Foods and Their Adulteration E-Book

Wiley

• Herausgeber: Science & Technology Publishing
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1394

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025

Beschreibung

Foods and Their Adulteration: Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations by Harvey W. Wiley is a comprehensive and authoritative exploration of the food industry at the turn of the 20th century. This seminal work delves deeply into the origins, manufacturing processes, and chemical composition of a wide array of food products, providing readers with a thorough understanding of what they consume daily. Wiley meticulously examines the prevalence and methods of food adulteration, exposing the deceptive practices used to alter or contaminate foods for economic gain, often at the expense of public health. The book is organized into detailed chapters that cover staple foods such as milk, butter, cheese, cereals, bread, meats, beverages, spices, and more. Each section discusses the natural properties of these foods, the processes involved in their production, and the ways in which they are commonly adulterated. Wiley provides scientific analyses, case studies, and historical context, making the book both informative and engaging for readers interested in food science, public health, and consumer protection. A significant portion of the book is dedicated to the development and implementation of food standards, as well as the evolution of national food laws and regulations. Wiley, a pioneering figure in the fight for food safety, offers insights into the legislative efforts that led to the establishment of the Pure Food and Drug Act and other regulatory measures. He highlights the importance of government oversight and the role of scientific testing in ensuring the purity and safety of the food supply. Foods and Their Adulteration serves as both a historical document and a practical guide, reflecting the growing awareness of food safety issues in the early 1900s. It is an invaluable resource for historians, scientists, policy makers, and anyone interested in the origins of modern food safety standards. Through its detailed descriptions, scientific rigor, and passionate advocacy for consumer protection, the book remains a landmark in the field of food science and public health.

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FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION

WILEY

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

BEVERAGES AND THEIR ADULTERATION.

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS.

I.Spring, well, and other potable waters.II.Potable mineral waters.III.Contamination of waters and how to avoid them.IV.Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, Chocolate, etc.V.Soda Waters, Pops, Seltzers, etc.VI.Fermented Beverages—Growth of Raw Materials, Manufacture, and Storage: (a) Beers. (b) Wines. (c) Ciders, Perrys, Meads, etc.VII.Distilled Liquors: (a) Whiskey. (b) Brandy. (c) Rum. (d) Gin and other flavored compounds. (e) Imitation and compound liquors. (f) Blends. (g) Cordials, denatured alcohol, etc.VIII.So-called temperance drinks.IX.Beverages of a miscellaneous character.

Octavo. Illustrated. In Preparation.

P. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO., Publishers, Philadelphia.

FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION

ORIGIN, MANUFACTURE, AND COMPOSITION OF FOOD PRODUCTS; DESCRIPTION OF COMMON ADULTERATIONS, FOOD STANDARDS, AND NATIONAL FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS

By HARVEY W. WILEY, M.D., Ph.D.

WITH ELEVEN COLORED PLATES AND EIGHTY-SIX OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS

PHILADELPHIAP. BLAKISTON’S SON & CO.1012 Walnut Street 1907

Copyright, 1907, by P. Blakiston’s Son & Co.

WM. F. FELL COMPANY ELECTROTYPERS AND PRINTERS 1220-24 SANSOM STREET PHILADELPHIA, PA.

FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION

PREFACE.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

A PROPER RATION.

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FOOD.

DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF FOODS.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS.

EXPLANATION OF CHEMICAL TERMS.

Protein.

Ether Extract.

Ash.

Fiber.

Starch and Sugar.

Calories.

PART I. MEATS.

Animals Whose Flesh is Edible.

Classification of Meat Food as Respects Age.

Preparation of Animals.

Inspection after Slaughter.

Tuberculosis.

The Right of the Consumer.

Summary.

Slaughter and Preparation of Carcasses.

Names Applied to the Different Pieces of Edible Animals.

The Cuts of Beef.

The Cuts of Veal.

The Cuts of Lamb and Mutton.

The Cuts of Pork.

Delivery of Fresh Meat to Consumers.

Roast Beef.

Beefsteak.

Roast Lamb.

Lamb chops

Preservation of Fresh Meats.

Length of Storage.

Effect of Low Temperature on Enzymic Action.

Disposition of Fragments Arising From the Dressing of Beef.

DETECTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF MEAT.

Odor and Taste.

Detection of Meat by Microscopic Appearance.

Detection by Chemical Examination.

Dried Meat.

Pickled Meats.

COMPOSITION OF THE FLESH OF PIGS.

Preparation of Samples for Analyses.

General Conclusions.

PRESERVED MEATS.

Effect of Long Cold Storage.

Method of Preserving Meats.

Curing with Condimental Substances.

Preservation by Means of Non-condimental Chemical Preservatives.

Preservatives Used.

The Argument of Small Quantities.

Preparation of Meat for Canning.

Parboiling.

Tinning.

Sterilization.

SPECIAL STUDIES OF METHODS OF CANNING BEEF MADE IN BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.

Composition of Beef Used for Canning.

Effect of Parboiling.

Relation of Canned to Fresh Meat.

Canned Ham and Bacon.

Composition of Canned Ham and Bacon.

Adulteration of Canned Ham and Bacon.

Canned Tongue.

Adulteration of Canned Tongue.

Examination of Fat as a Test for Adulterations.

Potted Meats.

Potted Beef.

Adulteration of Potted Beef.

Potted Deviled Meats.

Composition of Pâtés.

Principal Adulterations of Mixed, Miscellaneous, Potted, Deviled, and Comminuted Meats.

Adulteration with Starch.

Preservatives.

Coloring Matter.

Indirect Coloring Matter.

Potted Tongue.

Canned Poultry.

Adulteration of Canned Fresh Meat.

Standard for Preserved Meats.

Frequency of Adulteration.

Canned Horse Meat.

Composition of Horse Meat.

Canned Cured Meats.

Canned Sausage.

Magnitude of the Meat Industry.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

LARD.

Parts of Fat Used for Lard Making.

Names of Different Kinds of Lard.

Uses of Lard.

Adulteration of Lard.

Detection of Adulterations.

Commercial Classification of Lards.

Disposition of the Intestines of the Hog.

Butchers’ Lard.

Inedible Hog Fat Products.

Lard Stearin.

Tanks Used for Producing Lard Under Pressure.

Physical Properties of Lard.—Specific Gravity.—

Chemical Properties.—Volatile Acids.

Properties of Lard.

Average Properties of Steam Lard.

Properties of Adulterated Lards.

Summary.

SOUPS.

Classification of Soups.

Preparation of Stock.

Oyster Soup.

Green Turtle Soup.

Mock Turtle Soup.

Clam Soup or Clam Chowder.

Beef Extract.

Beef Juice.

Soluble Meats.

Preparations of Blood.

Beef Tea.

Dried and Powdered Meats.

Composition of the Ash of Meat Juice and Meat Broth.

Adulteration of Meat Extract.

Active Principles Contained in Meat Extract.

Relation between the Price of an Extract and its Nutritive Value.

The Nitrogenous Bases.

Kinds of Preparations.

Gelatine.

Summary.

Terrestrial Animal Oils.

PART II. POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS.

Application of Name.

DOMESTICATED FOWLS.

Chicken.

Duck (Anas boschas).

Goose (Anser anser).

Domesticated Pigeon (Columba livia).

Turkey (Meleagris americana).

Composition of the Meat of Chicken, Turkey, Duck, and Goose.

Importance of Animal Food in the Growth of Poultry.

The Forced Fattening of Poultry.

Slaughtering Fowls for the Market.

