and security studies and discusses the broadening focus of academic and policy efforts to identify and understand the ways globalization has influenced security threats and vulnerabilities. The chapter first examines the history and various definitions of the food security concept. The chapter’s latter sections consider food security in light of the increasing attention paid to relationships between environmental change and security. The chapter then examines how, as understandings of security have shifted, security studies has broadened to consider human security issues. In closing, the chapter reviews the ways modern globalization processes have accelerated the speed and scale of interactions among food systems and resulted in the creation of a global food network.

Chapter 2 traces the long history of interactions between people and environment driven and mediated by food. This chapter examines how changing methods of accessing food have defined shifts in human societies, including the transitions from hunting and gathering to farming and the rise of modern industrialized and globalized food systems. The chapter also uses work by historians and scholars to review how human efforts to obtain sufficient food have affected the environment. In addition to current concerns about climate change, these examinations find that unsustainable food production practices have contributed to many of the worst instances of human-caused environmental degradation.

The food network is a major connector of people and places; increasingly the nature of challenges to ensuring food security has been, and will likely continue to be, profoundly affected by major trends in global affairs. Chapter 3 provides an overview of five trends that are shaping the character of food security challenges: population growth and demographic change, changes in food consumption patterns, rising global food prices, the development and use of new technologies in food production, and global climate change. While each of these trends affects food security, their impacts are magnified by the interactive nature of these trends.

Chapter 4 considers how globalization and global change have amplified the difficulty of optimizing food and agricultural production systems to provide all people with sufficient, safe, and appropriate nutrition. Providing adequate food to all people has been a major challenge to human societies and remains a focus of efforts to improve trade systems and address global development needs. Lack of proper nutrition remains a significant threat to human health and well-being, but this problem is complicated by the existence, contrary to popular perceptions, of undernourishment in developed countries and overnourishment in developing countries. To address this complexity, the chapter considers the ways food insecurity operates along three primary dimensions of malnutrition which present as energy deficiencies, nutrient deficiencies, and excessive net energy intake. The chapter concludes by considering the importance of finding ways to address malnutrition and meet nutritional needs that are in agreement with the aims of human security.

The global food system is also facing a set of challenges related to global environmental change. Chapter 5 explores how better understandings of processes of environmental change have made it clear that food and agricultural production contribute to environmental changes and will likely experience significant impacts as a result of those changes. The impact of environmental and climate changes on agriculture and food production are diverse and widespread. Likely impacts in the future include shifts in the ecological and economic viability of raising crops and animal species in a given environment, increased water scarcity, and acceleration of biodiversity loss, including loss of species that play a key role in food systems such as soil bacteria that help fix nitrogen or encourage water intake or species such as honeybees and songbirds that play key roles as pollinators. The chapter considers impacts in five major sectors − land and soil, water use and water quality, habitat and biodiversity loss, energy use, and climate change − and also examines how the environmental impact of food and agricultural systems can be lessened by harmonizing with imperatives for sustainable development.

Chapter 6 discusses ways the increasing speed and scale of connections between local, national, and global food systems can serve as vectors to transmit health threats such as infectious diseases, toxic contaminants, or biological weapons. Events in recent decades have raised awareness of the need to ensure food safety, including: experiences with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad-cow disease, in the United Kingdom; the rapid emergence and global spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), a previously unknown condition, in 2002 and 2003; and high-profile cases of contamination of spinach, pet food, milk products, and peanut butter. While the global food system largely provides safe and healthful food, food systems can also serve as vectors for diseases from natural processes and accidental contamination but also crime, terrorism or warfare. The chapter argues that while efforts to ensure food safety must address potential nefarious uses of biological agents, they must at the same time be mindful that concerns about potential impacts of threats like biological weapons do not detract from efforts to address the likelier accidental or natural threats that daily impact people. In addition to considering solutions such as increased regulation, centralization, and coordinated oversight of food systems, the chapter concludes by examining strategies such as sustainability and strategic decoupling from global food networks as potential solutions to enhancing food safety.

The book’s final chapter discusses the need to develop a global food system that meets the nutritional needs of human populations while fostering the long-term ecological health and security of the planet and its inhabitants. The chapter includes policy implications and directions for future research as well as observations on possible future directions for the global food system. It also reviews some of the greatest obstacles to an ethical, equitable, and sustainable global food system. While processes of global change may make the development of a sustainable global food system more difficult, the rise of global networks could also open new pathways to be used in designing a secure and sustainable global food system. The challenge of creating a sustainable food system is by no means simple, for it must be mindful of human needs, sensitive to current and future ecological conditions, and able to navigate the eddies of complex systems of national and global governance in a time of turbulence and global change. As the final chapter argues, while ensuring food security remains a considerable challenge, there are many reasons for optimism and many opportunities for individuals, states, and the international community to strengthen food security.

  1  

Food Security and the Global Food System

Ensuring that people have sufficient access to food has been, and remains, a core challenge to the security and stability of communities, states, and the international system. Recent events − including rising global food prices, natural disasters and severe weather events, international food safety episodes, and a global economic crisis − have focused attention on food as a subject of concern for security studies. The beginning of modern interest in food security is often located in World War II, which demonstrated that localized hunger and instability could escalate into problems of global significance. More recent experiences, including rioting and unrest in more than sixty countries over rising food prices, have reminded leaders and international organizations that even in an age of threats from global terrorist networks and asymmetrical warfare, there are few challenges that can cause the widespread and significant security impacts of a lack of basic necessities such as food. Global trends such as population growth, shifting consumption patterns, and climate change strongly suggest that the challenge of food security will remain a pressing concern for individuals, communities, states, and the international system in the future. At the same time that the global significance of ensuring food security has been reinforced by world events, understanding and addressing the challenge is also becoming more complex. Much of this emerging complexity with regards to food security is driven by larger changes in the global security landscape.