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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
This book covers the area of tribology broadly, providing important introductory chapters to fundamentals, processing, and applications of tribology. The book is designed primarily for easy and cohesive understanding for students and practicing scientists pursuing the area of tribology with focus on materials. This book helps students and practicing scientists alike understand that a comprehensive knowledge about the friction and wear properties of advanced materials is essential to further design and development of new materials. The description of the wear micromechanisms of various materials will provide a strong background to the readers as how to design and develop new tribological materials. This book also places importance on the development of new ceramic composites in the context of tribological applications. Some of the key features of the book include: Fundamentals section highlights the salient issues of ceramic processing and mechanical properties of important oxide and non-oxide ceramic systems; State of the art research findings on important ceramic composites are included and an understanding on the behavior of silicon carbide (SiC) based ceramic composites in dry sliding wear conditions is presented as a case study; Erosion wear behavior of ceramics, in which case studies on high temperature erosion behavior of SiC based composites and zirconium diboride (ZrB2) based composites is also covered; Wear behavior of ceramic coatings is rarely discussed in any tribology related books therefore a case study explaining the abrasion wear behavior of WC-Co coating is provided. Finally an appendix chapter is included in which a collection of several types of questions including multiple choice, short answer and long answer are provided.
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Table of Contents
Cover
About the Authors
Foreword by Dr. Sanak Mishra
Foreword by Prof. Koji Kato
Preface:
The Most Influential Science that Needs to Be Better Understood
The Paradox: How to Solve It
The Transition: Classroom to Industry
The Approach: Decoding the Chapters
To Conclude: A Word of Thanks
Section I: Fundamentals of Ceramics: Processing and Properties
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Engineering Materials
1.3 Engineering Ceramics
1.4 Structural Ceramics: Typical Properties and Tribological Applications
1.5 Structure of the Book
1.6 Closure
References
2 Processing of Bulk Ceramics and Coatings
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conventional Processing of Ceramics
2.3 Thermal Spray‐Based Coating Deposition
2.4 Closure
References
3 Conventional and Advanced Machining Processes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Conventional Machining
3.3 Advanced Machining Processes
3.4 Closure
References
4 Mechanical Properties of Ceramics
4.1 Defining Stress and Strain
4.2 Comparison of Tensile Behavior
4.3 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics
4.4 Cracking in Brittle Materials
4.5 Experimental Assessment of Mechanical Properties
4.6 Closure
References
Section II: Fundamentals of Tribology
5 Contact Surface Characteristics
5.1 Nature and Roughness of Contact Surfaces
5.2 Surface Roughness Measurement
5.3 Bearing Area Curve and Cumulative Distribution Function
5.4 Nominal Versus Real Contact Area
5.5 Hertzian Contact Stress
5.6 Closure
References
6 Friction and Interface Temperature
6.1 Theory of Friction
6.2 Types of Friction
6.3 Friction of Engineering Material Classes
6.4 Frictional Heating and Temperature at the Interface
6.5 Analytical Models Used to Predict the Temperatures in the Contact
6.6 Implications of the Important Contact Temperature Models
6.7 Closure
References
7 Wear of Ceramics and Lubrication
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Testing Methods and Quantification of Wear of Materials
7.3 Classification of Wear Mechanisms
7.4 Lubrication
7.5 Closure
References
Section III: Case Study: Sliding Wear of Ceramics
8 Sliding Wear of SiC Ceramics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Materials and Experiments
8.3 Friction and Wear Behavior of SiC Ceramics Sintered with a Small Amount of Yttria Additive
8.4 Influence of Mechanical Properties on Sliding Wear of SiC Ceramics
8.5 Wear Mechanisms
8.6 Closure
References
9 Sliding Wear of SiC‐WC Composites
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of SiC‐WC Composites