Eggs.

PART III. FISH FOODS.

FISH.

Edible Portion of Fish.

Principal Constituents of the Flesh of Fish.

Alewives.

Anchovy.

Black Bass.

Bluefish.

Carp.

Catfish.

Codfish.

The Common Cod.

Salted and Dried Cod.

Eels.

Conger Eel.

Summer Flounder.

Graylings.

The Haddock.

The Hake.

Halibut.

Herring.

Horse Mackerel.

The Hogfish.

Lake Herring.

Mackerel.

Menhaden.

Mullet.

Muskallunge.

Pickerel or Pike.

Wall-eyed Pike.

Common Pompano.

Red Snapper.

Rock Bass; Redeye; Goggle-eye (Ambloplites rupestris).

Salmon.

Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha).

The Sockeye or Blueback Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka).

The Salmon of the Atlantic Coast.

Sardines.

European Sardines.

Scup.

Shad.

The Sheepshead.

The Smelt.

Spanish Mackerel.

Sturgeon.

Composition of the Eggs of Fish.

Composition of Roe.

Striped Bass.

Sole.

Tautog.

Tilefish.

Trout.

Turbot.

Weakfish.

Whitefish.

Fluorids in Fish.

Marketing of Fish.

Cold Storage.

Canning Fish.

Drying and Salting Fish.

Adulteration of Fish Products.

Value of Fish as Food.

SHELLFISH.

Clams.

The Lobster (Homarus americanus).

Crabs.

Crawfish.

Canned Lobster, Clams, and Crabs.

Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris).

Canned Shrimps.

Aquatic Reptiles.

The Mussel.

Oysters.

ANIMAL OILS.

PART IV. MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE.

MILK.

Limitation of Name.

Average Composition of Milk.

Preparation of Milk.

Certified Milk.

Pasteurized Milk.

Pasteurizing of Milk.

Directions for the Pasteurization of Milk.

Comparison of Cow’s Milk with Other Varieties.

Cream.

Standards of Cream.

Skimmed Milk.

Curd Test for Purity of Milk.

Whey.

Composition of Whey.

Koumiss.

Buttermilk.

Bonnyclabber.

BUTTER.

Treatment of Butter.

Salting Butter.

Coloring Butter.

Standard Butter.

Renovated Butter.

Adulterated Butter.

Influence of Food upon Butter.

Influence on Melting Point.

Transmission of Other Principles in the Food to the Butter.

OLEOMARGARINE.

Materials Used in the Manufacture of Oleomargarine.

Description of Process of Manufacture.

Adulteration of Oleomargarine.

Production of Oleomargarine.

CHEESE.

Historical.

Kinds of Cheese.

Cheese Made from Goat’s Milk.

Adulteration and Misbranding of Cheese.

Artificial Coloring.

Preservatives.

Impure Raw Materials.

Filled Cheese.

Cottage Cheese.

COMPARATIVE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN AND EDAM CHEESE.

Manufacture of American Cheeses.

Qualities of American Cheese.

Cream Cheese.

Manufacture of Foreign Types of Cheese in the United States.

Sage Cheese.

Principal Cheeses of England.

Varieties of Cheese Made in France.

Fancy Cheeses.

Bacterial Activity in Cheese.

Number of Bacteria.

Chemical Changes Which Take Place During the Ripening of the Cheese.—Loss of Weight.

Digestibility of Cheese.

Effect of Cold Storage on the Curing of Cheese.

Preparations of Casein.

PART V. CEREAL FOODS.

BARLEY (Genus Hordeum).

Acreage and Yield of Barley.

Composition of a Typical Unhulled Barley.

Protein of Barley.

BUCKWHEAT (Polygonum fagopyrum L.).

Buckwheat

Acreage and Yield of Buckwheat.

Composition of Buckwheat Flour.

Milling Process.

Buckwheat Cakes.

Adulterations.

Detection of Adulterations.

Buckwheat Starch.

INDIAN CORN (Zea mays).

Indian corn

Maize

Varieties.

POPCORN.

SWEET CORN.

Composition of Fresh Green Indian Corn:

Maize Proteins.

Variation in Maize, under Different Climatic Conditions.

Early Varieties.

Canned Corn.

Adulterations of Canned Corn.

Detection of Adulterations in Sweet Corn.—Test for Sulfurous Acid.

Detection of Saccharin.

Starch of Indian Corn.

Maize Flour (Corn Meal).

Method of Preparation.

Composition of Maize Flour.

The Adulteration of Indian Corn Meal.

Corn Bread (Indian Corn Bread).

Composition of Indian Corn Bread.

OATS (Genus Avena).

Ratio of Kernel to Hull.

Composition of Hulled Oats.

The Protein of Oat Kernels.

Oat Products.

Adulterations.

Detection of Adulterations.

RICE (Oryza sativa).

RYE.

Composition of Rye.

Protein of Rye.

Adulteration of Rye Flour.

Rye Bread.

WHEAT (Genus Triticum).

Gluten.

Starch in the Wheat Kernel.

Adulterations.

Standards.

Wheat Products.

Chief Varieties of Flour.

Special Names of Flour.

Graham Flour.

Entire Wheat Flour.

Gluten Flour.

Mixed Flour.

Properties Affecting the Commercial Value of Flour.

Average Composition of Different Varieties of Flour.

Separation of Gluten.

Gluten Tester.

Bleaching of Flour.

Adulterations of Flour.

Standard.

Age of Flour.

Substitutes for Flour.

BREAD.

Varieties of Bread.

Yeast.

Spontaneous Ferments.

Chemical Aerating Agents.

Constituents of Baking Powder.

Phosphate Powders.

Alum Powders.

Harmfulness of Baking Powder Residues.

Character of Alum Residues.

General Statement.

Composition of Bread.

Average Composition of Bread.

A Typical American High-grade Yeast Bread.

Standard for Moisture.

Quantity of Sugar in Bread.

Quantity of Ash.

Acidity of Bread.

Comparative Nutritive Properties of Indian Corn Bread and Wheat Bread.

Comparative Digestibility and Nutrition of Wheat and Indian Corn from Experiments Made in South Dakota Station, Bulletin 38.

Indian Corn Flour Pudding.

Composition of Biscuits.

Amount of Sugar Lost in Fermentation.

Texture and Size of Loaves Made from Different Kinds Of Flour.

MACARONI.

Domestic Macaroni.

Composition of Domestic Macaroni.

Preparation of Flour for Macaroni.

Manufacture of Macaroni.

ROLLS.

CAKES.

Adulterations.

Breakfast Foods.

Composition of Breakfast Foods.

Remarks on Table of Analyses.—

PART VI. VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS.

SUCCULENT VEGETABLES.

Artichoke.

Asparagus.

The Bean.

Beets.

Brussels Sprouts.

Cabbage.

Carrot.

Cauliflower.

Celery.

Chicory.

Cranberry.

Cress.

Cucumbers.

Egg Plant.

Garlic.

Gourds.

Horse-radish.

Jerusalem Artichoke.

Kale.

Leek.

Lettuce.

Melons.

Cantaloupe.

Watermelons.

Okra.

Onion.

Parsnips.

Peas.

Potatoes.

Radish.

Rhubarb.

Squash.

Sweet Potato.

Turnip.

Yam.

Canned Vegetables.

Principles and Process of Canning.

Selection of Materials.

Canned Beans.

Composition of Typical Samples of Canned Beans.

Canned Indian Corn.

Souring and Swelling of Canned Corn.

Canned Peas and Beans.

Canned Tomatoes.

Other Canned Vegetables.

Tomato Ketchup.

STARCHES USED AS FOODS.

Edible Starches.

CONDIMENTS.

Condiments other than Sugar, Salt, Vinegar, and Wood Smoke.

Vegetable Flavoring Extracts.

FRUITS.

Definition.

General Characteristics of Fruits.

Nutritive Uses.

Apples.

Cherries.

Grapes.

Peaches.

Plums.

Quince.

Small Fruits.

Blackberries (Rubus nigrobaccus var. Sativus Bailey).

Dewberry.

Gooseberry (Ribes oxyacanthoides L.).

Huckleberry (Gaylussacia resinosa Torr. and Gray).

Mulberry (Morus nigra).

Raspberry (Rubus strigosus Michx.).

Strawberry (Fragaria Chiloensis Ehrh.).

Composition of Small Fruits.—

Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. (Bulletin 87, Bureau of Chemistry.)

Anona.

The Avocado (Persea persea).

Bananas (Musa).

Cashew (Maranon) (Anacardium occidentale).

Citrus Fruits.

Figs (Ficus carica L.).

Grape Fruit (Pomelo) (Citrus decumana).

Guava (Psidium Guajava).

Hicaco (Chrysobalanus icaco).

Kumquat (Citrus japonica).

Lemons.

Lime.

Mamey Colorado.

Mamey de Santo Domingo (Mammea americana).

Mango (Magnifera indica L.).

Oranges (Citrus aurantium).

Pineapple.

Sapota (Sapodilla) (Sapota zapotilla (Jacq.) Coville).

Star-apple (Cainito) (Chrysophyllum cainito).

Tamarind (Tamarindus Indica).

Mineral Constituents of Tropical Fruits.

Sugar and Acid in Fruit.

Canned Fruits.

Canned Cherries.

Canned Peaches.

Adulteration of Canned Fruit.

Fruit Sirups.

Composition of Fruit Sirup.

Adulteration of Fruit Sirup.

Imitation Fruit Sirups.

Jams, Jellies, and Preserves.

Selection of the Fruit.

Jams.

Jellies.

Adulteration of Jelly.

Artificial Coloring.

Artificial Flavors.

Composition of Jelly.

Manufacture of Jellies.

Preservatives.

Marmalade.

Compound Jams and Jellies.

General Conclusions.

Preserves.

Peach Preserves.

Fruit Butter.

Brandied Fruit.

Importance of the Canning and Preserving Industries.

Importance of the Industry.

PART VII. VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS.

VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS.

Chemical Characteristics.

Crystalline Characteristics.

Distribution of Oils in Plants.

Drying and Non-drying Vegetable Oils.

Physical Characteristics.

Refractive Index.

Reichert-Meissl Number.

Saponification Value.

Specific Gravity.

Edible Vegetable Oils.

Use of Edible Oils.

Acorn Oil.

Almond Oil.

Cottonseed Oil.

Hazelnut Oil.

Olive Oil.

Peanut Oil.

Rape Oil (Colza Oil) (Brassica campestris L.).

Sesamé Oil.

Sunflower Oil.

Vegetable Fats.

Cacao Butter.

Coconut Oil or Butter.

Palm Oil or Fat.

NUTS.

The Acorn.

Almonds.

Beechnuts.

Brazil-nut (Bertholletia excelsa Humb. and Bonpl.).

Butternut (Juglans cinerea L.).

The Chestnut (Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Bork).

Chinese Nut (Nephelium litchi Cambess.).

Coconut.

Filberts.

Hazelnut.

Hickory-nut.

Peanuts.

Peanut Butter.

Peanut Butter and Peanolia.

Where Peanuts are Grown.

Pecan-nut (Hicoria pecan (Marsh.) Britton; Carya olivæformis Nuttall).

Pine-nuts.

Pistachio.

Walnuts (Juglans nigra L.).

White Walnut (Juglans regia L.).

General Discussion.

PART VIII. FUNGI AS FOODS.

Mushrooms.

Historical.

Production of Mushrooms.

Soil.

Spores.

Differing Varieties of Edible Mushrooms.

Conditions of Growth.

Preparation of Seed Bed.

Growth of Mushrooms in France.

Food Value of Mushrooms.

Distinction between Poisonous and Edible Varieties.

No Certain Rule to Distinguish the Poisonous from the Edible.

Popular Distinction between Toadstools and Mushrooms.

The Most Poisonous of Mushrooms.

Types of Edible Mushrooms.

The Horse Mushroom (Agaricus arvensis Schaeff.).

Shaggy Mushroom (Coprinus comatus Fr.).

Fairy Ring Mushroom (Marasmius oreades Fr.).

Puff-balls.

Cepe (Boletus edulis Bull.).

The Fly Amanita (Amanita muscaria (L.) Fr.).

Symptoms of Mushroom Poisoning.

Treatment for Poisoning.

Removal of the Poisonous Principle.

Canned Mushrooms.

Canned Pieces and Stems of Mushrooms.

Adulteration of Mushrooms.

Truffles.

Cultivation of Truffles.

Geographic Distribution.

Principal Varieties.

Harvesting of Truffles.

Harvesting by Means of Flies.

Harvesting with Hogs.

Harvesting with the Dog.

Properties of Truffles.

Adulteration of Truffles.

Preservation of the Truffle During Transit.

Food Value of Fungi.

PART IX. SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY.

SUGAR.

Origin of Sugar.

Beet Sugar.

Manufacture of Cane Sugar.

Manufacture of Maple Sugar.

Refining of Sugar.

Sugar Crops of the World.

Adulteration of Sugar.

Sugar as a Food.

SIRUP.

Maple Sirup.

Cane Sirup.

Sorghum Sirup.

Molasses.

Varieties of Molasses.—New Orleans Molasses.

Mixed Sirups.

General Observations.

CONFECTIONERY.

Material Used in the Preparation of Confectionery.

Method of Manufacture.

Crystallized Fruits and Flowers.

Food Value of Candy.

Adulteration of Confections.

HONEY.

Historical.

Preparation of Honey.

Artificial Hives.

Distribution of the Honey-producing Industry.

Comb Honey.

Extracted Honey.

Strained Honey.

Properties of Honey.

Polarization.

Water.

Ash.

Sucrose.

Dextrose and Levulose.

Adulteration of Honey.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Mince Meat.

Pressed Mince Meat.

Adulteration of Mince Meat.

Pie Fillers.

Adulteration of Pie Fillers.

PART X. INVALIDS’ AND INFANTS’ FOODS.

Composition of Modified Milk.

Formulæ.

Solid Infant’s Food.

Invalid Foods.

APPENDIX A. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY—Circular No. 19.

STANDARDS OF PURITY FOR FOOD PRODUCTS. Superseding Circulars Nos. 13 and 17. Supplemental Proclamation.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THE STANDARDS ARE BASED.

FOOD STANDARDS.

I. ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

III. SALT.

IV. PRESERVATIVES AND COLORING MATTERS.

LAW RELATING TO FILLED CHEESE.

APPENDIX B. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY—Circular No. 21.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE FOOD AND DRUGS ACT.

GENERAL.

ADULTERATION.

MISBRANDING.

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF FOODS AND DRUGS.

THE FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, JUNE 30, 1906.

APPENDIX C. [B. A. I. Order No. 137.] REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE MEAT INSPECTION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SCOPE OF INSPECTION.

Regulation 1.

APPLICATION FOR INSPECTION OR EXEMPTION.