9.3 Influence of Mating Material and WC Content on Tribological Properties
9.4 Reciprocated Sliding Wear Behavior of SiC‐WC Composites
9.5 Closure
References
10 Sliding Wear of Zirconia‐Toughened Alumina
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Mechanical Properties of ZTA
10.3 Sliding Wear Properties of ZTA
10.4 Correlation with Theoretical Analysis
10.5 Closure
References
11 Abrasive Wear of Detonation Sprayed WC‐12Co Coatings
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Coatings and Abrasive Wear
11.3 Abrasive Wear Results
11.4 Surface and Subsurface Damage Mechanisms
11.5 Closure
References
12 Solid–Lubricant Interaction and Friction at Lubricated Contacts
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Materials and Sliding Wear Experiments
12.3 Wetting and Spreading Properties
12.4 Surface Energies of Different Classes of Materials
12.5 Wetting Evaluation of Engineering Surfaces
12.6 Effect of Wetting on EHL Friction
12.7 Correlation Between Spreading Parameter and Friction
12.8 Closure
References
Section IV: Case Study: Erosive Wear of Ceramics
13 Erosive Wear of SiC‐WC Composites
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Materials and Erosion Tests
13.3 Influence of Type of Erodent on Erosive Wear Behavior
13.4 Influence of Impingement Angle and WC Content on Erosive Wear Behavior
13.5 Correlating Erosive Wear Behavior with Microstructural Characteristics
13.6 Correlating Erosive Wear Behavior with Mechanical Properties
13.7 Erosive Wear Behavior at High Temperature
13.8 Closure
References
14 Thermo‐Erosive Behavior of ZrB
2
‐SiC Composites
14.1 Introduction
14.2 High‐Temperature Erosion Tests and Computational Modeling
14.3 Computational Modeling of Thermo‐Erosive Behavior
14.4 High‐Temperature Erosion Test Results
14.5 Transient Thermal Studies Using FE Analysis
14.6 Coupled Thermo‐Structural Analysis
14.7 Thermo‐Erosive Behavior
14.8 Closure
References
15 Erosive Wear of WC‐Co Coating
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and Erosion Experiments
15.3 Erosive Wear Mechanisms (Surface Damage)
15.4 Erosive Wear Mechanisms (Subsurface Damage)
15.5 Correlating Wear Mechanism with Erodent and Coating Properties
15.6 Closure
References
Section V: Case Study: Machining‐Induced Wear of Cermets
16 Crater Wear of TiCN Cermets in Conventional Machining
16.1 Introduction
16.2 TiCN Cermets and Machining Conditions
16.3 Wear Mechanisms of TiCN‐WC‐Ni Cermets
16.4 Machining with TiCN‐WC‐TaC‐Ni‐Co Cermet Tools
16.5 Correlating Cermet Composition, Microstructure, and Wear During Machining
16.6 Closure
References
17 Wear of TiCN‐Based Cermets in Electrodischarge Machining
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Materials and EDM Tests
17.3 Wear of TiCN‐Cermets During EDM
17.4 Mechanisms of Material Removal During EDM
17.5 Closure
References
Section VI: Future Scope
18 Perspective
18.1 Innovation Cycle for Wear‐Resistant Materials
18.2
In Situ
Diagnosis of Tribological Interaction
18.3 High‐Temperature Wear Testing
18.4 Modeling and Simulation in Tribology
18.5 Tribomaterialomics – A New Concept
18.6 Education and Mentoring of Next‐Generation Researchers
References
Appendix: Appraisal
A.I Multiple Choice Questions
A.II Select the Appropriate Combination
A.III Fill in the Blanks with the Most Appropriate Response
A.IV Mention the Appropriate Material/Equipment in the Blank
A.V Identify Whether the Following Statements are True/False
A.VI Short Review Questions and Descriptive Questions
A.VII Analytical Questions
A.VIII Model Answers
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of some important meta...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Typical values for the COF of non‐lubricated metals and alloys eith...
Table 6.2 Typical values for the COF of non‐lubricated ceramics in a self‐mat...
Table 6.3 Typical values of the COF for polymers and solid lubricants on a ha...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 SiC grain size, WC interparticle distance, hardness, and fracture t...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 The composition, sample designations, and grain size of ZTA compos...
Table 10.2 Comparison of mechanical properties of ZTA composites in the prese...
Table 10.3 Summary of Hertzian contact parameters, maximum tensile stress at ...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Properties of various materials investigated in the present study ...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Summary of parameters used in erosion experiments [1].