Regulation 2.

EXEMPTION FROM INSPECTION.

OFFICIAL NUMBER.

Regulation 3.

DESIGNATION OF INSPECTORS.

Regulation 4.

OFFICE ROOM.

Regulation 5.

ALL CARCASSES AND PRODUCTS INSPECTED.

Regulation 6.

NOTICE OF DAILY OPERATIONS.

Regulation 7.

BADGES.

Regulation 8.

BRIBERY.

Regulation 9.

SANITATION.

Regulation 10.

Regulation 11.

INTERPRETATION AND DEFINITIONS OF WORDS AND TERMS.

Regulation 12.

Ante-mortem Examination and Inspection.

Post-mortem Inspection at Time of Slaughter.

DISPOSAL OF DISEASED CARCASSES AND ORGANS.

“RETAINING” AND “CONDEMNED” ROOMS.

TANKS AND TANKING.

LABELS, TAGS, AND BRANDS.

“U. S. SUSPECT” TAG.

ANTE-MORTEM CONDEMNED TAG.

LABELING BEEF FOR EXPORT.

LABELING BEEF FOR INTERSTATE COMMERCE.

LABELING CANNERS.

LABELING CARCASSES OF SHEEP, CALVES, SWINE, AND GOATS.

STAMP ON CLOTH WRAPPING.

“U. S. RETAINED” TAG

“U. S. CONDEMNED STAMP.”

MARKING OF PRIMAL PARTS.

BRANDING IRONS.

“SPECIAL” STAMP.

TRADE LABELS.

TAGGING REINSPECTED MEATS AND MEAT FOOD PRODUCTS.

REFERENCE TO UNITED STATES INSPECTION.

REINSPECTION.

REINSPECTION OF PASSED CARCASSES AND PARTS.

REINSPECTION OF INSPECTED MEATS RECEIVED AT OFFICIAL ESTABLISHMENTS.

MARKING PASSED CARCASSES OR PARTS.

DYES, CHEMICALS, AND PRESERVATIVES.

Regulation 39.

PREPARATION OF MEATS AND MEAT FOOD PRODUCTS.

Regulation 40.

Regulation 41.

STAMPS, STAMPING, AND CERTIFICATES.

STAMPS.

CERTIFICATES FOR EXPORTS.

COUNTERFEITING, ETC.

Regulation 46.

REPORTS.

Regulation 47.

APPEALS.

Regulation 48.

COÖPERATION WITH MUNICIPAL AUTHORITIES.

Regulation 49.

LAW UNDER WHICH THE FOREGOING REGULATIONS ARE MADE.

THE MEAT-INSPECTION AMENDMENT.

APPENDIX D.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 1-25.

INTRODUCTION.

(F. I. D. 1.) LAWS UNDER WHICH THE FOOD INSPECTION IS CONDUCTED.

(F. I. D. 2.) OPINIONS OF THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL RELATING TO THE SCOPE AND MEANING OF THE ACT OF JULY 1, 1902 (32 STAT., 632), REGULATING THE BRANDING OF DAIRY AND FOOD PRODUCTS FOR INTERSTATE COMMERCE.[46]

(F. I. D. 3.) NOTICE TO EXPORTERS OF WINES. A RECENT LAW PASSED BY THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

(F. I. D. 4.) SUGGESTIONS TO IMPORTERS OF FOOD PRODUCTS.[47]

Illustrations.

General Statement.

(F. I. D. 5.) PROPOSED REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE LABELING OF IMPORTED FOOD PRODUCTS.[48]

(a) ARTIFICIAL COLORING MATTER (ESPECIALLY SULFATE OF COPPER).

(b) GLUCOSE.

(c) FOODS PREPARED WITH OIL.

(F. I. D. 6.) STYLE OF LABEL REQUIRED FOR IMPORTED FOODS.

(F. I. D. 7.) NOTICE TO EXPORTERS OF DESICCATED FRUITS.

(F. I. D. 8.) NOTICE TO IMPORTERS OF LIQUID EGG PRODUCTS.

(F. I. D. 9.) NOTICE TO IMPORTERS OF DRIED EGG PRODUCTS.

(F. I. D. 10.) TREASURY DECISION ON REFUNDING DUTIES PAID ON CONDEMNED IMPORTATIONS OF FOOD PRODUCTS.

(F. I. D. 11.) SUSPENDING REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE LABELING OF IMPORTED SARDINES AND OTHER FOOD SUBSTANCES PACKED IN OIL.

(F. I. D. 12.) ABOLISHING THE RULE TO ADMIT IMPORTATIONS OF FOOD PRODUCTS IN THE CASE OF FIRST NOTIFICATION.

(F. I. D. 13.) PROVISIONAL STANDARDS FOR THE LIMIT OF SULFUROUS ACID IN IMPORTED WINES.

(F. I. D. 14.) ANALYSES OF EXPORTS MUST BE MADE BEFORE SHIPMENT, ON SAMPLES TAKEN FROM ACTUAL CARGO.

(F. I. D. 15.) PLACING PRESERVATIVES IN VINEGAR.

(F. I. D. 16.) FALSE LABELING OF VINEGAR.

(F. I. D. 17.) LABELS ATTACHED TO WRAPPERS INSTEAD OF PACKAGES; STATEMENTS RELATING TO WHOLESOMENESS OF ADDED SUBSTANCE. PASTER LABELS.

(F. I. D. 18.) STATEMENT OF QUANTITY OF ADDED SUBSTANCE IN FOOD PRODUCTS.

LETTER OF IMPORTER.

DECISION OF DEPARTMENT.

(F. I. D. 19.) FALSE BRANDING OF MUSHROOMS.

LETTER OF IMPORTER.

DECISION OF DEPARTMENT.

(F. I. D. 20.) STATEMENTS ON LABELS REGARDING HEALTH LAWS OF OTHER COUNTRIES.

(F. I. D. 21.) RELABELING IMPORTED FOOD PRODUCTS AFTER ARRIVAL IN THIS COUNTRY.

(F. I. D. 22.) ILLEGIBLE OR CONCEALED LEGENDS ON LABELS.

(F. I. D. 23.) LABELING OF PRESERVES SWEETENED WITH CANE OR BEET SUGAR AND GLUCOSE.

LETTER OF IMPORTER.

DECISION OF DEPARTMENT.

(F. I. D. 24.) ADULTERATION OF DOMESTIC FOOD PRODUCTS BY THE ADDITION OF PRESERVATIVES, COLORING MATTERS, AND OTHER INGREDIENTS NOT NATURAL TO FOODS, NOT REGULATED BY DEPARTMENT.

(F. I. D. 25.) FOOD PRODUCTS OFFERED FOR ENTRY AND AFTERWARD DECLARED TO BE FOR TECHNICAL PURPOSES.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 26. LABELING IMPORTED FOOD PRODUCTS.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 27-30.

(F. I. D. 27.) ADMISSION OF SARDINES BOILED IN PEANUT OIL AND PACKED IN OLIVE OIL.

(F. I. D. 28.) MAXIMUM QUANTITY OF SULFUROUS ACID IN WINES.

(F. I. D. 29.) COLORING MATTERS IN SYNTHETIC FOODS.

(F. I. D. 30.) THE USE OF PACKAGES MADE OF TIN PLATE, ON WHICH LABELS HAVE BEEN PRINTED FOR PRESERVED VEGETABLES, ETC., ORDERED AND DELIVERED TO MANUFACTURERS PRIOR TO SEPTEMBER 1, 1905.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 31. LABELS ON DETACHABLE WRAPPERS.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 32. FOODS ENTERED FOR THE PURPOSE OF SALE TO OUTGOING SHIPS.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 33-36.

(F. I. D. 33.) THE IMPORTATION OF A BEVERAGE UNDER A MISLEADING NAME.

(F. I. D. 34.) PRESERVATIVES IN SAUSAGES.

(F. I. D. 35.) MODIFYING IN CERTAIN CASES PROVISIONS IN F. I. D. 12 AND F. I. D. 26.

(F. I. D. 36.) SUBSTANCES, ORDINARILY FOOD PRODUCTS, INTENDED FOR TECHNICAL PURPOSES.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 37-38.

(F. I. D. 37.) LABELING OF CHOCOLATES.

(F. I. D. 38.) LABELING OF COCOAS.

(F. I. D. 39.) PRESERVATIVES AND ARTIFICIAL COLORS IN MACARONIS.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 40-43.

(F. I. D. 40.) FILING GUARANTY.

(F. I. D. 41.) APPROVAL OF LABELS.

(F. I. D. 42.) MIXING FLOURS.

(F. I. D. 43.) RELABELING OF GOODS ON HAND.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 44 AND 45.

(F. I. D. 44.) SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF FOOD-INSPECTION DECISIONS.

(F. I. D. 45.) BLENDED WHISKIES.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISION 46, AS AMENDED. Fictitious Firm Names.

(F. I. D. 47.) FLAVORING EXTRACTS.

(F. I. D. 48.) SUBSTANCES USED IN THE PREPARATION OF FOODS.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 49-53.

(F. I. D. 49.) TIME REQUIRED TO REACH DECISIONS ON DIFFERENT PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, JUNE 30, 1906.

(F. I. D. 50.) IMITATION COFFEE.

(F. I. D. 51.) COLORING OF BUTTER AND CHEESE.

(F. I. D. 52.) FORM OF LABEL.

(F. I. D. 53.) FORMULA ON THE LABEL OF DRUGS.

FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS 54-59.

(F. I. D. 54.) DECLARATION OF THE QUANTITY OR PROPORTION OF ALCOHOL PRESENT IN DRUG PRODUCTS.

(F. I. D. 55.) METHOD OF STATING QUANTITY OR PROPORTION OF PREPARATIONS (CONTAINING OPIUM, MORPHIN, ETC.) USED IN MANUFACTURING OTHER PREPARATIONS.

(F. I. D. 56.) NAMES TO BE EMPLOYED IN DECLARING THE AMOUNT OF THE INGREDIENTS AS REQUIRED BY THE LAW.

(F. I. D. 57.) PHYSICIANS’ PRESCRIPTIONS. The Status of Packages Compounded According to Physicians’ Prescriptions and Entering into Interstate Commerce.

(F. I. D. 58.) THE LABELING OF PRODUCTS USED AS FOODS AND DRUGS AS WELL AS FOR TECHNICAL AND OTHER PURPOSES.

(F. I. D. 59.) NATIONAL FORMULARY APPENDIX.

(F. I. D. 60.) MINOR BORDER IMPORTATIONS.

(F. I. D. 61.) COCOA BUTTER SUBSTITUTES.

(F. I. D. 62.) GUARANTY ON IMPORTED PRODUCTS.

(F. I. D. 63.) USE OF THE WORD “COMPOUND” IN NAMES OF DRUG PRODUCTS.

(F. I. D. 64.) LABELING OF SARDINES.

LIST OF FOOD INSPECTION DECISIONS.

INDEX.

Books Relating to the Analysis of Various Food and Chemical Products, the Detection of Poisons, and Bacteria.

Foods and Diet.

Sanitary Science.

Transcriber’s Notes

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PREFACE.

This manual is descriptive in character and aims to give, within its scope, as thoroughly and intelligibly as possible, an account of the various food-products in common use in their natural and manufactured conditions, with the usual adulterations which have been found therein.

It includes information regarding Methods of Preparation and Manufacture, Food Values, Standards of Purity, Regulations for Inspection, Simple Tests for Adulterations, Effects of Storage, and similar matters pertaining to the subject.

It has been designed to interest the consumer, as well as the manufacturer, the scientific, as well as the general reader, all of whom it is hoped will find in it something useful. The consumer is entitled to know the nature of the product offered, the manufacturer and dealer the best methods of preparation. It will give the physician and sanitarian knowledge of the value of foods, their proper use and inspection, and, while not analytical in purpose, will provide the chemist with information which will guide him in his work of detecting impurities.

It has been thought advisable to give in the appendices extracts from the national laws relating to the subject, as well as the rules and regulations for their enforcement and official standards of purity, as these are now of general interest to all classes. In revising the manuscript and in reading the proofs, especial recognition is made of the valuable aid of Dr. W. D. Bigelow, Chief of the Division of Foods of the Department of Agriculture; Dr. F. V. Coville, Botanist of the Department of Agriculture, and Dr. B. W. Evermann, of the Bureau of Fisheries. Acknowledgement is also made of the favors of the Bureaus of Plant Industry, Animal Industry, and Forestry. Many helpful suggestions from other sources can only be acknowledged in this general way. All opinions respecting adulterations, misbranding, nutritive value, and wholesomeness are the individual expressions of the author and are not to be considered in any other manner. Honest and truthful practices of manufacture and labeling are to be promoted in every possible manner. In the end the true, the ethical, and the just in these practices will prevail.

Harvey W. Wiley.

Washington, D. C., May 1, 1907.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction

1

-

10

Proper Ration,

3

; Social Function of Food,

5

; Definition and Composition of Foods,

6

; Classification of Foods,

7

; Explanation of Chemical Terms,

8

.

Part I.—Meats and Meat Products

11

-

94

Definition,

11

; Edible Animals,

11

; Classification of Meat Foods,

12

; Preparation of Animals,

12

; Inspection,

13

; Tuberculosis,

13

; Consumers’ Rights,

14

; Slaughter and Preparation of Carcasses,

14

; Names of Parts,

15

-

20

; Delivery of Fresh Meat,

21

; Storage,

23

; Disposition of Fragments,

23

; Detection of Different Kinds of Meat,

24

; Dried and Pickled Meat,

25

; Composition of Pig’s Flesh,

26

-

33

; Preserved Meats,

34

-

38

; Argument of Small Quantities,

38

-

40

; Preparation for Canning,

41

; Parboiling,

41

; Sterilization,

42

; Special Studies of Canning,

43

-

48

; Relation of Canned to Fresh Beef,

48

; Canned Ham and Bacon,

48

-

50

; Canned Tongue,

50

; Fat as a Test for Adulteration,

51

; Potted Meats,

51

-

56

; Canned Poultry,

56

; Canned Horse-meat,

57

; Canned Cured Meats,

59

-

60

; Magnitude of Industry,

61

; General Observations,

62

; Lard,

63

-

77

; Soups,

77

-

78

; Beef Extract,

79

-

80

; Beef Juice,

82

; Soluble Meats,

83

; Preparations of Blood,

83

; Beef-tea,

84

; Dried and Powdered Meats,

85

; Active Principles in Meat Extracts,

86

; Relation between Juice and Nutritive Value,

87

; Nitrogenous Bases,

88

-

90

; Gelatine,

90

-

92

; Terrestrial Animal Oils,

93

.