Table 14.2 Summary of erosion results obtained for the investigated composite...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Erosion test parameters [17].
Table 15.2 Erosion efficiency of investigated materials [17].
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Machining (turning) parameters and generation of cutting force [21...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Schematic illustration of basic concept in tribology.
Figure 1.2 The conceptual illustration of contribution from disciplines of b...
Figure 1.3 Important relevance of structural ceramics properties for tribolo...
Figure 1.4 Typical SEM images of SiC ceramics (a, b) unworn and (c, d) after...
Figure 1.5 Few representative ceramic components requiring good tribological...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Schematic demonstration of the sintering of a porous powder compa...
Figure 2.2 (a) Experimental setup of a planetary ball‐mill and (b) schematic...
Figure 2.3 Conventional method of compaction. (a) Filling die cavity with po...
Figure 2.4 (a) Industrial hot‐pressing setup and (b) schematic showing the h...
Figure 2.5 Schematic of microwave sintering setup.
Figure 2.6 Spark plasma sintering (SPS): (a) schematic showing the DC curren...
Figure 2.7 Generic description of the thermal spray process (a) and the mech...
Figure 2.8 Schematic presentation of the combination of process temperature ...
Figure 2.9 Schematic representation of the plasma spray torch.
Figure 2.10 Schematic of the flame spray process.
Figure 2.11 Schematic of the wire arc spraying process.
Figure 2.12 Schematic representation of high‐velocity oxy‐fuel spray deposit...
Figure 2.13 Schematic representation of the detonation spray process.
Figure 2.14 Schematic microstructure of a thermal spray coating [23].
Figure 2.15 Direct tensile pull‐off adherence test as per ASTM C633‐79.
Figure 2.16 (a) Elastic modulus of bulk and thermally sprayed WC‐Co coatings...
Figure 2.17 Cross‐sectional SEM image of detonation sprayed WC‐Co coating. A...
Figure 2.18 Chemical and metallurgical processes occurring during thermal sp...
Figure 2.19 Schematic representation of the sequence of events leading to de...
Figure 2.20 Schematic of the coating microstructure perpendicular to the sub...
Figure 2.21 Schematic illustration of the processes involved in melting. WC ...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Conventional machining process for metals: (a) turning and (b) dr...
Figure 3.2 Conventional machining: (a) process description and (b) chip form...
Figure 3.3 Length of cut results from uncoated TiN and c‐Zr
3
N
4
‐coated three ...
Figure 3.4 Schematic illustration of the EDM processes: (a) die sinking [14]...
Figure 3.5 Sequential phases occurring during one pulse of EDM cycle [29]....
Figure 3.6 (a) Topography and (b) cross‐section of Si
3
N
4
‐TiN by die‐sinking ...
Figure 3.7 (a) Topography and (b) cross‐section of Al
2
O
3
‐SiC
w
‐TiC by die‐sin...
Figure 3.8 Schematic illustration of the laser beam machining process.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Conceptual definition of stress at a plane in a solid under equil...
Figure 4.2 Different types of stress: (a) tensile, (b) compressive, and (c) ...
Figure 4.3 Stress acting on an elemental unit cube.
Figure 4.4 Defining strain due to the displacement of a point
P
to
P
′ in a s...
Figure 4.5 Schematic illustration comparing the stress–strain response of th...
Figure 4.6 Atomistic description of fracture of a solid: (a) undeformed stat...
Figure 4.7 Schematic illustration of the crack propagation from pre‐existing...
Figure 4.8 Schematic illustration showing the stress concentration at the cr...
Figure 4.9 Schematic showing the development of radial‐median (marked as “R”...
Figure 4.10 Summary of various toughening mechanisms in ceramic‐based materi...
Figure 4.11 Schematic illustration of tensile stress–strain response of cera...
Figure 4.12 Schematic showing the (a) Vickers indentation and (b) measuremen...
Figure 4.13 (a) Typical test setup showing the compressive strength measurem...
Figure 4.14 Schematic illustration of the experimental measurement of flexur...
Figure 4.15 Schematic of tensile strength measurements of ceramics under dia...
Figure 4.16 Nodal and antinodal locations in bar/rod for out‐of‐plane flexur...