Part II.—Poultry and Eggs and Game Birds

95

-

116

Application of Name,

94

; Domesticated Fowls,

95

-

116

; Chicken,

95

-

104

; Duck,

104

; Goose,

105

; Pigeon,

107

; Turkey,

107

; Forced Fattening,

109

; Slaughtering and Preparing for Market,

111

; Poisonous Principles in Eggs,

116

; Parasites in Eggs,

116

.

Part III.—Fish Foods

117

-

166

Classification,

117

; Edible Portion,

119

; Principal Constituents,

119

; Alewives,

121

; Anchovy,

122

; Black Bass,

122

; Bluefish,

122

; Carp,

123

; Catfish,

123

; Codfish,

124

; Eels,

126

; Flounder,

127

; Graylings,

128

; Haddock,

128

; Hake,

128

; Halibut,

128

; Herring,

129

; Horse Mackerel,

130

; Hog-fish,

130

; Mackerel,

131

; Menhaden,

132

; Mullet,

132

; Muskallunge,

133

; Pickerel or Pike,

133

; Pompano,

134

; Red Snapper,

134

; Rock Bass,

135

; Salmon,

135

-

138

; Sardines,

139

-

140

; Scup,

141

; Shad,

141

-

142

; Sheepshead,

143

; Smelt,

144

; Spanish Mackerel,

144

; Sturgeon,

144

; Caviar,

145

; Striped Bass,

146

; Sole,

146

; Tautog,

147

; Tilefish,

147

; Trout,

147

-

148

; Turbot,

149

; Weakfish,

149

; Whitefish,

150

; Fluorids in Fish,

151

; Marketing,

151

; Cold Storage,

151

; Canning, Drying, and Adulteration,

152

; Value as Food,

153

; Shellfish,

153

; Clams,

153

; Lobster,

155

; Crabs,

155

; Crawfish,

156

; Shrimp,

157

; Aquatic Reptiles,

157

; Turtle,

157

; Terrapin,

158

; Mussel,

158

; Oysters,

158

-

164

; Animal Oils,

165

; Marine Animal Oils,

165

-

166

.

Part IV.—Milk and Milk Products and Oleomargarine

169

-

216

Milk, Limitation of Name,

169

; Composition,

169

; Method of Production,

169

-

174

; Cream,

175

; Curd Test for Purity,

176

-

178

; Whey and Koumiss,

179

; Buttermilk and Bonnyclabber,

181

; Butter,

182

-

187

; Oleomargarine,

187

-

189

; Cheese,

190

; Kinds,

191

; Adulteration and Misbranding,

192

; Coloring,

193

; Cottage Cheese,

195

; American Cheese Manufacture,

196

-

200

; Grading Cheese,

200

; Cream Cheese,

201

; Foreign Types,

201

-

202

; Sage Cheese,

203

; English Cheese,

203

-

205

; French Cheese,

206

-

208

; Limburger,

208

; Edam,

210

; Bacterial Activity,

211

; Chemical Changes in Ripening,

212

-

214

; Digestibility,

214

; Effect of Cold Storage,

215

; Preparations of Casein,

215

.

Part V.—Cereal Foods

217

-

273

Barley,

217

-

218

; Buckwheat,

219

-

221

; Indian Corn (Maize),

222

-

232

; Oats,

232

-

236

; Rice,

236

; Rye,

237

-

239

; Wheat,

239

-

242

; Wheat Flour,

243

-

245

; Gluten,

245

-

247

; Bleaching,

247

; Adulterations,

248

; Standard Age and Substitutes,

248

; Bread,

249

; Yeast,

250

; Ferments,

250

; Chemical Aerating Agents,

251

; Baking Powders,

251

-

254

; Composition of Bread,

254

-

255

; Comparative Nutritive Properties,

256

-

257

; Biscuit,

258

; Sugar Lost in Fermentation,

259

; Texture of Loaves,

259

; Macaroni,

260

-

264

; Cakes,

265

-

267

; Breakfast Foods,

267

-

271

.

Part VI.—Vegetables, Condiments, Fruits

273

-

388

Succulent Vegetables,

273

; Artichoke,

274

; Asparagus,

275

; Bean,

275

-

276

; Beets,

277

; Brussels Sprouts,

278

; Cabbage,

278

; Carrot,

279

; Cauliflower,

279

; Celery,

280

; Chicory,

280

; Cranberry,

281

; Cress,

281

; Cucumbers,

281

; Egg-plant, Garlic, and Gourds,

282

; Horseradish, Jerusalem Artichoke, and Kale,

282

; Leek, Lettuce, Melons, and Cantaloupe,

284

-

286

; Okra and Onion,

286

; Parsnip,

287

; Peas,

287

; Potatoes,

288

-

298

; Potato Starch,

296

-

299

; Rhubarb,

299

; Squash,

299

; Sweet Potato,

299

-

304

; Turnip,

304

; Yam,

304

; Canned Vegetables,

305

-

315

; Ketchup,

316

; Use of Refuse in Ketchup,

317

; Starches as Foods,

317

-

321

; Condiments,

321

-

326

; Fruits,

326

-

329

; Apples,

330

-

335

; Cherries,

336

; Grapes,

337

-

338

; Peaches,

339

-

341

; Plums,

341

; Quince,

342

; Small Fruits,

342

-

343

; Tropical and Subtropical Fruits,

343

-

348

; Citrus Fruits,

348

-

369

; Composition of Pineapple,

363

-

364

; Ash of Tropical Fruits,

367

; Sugar and Acid in Fruit,

369

; Canned Fruits,

370

-

372

; Fruit Sirups,

373

-

374

; Jams, Jellies, and Preserves,

375

-

381

; Manufacture of Jellies,

381

-

382

; Compound Jams and Jellies,

383

; Preserves,

384

; Fruit Butter,

385

; Brandied Fruit,

386

; Importance of Preserving Industry,

386

-

388

.

Part VII.—Vegetable Oils and Fats, and Nuts

389

-

428

Definition,

389

; Chemical Characteristics,

390

; Drying and Non-drying Oils,

391

; Physical Characters,

392

-

393

; Edible Vegetable Oils,

394

-

413

; Cottonseed Oil,

397

-

401

; Olive Oil,

402

-

405

; Peanut Oil,

406

; Rape Oil,

407

; Sesame Oil,

408

; Sunflower Oil,

409

; Cacao-butter,

410

; Coconut Oil,

411

; Palm Oil,

412

; Nuts,

413

-

428

; Acorn,

414

; Beechnuts, Brazil-nut,

415

; Butternut, Chestnut,

416

; Chinese Nut,

417

; Coconut, Filbert,

418

; Hazelnut, Hickory-nut,

419

; Peanuts,

420

-

424

; Pecan,

424

-

425

; Pistachio,

426

; Walnut,

426

-

428

.

Part VIII.—Fungi as Foods

429

-

454

Mushrooms, Production,

429

-

430

; Varieties,

430

; Food Value,

430

; Distinction between Edible and Poisonous,

433

-

439

; Types of Edible Mushrooms,

440

; Horse Mushroom,

441

; Shaggy Mushroom,

443

; Fairy Ring Mushroom,

443

; Puff-ball,

444

; Cepe,

445

; Fly Amanita,

446

; Poisoning by Mushrooms,

448

; Canned Mushrooms,

449

; Truffles,

450

-

453

; Food Value of Fungi,

454

.