Figure 4.17 Nodal and antinodal locations in discs, while measuring elastic ...
Figure 4.18 Impact and sensing locations for various specimen configurations...
Figure 4.19 Typical geometry and loading configuration involved in SEVNB tes...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic illustration of topography of nominal engineering surfa...
Figure 5.2 Two surfaces with identical
R
a
values can have very different sur...
Figure 5.3 A schematic representation of a stylus profilometer.
Figure 5.4 Basic working of an AFM showing how cantilever deflection due to ...
Figure 5.5 Representative bearing area of Ti
3
SiC
2
surface before and after f...
Figure 5.6 Bearing area curve and cumulative distribution function.
Figure 5.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the contact of a single asperity wi...
Figure 5.8 Variation of subsurface (a) normal and (b) shear stress field of ...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic of (a) a body sliding on a surface (free‐body diagram) ...
Figure 6.2 Tangential force as a function of time or displacement;
F
static
i...
Figure 6.3 COF as a function of sliding distance with a (a) typical S‐shaped...
Figure 6.4 Friction torque and the amount of wear in a hip‐joint simulator w...
Figure 6.5 (a) Average COF as a function of sliding velocity for a rubber an...
Figure 6.6 Schematic of the lubrication mechanism model for (a) flaky and (b...
Figure 6.7 Scheme of a typical AFM experiment to study friction on the nanos...
Figure 6.8 Temperature dependence of the plowing frictional force [17].
Figure 6.9 MD simulation of a hard tip plowing through solid NaCl (100) surr...
Figure 6.10 Temperature dependence of the adhesion friction of a grazing tip...
Figure 6.11 Schematic of phase‐transformed material formation at the asperit...
Figure 6.12 Schematic of multi‐asperity contacts at the tribological interfa...
Figure 6.13 Schematic of a sphere making relative movement on a nominally fl...
Figure 6.14 Schematic illustration of the pressure dependence of the contact...
Figure 6.15 Schematic of frictional heat generation in a pin‐on‐disk configu...
Figure 6.16 Schematic of a moving band heat source (length “2
l
”) on a semi‐i...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Schematic illustration of sliding wear test geometries: (a) pin‐o...
Figure 7.2 Schematic illustration of testing methods for erosive wear: (a) j...
Figure 7.3 Some major types of wear mechanisms of ceramics.
Figure 7.4 Schematic diagram showing the rupture of adhesive bonds via paths...
Figure 7.5 Schematic representation of microscopic mechanisms of abrasive we...
Figure 7.6 (a) Schematic representation of blunt Hertzian cone cracks by blu...
Figure 7.7 Schematic representation of the release of debris particles durin...
Figure 7.8 (a) Elastic contact and (b) elastic–plastic contact conditions in...
Figure 7.9 Schematic of solid particle erosion.
Figure 7.10 Free‐body diagram representing dominant forces on erosion partic...
Figure 7.11 Erosion loss of aluminum and aluminum oxide when impinged by sil...
Figure 7.12 Schematic representation for the mechanism of the tribolayer for...
Figure 7.13 Schematic illustration of material removal mechanisms in the ero...
Figure 7.14 A schematic representation of contacts with different lubricatio...
Figure 7.15 The lubrication film parameter (
h/σ
) and the coefficient of...
Figure 7.16 Typical conformal contacts where the hydrodynamic regime is poss...
Figure 7.17 Comparative analysis of (a) the coefficient of friction and (b) ...
Figure 7.18 Friction characteristics between two DDunAB coated surfaces in a...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Representative SEM images of SiC ceramics sintered with (a) 0.2 w...
Figure 8.2 The coefficient of friction (COF) vs. time plots for (a) SiC cera...
Figure 8.3 Wear rate of the investigated SiC ceramics as a function of addit...
Figure 8.4 Linear relation between experimentally determined wear volume and...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Representative fracture surfaces of SiC ceramics prepared with (a...
Figure 9.2 Wear volume data for SiC‐WC composites against different counterb...
Figure 9.3 Typical worn surface images of (a) monolithic SiC against SiC bal...
Figure 9.4 Typical worn surfaces of counterbody: (a) SiC ball against SiC‐10...
Figure 9.5 Raman spectroscopy analysis of wear debris collected after slidin...
Figure 9.6 A schematic representation of major mechanisms of material remova...
Figure 9.7 Wear volume of SiC‐WC composites at 19 N load at RT and at 500 °C...
Figure 9.8 SEM images of debris particles collected after reciprocated slidi...
Figure 9.9 Wear rate data for SiC‐WC composites against SiC ball in unidirec...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 SEVNB fracture toughness of ZTA composites with respect to % tra...
Figure 10.2 The crack deflection behavior of the indentation‐induced cracks ...
Figure 10.3 Frictional behavior of ZTA disc against cubic ZrO
2
ball with var...
Figure 10.4 Specific wear rate of ZTA disc when subjected to unidirectional ...
Figure 10.5 SEM image of the entire wear track on ZTA after sliding against ...
Figure 10.6 SEM images of the debris fragment layer adhered on the worn surf...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Typical cross‐sectional SEM images of WC‐Co coatings, deposited ...
Figure 11.2 The variation of abrasive wear rate of bulk and coated WC‐12Co a...
Figure 11.3 Crack paths below the worn OF‐2.0 coatings after abrasion by (a)...
Figure 11.4 Abrasive wear rate versus width of subsurface crack zone in OF‐2...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 A concept of boundary slip. Slip on just one surface or both sur...
Figure 12.2 Pendant drop and sessile drops for (a) spreading‐wetting experim...
Figure 12.3 Surface energies of studied materials: (a) DLC coatings, (b) cer...
Figure 12.4 Steady‐state contact angles of water and lubricating oils on: (a...
Figure 12.5 Spreading parameter values of water and lubricating oils on: (a)...
Figure 12.6 (a, b) Contact angles and (c, d) spreading parameter of water (a...
Figure 12.7 Coefficient of friction versus (a) contact angle and (b) spreadi...
Figure 12.8 Coefficient of friction versus total, polar, and dispersive surf...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 The steady‐state erosive wear rate of the investigated SiC‐WC co...
Figure 13.2 Erosive wear rate of the investigated SiC‐WC composites at ambie...
Figure 13.3 Erosive wear rate of the investigated SiC‐WC composites at 800 °...
Figure 13.4 Phase analysis of SW50 composite after high‐temperature (800 °C)...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 CAD model of the ZrB
2
‐SiC‐Ti sample in the sample holder during ...
Figure 14.2 Transient thermal analysis: Simulated temperature contours (ZST0...
Figure 14.3 Coupled thermal‐structural analysis: Contours (ZST0 and ZST10) o...
Figure 14.4 Temperature distribution in (a) sample and (b) temperature distr...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Steady‐state erosive wear rate of mild steel, bulk WC‐Co, and WC...
Figure 15.2 Erosive wear rate as a function of erodent‐target hardness ratio...
Figure 15.3 SEM images of worn surface of bulk WC‐Co at 30° impact angle, 45...
Figure 15.4 SEM images of worn surface of bulk WC‐Co at 90° impact angle, 45...
Figure 15.5 SEM images of worn surface of WC‐Co coatings deposited at an OF ...
Figure 15.6 SEM images of worn surface of WC‐Co coatings deposited at an OF ...
Figure 15.7 Cross‐sectional SEM images showing subsurface damage behavior of...
Figure 15.8 Cross‐sectional SEM images showing subsurface damage behavior of...
Figure 15.9 Cross‐sectional SEM images showing subsurface damage behavior of...
Figure 15.10 High‐magnification BSE SEM image of WC‐Co coating deposited at ...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Cutting force versus machining time for the investigated cermets...
Figure 16.2 SEM images of worn tool surfaces of (a, b) Ti(CN)‐5WC‐20Ni cerme...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 EDM performance test results for the investigated TiCN‐Ni‐based ...
Figure 17.2 Secondary electron images of electro‐discharge machined surfaces...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Innovation cycle for wear‐resistant materials.
Figure 18.2 Correlation among tribological properties, process, and structur...
Figure 18.3 High‐throughput characterization of materials properties.