Part IX.—Sugar, Sirup, Confectionery, and Honey

455

-

494

Sugar, Origin of Sugar,

455

; Beet Sugar,

456

-

465

; Cane Sugar,

466

; Maple Sugar,

467

-

468

; Sugar Refining,

468

-

470

; Sugar Production,

471

; Adulteration of Sugar,

471

; Sugar as Food,

472

; Sirup, Maple,

472

-

473

; Cane,

475

; Sorghum,

476

; Molasses,

477

-

478

; Mixed Sirups,

479

; Adulteration of Sirups,

480

; Confectionery,

482

; Materials,

482

; Manufacture,

483

; Crystallized Fruits and Flowers,

483

; Food Value of Candy,

483

; Adulteration of Confections,

483

-

486

; Honey, Definition, Historical,

486

; Preparation of Honey,

487

; Beehives,

488

; Distribution of Honey Industry,

489

; Comb Honey,

489

; Extracted Honey,

490

; Properties of Honey,

491

-

492

; Adulteration of Honey,

493

-

494

.

Miscellaneous

494

-

496

Mince Meat,

494

; Pie Fillers,

496

.

Part X.—Infants’ and Invalids’ Foods

497

-

500

Modified Milk,

497

; Solid Infants’ Food,

498

; Invalids’ Food,

498

-

499

; Composition Infants’ and Invalids’ Foods,

500

.

APPENDICES.

Appendix A

501

-

521

Food Standards,

501

-

517

; Law Relating to Filled Cheese,

517

-

521

.

Appendix B

522

-

537

Rules and Regulations for the Enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act,

522

-

533

. The Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906,

533

-

537

.

Appendix C

538

-

561

Regulations Governing the Meat Inspection of the United States Department of Agriculture,

538

-

556

; Meat Inspection Law,

556

-

561

.

Appendix D

562

-

615

Food Inspection Decisions under the Food and Drugs Act,

562

-

615

. Food Inspections Decisions under the Imported Foods Act F. I. D.’s 1-39,

562

-

584

. Food and Drugs Inspections and Decisions under the Food and Drugs Act F. I. D.’s 40-64,

584

-

615

.

Index

,

616

-

625

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Colored Plates.

Page.

1.

Beef Tenderloin,

Facing

15

2.

Beef Sirloin,

„

15

3.

Beef Ribs—Regular Cut,

„

15

4.

Beef Ribs—Spencer Cut,

„

15

5.

Sirloin Butts,

„

15

6.

Beef Rib,

„

15

7.

Beef Loin,

„

15

8.

Drying Figs: Smyrna, Smyrna Section, Adriatic, Adriatic Section,

„

349

9.

Olives: Mission, Sevillano,

„

402

10.

Jordan Almond,

„

414

11.

Peanut (Arachide),

„

420

Fig.

1.

Cuts of Beef,

16

2.

Commercial Cuts of Beef,

17

3.

Diagram of Cuts of Veal,

18

4.

Diagram of Cuts of Lamb and Mutton,

19

5.

Diagram of Cuts of Pork,

19

6.

Commercial Cuts of Pork,

20

7.

Graphic Chart Representing the Comparative Influences of Foods and Preservatives,

39

8.

Lard Crystals,

67

9.

Beef Fat Crystals,

67

10.

Kettle for Rendering Lard,

72

11.

Apparatus for Test of Adulteration of Lard,

74

12.

Chicken House, Rhode Island Experiment Station,

96

13.

Cow Stables, Mapletown Farm, Sumner, Washington,

170

14.

Apparatus for Cooling Milk,

172

15.

Improvised Wisconsin Curd Test,

177

16.

Milk; Broken Curd in Whey; Matted Curd,

177

17.

Curd from a Good Milk,

178

18.

Curd from a Tainted Milk,

178

19.

Curd from Foul Milk,

178

20.

Power Churn, Ready for Use,

183

21.

Power Churn, Open,

184

22.

Barley Starch,

218

23.

Buckwheat Starch,

222

24.

Section of Raw Popcorn,

224

25.

Section of Popcorn in First Stage of Popping, Showing Partially Expanded Starch Grains and Ruptured Cell Walls,

225

26.

Section of Fully Popped Popcorn,

226

27.

Indian Corn Starch,

229

28.

Starch Grains of Indian Corn, under Polarized Light,

230

29.

Oat Starch,

235

30.

Rice Starch,

237

31.

Rye Starch,

238

32.

Wheat Starch,

242

33.

Wheat Starch under Polarized Light,

243

34.

Kedzie’s Farinometer Showing the Parts,

246

35.

Kedzie’s Farinometer in Use,

247

36.

Comparative Appearance of Breads of Different Kinds,

259

37.

A Field of Durum Wheat,

261

38.

Drought-resistant Macaroni Wheats (Heads and Grains),

262

39.

Potato Starch,

291

40.

Potato Starch under Polarized Light,

291

41.

Rasping Cylinder for Making Starch,

297

42.

Shaking Table for Separating the Starch from the Pulped Potato,

297

43.

The Potato Rasping Cylinder Arranged for Work,

298

44.

View of Indian Corn Canning Factory, Showing Accumulation of Husks and Cobs,

308

45.

Maranta (Arrowroot) Starch,

318

46.

A Cassava Field in Georgia,

319

47.

Cassava Starch,

321

48.

Scuppernong Grape Vine, Roanoke Island,

338

49.

Vineyard Near Fresno, California,

339

50.

Avocado Tree,

346

51.

Fig Tree Thirty Feet High Near Yuba, California,

350

52.

Jamaica Mango Tree,

356

53.

An Edge of a California Orange Grove,

358

54.

The Original Seedless Orange Tree,

359

55.

A Group of the Washington Navel Orange on the Tree,

360

56.

Covered Pineapple,

361

57.

Removing the Oil Cakes from a Cottonseed Press,

400

58.

Pecan Tree, 30 Years Old, Morgan City, La.,

422

59.

Five Forms of Choice, Thin-shelled Pecans. Also Wild Nut Showing Difference in Size,

423

60.

Full Grown Pecan Tree,

425

61.

Common Mushroom,

Agaricus campestris

,

440

62.

Edible Mushrooms (

Agaricus arvensis

Schaeff.),

441

63.

Shaggy Mushroom,

Coprinus comatus

,

442

64.

Fairy Ring Formed by

Marasmius oreades

, an Edible Mushroom,

444

65.

Puff-ball,

Lycoperdon cyathiforme

, Top View,

445

66.

Amanita (Full Grown),

446

67.

Fly Amanita Buttons (

Amanita muscaria

),

447

68.

Correct Position of a Mature Beet in the Soil,

458

69.

Map Showing Temperature Zone in Which the Sugar Beet Attains Its Greatest Perfection,

459

70.

A Field of Beets Ready for Harvesting,

460

71.

Beets Ready for Transportation to Factory,

461

72.

Diffusion Battery,

462

73.

Multiple-effect Evaporating Apparatus,

463

74.

Vacuum Strike Pan,

464

75.

Sugar Cane Field Ready for Harvest,

465

76.

Cane Field Partly Harvested,

466

77.

Tapping the Maple Trees,

468

78.

Transporting the Sap to the Sugar House,

468

70.

Boiling the Maple Sap,

469

80.

Small Primitive Mill for Extracting Juice from Sugar Cane for Sirup Making,

473

81.

Mill and Evaporating Apparatus for Sirup Making in Georgia,

474

82.

Relative Length of Canes Used for Sirup Making,

475

83.

Swarm of Bees on Bough of Tree,

487

84.

Artificial Bee Hives under Shade of Grape Vine,

488

85.

A Frame Containing 24 Boxes of Honey,

489

86.

Showing Box of Honey Partially Capped,

490

INTRODUCTION.