Figure 18.4 Concept triangle and elements of a new concept, “Tribomaterialom...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Friction and Wear of Ceramics
Principles and Case Studies
Bikramjit Basu
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
Mitjan Kalin
University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
B. Venkata Manoj Kumar
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Copyright © 2020 by The American Ceramic Society. All rights reserved.Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication data
Names: Basu, Bikramjit, author. | Kalin, Mitjan, author. | Kumar, B. Venkata Manoj, author.Title: Friction and wear of ceramics : principles and case studies / Bikramjit Basu, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, Mitjan Kalin, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, B. Venkata Manoj Kumar, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐American Ceramic Society/John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020001871 (print) | LCCN 2020001872 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119538387 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119538837 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119538400 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Ceramic materials–Mechanical properties. | Friction. | Mechanical wear. | Tribology.Classification: LCC TA455.C43 B377 2020 (print) | LCC TA455.C43 (ebook) | DDC 620.1/404292–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020001871LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020001872
Cover Design: WileyCover Images: (top and bottom left) Courtesy of B. V. Manoj Kumar, (top and bottom right) Reproduced with permission of Elsevier
About the Authors
Bikramjit BasuProfessor, Materials Research CenterIndian Institute of Science, Bangalore,Karnataka, India
Prof. Bikramjit Basu is currently a Professor at the Materials Research Center and holds Associate Faculty position at Center for Biosystems Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore. He is currently Visiting Professor at University of Manchester, UK and Guest Professor at Wuhan University of Technology, China. After his undergraduate and postgraduate degree in Metallurgical Engineering from NIT Durgapur and IISc respectively, he earned his PhD in the area of Engineering Ceramics at Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium in March, 2001. Following a brief post‐doctoral stint at University of California, Santa Barbara; he served as a faculty of Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur during 2001–2011. Bikramjit’s international standing and impact on the field are illustrated by his prolific publication record (>300 peer‐reviewed research papers, including 28 papers in Journal of American Ceramic Society and 35 papers in journals of high impact factor, more than 20 invited review papers, total citation >10,500 and H‐index: 54). He has authored 7 textbooks, 2 edited books and one research monograph in the interdisciplinary areas of Biomaterials, Ceramics, Tribology and Energy. In addition to writing textbooks, he has created two online course curricula, including one on Tribology, which are watched over 9000 times worldwide through National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL).
Prof. Basu’s contributions in Engineering Science have been widely recognised. He is the first biomaterials scientist to receive in 2013, India’s most coveted science and technology award, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, which was first awarded in 1958. A Chartered Engineer of UK, he is an elected Fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences (2020) and of the International Union of Societies for Biomaterials Science and Engineering (2020). He is also Fellow of the American Ceramic Society (2019), American Institute of Medical and Biological Engineering (2017), Institute of Materials, Minerals & Mining, UK (2017), National Academy of Medical Sciences, India (2017), Indian National Academy of Engineering (2015), Society for Biomaterials and Artificial Organs (2014) and National Academy of Sciences, India (2013). He remains the only Indian from India to receive the prestigious ‘Coble Award for Young Scholars’ (2008) from the American Ceramic Society. He is also a recipient of the Abdul Kalam Technology Innovation National Fellowship from Indian National Academy of Engineering (2020). The nominee has established independent research programs, first at IIT Kanpur (2001–2011) and lately at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore (2011–till date).
Bikramjit has made truly outstanding contributions at the frontiers of Engineering Ceramics, biomedical engineering and lately, solar energy. A common thread that runs through these research programs is his exceptional understanding in manipulating processing approaches (spark plasma sintering, 3D inkjet powder printing, etc.) and in combining computational analysis with performance‐qualifying property measurements or prototype testing; while establishing process‐structure‐property linkages for a wide spectrum of oxide and non‐oxide ceramics. A major research theme has been to enhance the fracture resistance through tailoring of process parameters and manipulation of microstructure at multiple length scales. Another major contribution has been to develop microstructure‐wear resistance relationship for ceramics/cermets in unlubricated fretting/sliding condition and to establish analytical framework for tribochemical/tribomechanical wear. Many of the tribology studies in his research group involved cryogenic sliding wear of materials for space technology applications and erosive wear of ultra‐high temperature ceramics at elevated temperature. Over last two decades, he has groomed a large number of PhD students, who have now established independent research programs on structural ceramics and tribology as faculty members in IITs/NITs in India.