The growing importance to manufacturers, dealers, and consumers of a knowledge of food products has led to the preparation of the following manual.

Unfortunately, many misleading statements respecting the composition of foods, their nutritive value, and their relation to health and digestion have been published and received with more or less credence by the public. Claims of superior excellence, which are entirely baseless, are constantly made for certain food products in order to call the attention of the public more directly to their value and, unfortunately, at times to mislead the public with respect to their true worth.

It is not uncommon to see foods advertised as of exceptional quality, either as a whole or for certain purposes. Many of the preparations of this kind are of undoubted excellence, but fail to reach the superior standard or perform the particular function which is attributed to them. Particularly has it been noticed that foods are offered for specific purposes or the nourishment of certain parts of the body, especially of the brain and nerves. We are all familiar with the advertisements of foods to feed the brain, or feed the nerves, or feed the skin. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the absurdity of claims of this kind. One part of the body cannot be nourished if the other parts are neglected, and the true principle of nutrition requires a uniform and equal development and nourishment of all the tissues. It is true that many of the tissues have predominant constituents. For instance in the bones are found large quantities of phosphate of calcium and in the muscles nitrogenous tissues dominate. In the brain and nerves there are considerable quantities of organic phosphorus. All of these bodies, however, are contained in normal food properly balanced.

It would be contrary to the principles of physiology to attempt to feed the bones by consuming a large excess of phosphorus in the food or the muscles by confining the food to a purely nitrogenous component. Such attempts, instead of nourishing the tissues indicated, will so unbalance the rations as to disarrange the whole metabolic process, and thus injure and weaken the very tissues they are designed to support.

It seems, therefore, advisable to prepare a manual which may be used in conjunction with works on dietetics and on physiology and hygiene and yet of a character not especially designed for the expert.

The American public is now so well educated that any average citizen is fully capable of understanding scientific problems if presented to him in a non-technical garb.

It is, therefore, not difficult to see that the great army of manufacturers and dealers in food products, as well as the still greater army of consumers, are able to receive and to utilize information concerning food products which is of common interest to all. A dissemination of knowledge of this kind will guide the manufacturer in his legitimate business and protect the public against deceptions such as those mentioned above.

In the evolution of society, economy and efficiency indicate that specializations should be made as completely as possible. For this reason it is advisable that foods of a certain character be manufactured and prepared for consumption on a large scale, so that due economy and purity may be secured. On the other hand there are many other kinds of foods which, by reason of their properties, cannot be prepared on a large scale but must be produced near or at the place of consumption. Milk is a type of this class of foods. It is altogether probable, therefore, that the consumption of manufactured foods will not decrease but increase even more rapidly than the number of our population.

In order that the people may be able to judge of the quality and character of products of this kind, information readily available appears to be highly desirable.

In the other case of the utilization of raw materials, it is equally important that the people of this country understand their nature and their functions in the digestive process. The great nutritive value of our food is found in the cereals, the meats, the fruits, and vegetables which we consume. A description of foods of this class, the places of their growth, the conditions under which they are matured and marketed, the problems which relate to their storage and transportation, their composition in respect of nutrition and digestibility, the dangers which may accrue from their decay, and the adulterations or sophistications to which they may be subjected are matters of the greatest public importance.

A treatise of this kind in order to be of its full value for which it is intended must be concise, expressed in simple language, in a form easily consulted, and yet be of a character which will be reliable and which will give full information on the subject.

It is a common habit of speech to divide foods into two great classes, namely, foods and beverages. This is not a scientific division, but is one which has been so well established by custom as to render it advisable to divide this work into two portions, one devoted to food in the sense just used and the other to beverages. The first volume of this work devoted to foods will treat of those bodies commonly known under the term “foods,”—namely, cereals, meats of all kinds, milk, vegetables, nuts, and fruits. The second volume will embrace the study of beverages, namely, natural and artificial mineral waters, soda waters, soft drinks, coffee, tea, cocoa, wines, cider, beer and other fermented beverages, distilled beverages of all kinds, and mixtures or compounds thereof.

In connection with the description of the origin of foods and their general characteristics will be given a statement of their chemical composition, especially in relation to nutritive properties. The principal adulterations or sophistications to which the food products are obnoxious will be briefly described, and where simple methods of detecting adulterations are known, of a character to be applied without special chemical knowledge or skill, they will be given.

An attempt is thus made to lay before those interested, in as compact a form as possible, the chief points connected with the production of food, its manipulation, and its use for the nourishment of the body.

It is not the intention of this manual to enter at all into the subject of cooking or the physiology of foods and nutrition. That is a distinct and separate part of this problem and has already been treated in many manuals. In this connection, however, attention may be called to the great importance of proper cooking in the use of food. Raw materials of the best character, prepared and transported in the most approved manner, may be so injured in the kitchen in the process of cooking as to be rendered both unpalatable and difficult of digestion. On the contrary, food materials of an inferior quality, provided they contain no injurious substances, may be so treated by the skilled cook as to be both palatable and nutritious. The desirability of the dissemination of correct principles of cooking is no less than that of giving information respecting the materials on which the art of cookery is exercised. It may be added that the art of cookery at the present time should not be confined to the mere technical manipulation, the application of heat and of condimental substances, but should also have some reference to the actual process of nutrition.

Foods should be prepared in the kitchen, not only of a palatable character and properly spiced but also selected in such a manner as to safeguard one of the chief purposes of food, namely, the proper nutrition of the body and the avoidance of any injury to digestion.

It is commonly admitted that many, perhaps most, of the diseases of the digestive tract to which the American people are so subject arise from the consumption of rations improperly balanced, poorly prepared, or used in great excess. To the intelligent and scientific cook the information contained in this manual will especially appeal.

A PROPER RATION.

The study of the science of nutrition has revealed the character of nourishment necessary to build the tissues and restore their waste. The term “food” in its broadest signification includes all those substances which when taken into the body build tissues, restore waste, furnish heat and energy, and provide appropriate condiments. The building of tissues is especially an important function during the early life of animals as it is through this building of tissues that growth takes place. The restoration of waste of tissues assumes special importance during that period of life when the weight of the body is supposed to be reasonably constant. At this time the waste of tissue in the natural processes is restored by the assimilation of new material in the same proportion.

If the assimilation of new material goes on at a greater rate than the waste of old material it manifests itself during the period of expected equilibrium in the deposition of adipose tissue and a consequent abnormal increase in weight.

In the after period of life the process of waste is naturally more vigorous than that of assimilation, and the tendency is manifested, which is wholly in harmony with the laws of Nature, to gradually diminish the weight of the body, and this continues to the extreme emaciation of old age.

It is evident, therefore, that the food consumed should be adapted to these changing periods. The growing animal needs a larger quantity of food in proportion to its actual weight than the animal which is in a state of equilibrium, that is, of mature age, and the animal which is entering upon the period of old age needs a less quantity of food in proportion to its weight than in either of the other periods of life. Thus, the rations of infants and children should be generous, the rations of mature man sufficient, and the rations of old age limited.

The food should also contain the various elements which enter into nutrition in the proper quantity. The nitrogenous constituents in food, when subjected to the ordinary process of digestion, yield a certain quantity of heat and energy but their more important function is to nourish the nitrogenous elements of the body, of which the muscles, hair, skin, and finger-nails are types. The mineral constituents of food, especially phosphorus and lime, have a general utility in promoting the metabolic functions, especially in the movement of the fluids of the body through the cell walls, and at the same time are actual nourishing materials, entering particularly into the composition of the bones and teeth.