Dr. Mitjan KalinProfessor,Faculty of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of LjubljanaLjubljana, Slovenia
Dr. Kalin's areas of research are the wear and friction mechanisms of advanced materials, nanoscale interface phenomena, and boundary films for novel green‐lubrication technologies, including his widely recognized contribution to the lubrication of DLC coatings. He has delivered over 50 invited lectures worldwide, including 10 keynote and plenary lectures at the most renowned conferences in the field of tribology. He has published over 150 peer‐reviewed journal papers with 3200 citations and an h‐index of 31. He also published 10 book chapters, 2 books, and holds 11 patents, including US and EU patents. He acted as a member of the editorial boards of eight international journals, Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Tribology and Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering – Tribology Section. Since 2012, he has served as the Editor‐in‐Chief of Lubrication Science (Wiley). In his career, he has led over 35 large, three‐year projects, most of them international. He also collaborated in industrial projects with renowned companies in Europe, Japan, and the United States in over 140 R&D projects. He has received several awards, including a prestigious ASME Burt L. Newkirk Award (2006), Fellow of STLE (2012), the two highest Slovenian state awards, namely Zois Prize (2006) and Zois Award (2015), and the Top 10 scientific achievements at the University of Ljubljana (2014). Since 2010, he has been a Full Professor at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, where he is the Head of the Laboratory for Tribology and Interface Nanotechnology and the Chair for Tribology and Maintenance Technology. He is currently also a visiting professor at Luleå University of Technology, Sweden. Since 2013, he has been a coordinator of a Joint European Master Programme on the Tribology of Surfaces and Interfaces (TRIBOS) under the Erasmus Mundus umbrella. In 2019, he also became a coordinator of the European Joint Doctorate programme GreenTRIBOS, an EU Marie Skłodowska–Curie Actions initiative. In 2007–2011, he was elected as a Vice‐Dean for Research; in 2013–2017, as a Vice‐Dean for Master and Doctoral Studies; and in 2017–2021, as Dean of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. He was also elected as Executive Board Member and Deputy President of the International Tribology Council (ITC) for the period 2017–2021.
B. Venkata Manoj KumarAssociate ProfessorDepartment of Metallurgical and Materials EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology (IIT) RoorkeeRoorkeeUttarakhand, India
Dr. B. Venkata Manoj Kumar is currently working as Associate Professor at Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. Dr. Kumar obtained his PhD degree from IIT Kanpur in November 2007. Subsequently, he worked as a post‐doctoral researcher at Seoul National University from January 2008 to January 2009, Research Assistant Professor at the University of Seoul from February 2009 to February 2011, and Assistant Professor at IIT Roorkee from March 2011 to April 2016. With the primary theme of understanding microstructure–property relations, Dr. Kumar has been actively involved in processing advanced ceramic systems like SiC, ZrB2, B4C, Si3N4, TiCN‐Ni cermets, etc., and studying the influence of microstructural characteristics on their material removal mechanisms when subjected to sliding, fretting, erosion, or machining conditions. He is also co‐instructor for a National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) online course on friction and war of materials. His research work is being supported by both government agencies and private industries in India. His research ideas are also supported by foreign funding agencies through bilateral projects. He has so far supervised four PhD theses. He has published around 55 peer‐reviewed research articles with more than 1300 citations and h‐index of 20. He has also published three review articles and three book chapters. He is presently a member of the editorial board for the Tribology and Lubricants journal published by the Korean Tribology Society. He is co‐inventor of the filed two Indian patents and delivered more than 40 lectures in reputed conferences.
Foreword
The continuing growth of manufacturing and energy sectors demands the development of materials with superior performance in harsh tribological conditions over a longer lifetime. Among advanced materials, structural ceramics are increasingly used in tribological applications, because of their unique combination of superior properties. It is therefore important to understand the phenomena of friction and wear, from the viewpoint of ceramic science and engineering. However, most of the available books on tribology primarily provide an understanding of the mechanics and design of components, with less focus on materials aspects.
In a significant departure from conventional “mechanical engineering” viewpoint, this book has dealt with the essential concepts of tribology as well as basics of processing and properties of ceramics and ceramic coatings. Also, I recognize the authors have put their best efforts to analyze their own published results, related to sliding, erosion, and machining of ceramic components and systems. This part is particularly useful for the readers of varied background in recognizing microstructure–mechanical–tribological property correlation. Besides, the grand collection of conceptual and analytical questions in the Appendix section will be greatly useful in assessing the knowledge of the undergraduate and postgraduate students, wishing to pursue the field of tribology in their academic careers. This feature distinguishes the present book from currently available other tribology books.
I strongly feel the tribology community across the Materials Science and Mechanical Engineering domain will be greatly benefited from this new source of knowledge in the rapidly growing multidisciplinary field of tribology of ceramics.
Dr. Sanak Mishra
President, Indian National Academy of Engineering
www.inae.in
New Delhi, India
Foreword
Among all the engineering materials, advanced ceramics are being widely investigated in the last few decades for their potential use at tribological contacts, particularly under extreme conditions. Ceramic cutting tools, bearings, seals, hip joints, and coatings are some of the important advanced ceramic components developed in the past 30–40 years. The tribological performance of the ceramic components can be improved through innovative process design and microstructural engineering. While most of the presently available books on tribology are written by mechanical engineers or researchers from the mechanics background, there is an urgent need for understanding the ceramics tribology from materials science perspective.
In this context, I find this book highlights the importance of the microstructural characteristics–material property–tribological performance relationship for a range of advanced ceramic materials. The fundamental concepts of the processing and mechanical properties of ceramics are introduced for this purpose. This is particularly important for the researchers from the mechanical engineering discipline as they would acquire knowledge as how to tune the processing conditions to tailor the mechanical properties. This book also reviews some of the fundamental mechanisms of friction, wear, and lubrication. A range of case studies highlights how to design ceramic composites for better wear resistance.
I appreciate the authors' efforts in compiling seminal studies from their own research to fit into the broader framework of the book and helping the readers to realize the translation of basic tribology science to applications. Particularly, the description of the wear micromechanisms is expected to provide a strong background to the readers toward designing/developing ceramic composites for tribological components. This book has important pedagogical feature as a textbook with the rich collection of objective and subjective problems on important issues of ceramic tribology and will be very useful for students and practicing scientists.
Prof. Dr. Koji Kato
Nihon University, Japan
Preface: The Most Influential Science that Needs to Be Better Understood
Tribology is widely defined as the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion. Of enormous practical value to key engineering industries – from energy, manufacturing, nuclear, thermal to biomedical – the field of tribology is drawing ever‐increasing attention in recent decades across the multiple engineering disciplines.
The Paradox: How to Solve It
Yet the tribology field suffers from a paradox. As distinguished tribologist, Professor John Tichy of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), New York, once said, “Tribology is the most common area of science in the world that nobody knows about.” The field has grown into one of the most influential sciences encountered in everyday life, drawing the most influential researchers from multidisciplinary and cross‐disciplinary backgrounds.
Ceramics and their composites, despite their unique combination of hardness, elastic modulus, compressive strength, resistance against oxidation, and creep, find limited tribological application in the market on a commercial scale. Therefore, the development of advanced (bulk or coating) ceramic materials and the progress in research for superior tribological performance requires knowledge on microstructural engineering via innovative process design, and understanding the physics of material degradation. The improved understanding of the contribution of microstructural features and micromechanisms on tribological performance of ceramic components is essential. This helps in extending component lifetime and achieving higher energy efficiency.
The tribology of ceramics and ceramic composites – which comprises most of the applications in the area – is still not considered a focus area in many industries, or in academia, in spite of its remarkable potential and contribution. Most engineering students receive few hours of instruction in tribology of ceramics, most engineers and researchers do not have adequate grounding in this area, and most textbooks do not deal with real‐world problems worth solving.
The present book highlights the importance of the correlation among microstructure, mechanical properties, friction, and wear resistance for a range of selected ceramic systems. The development of bulk ceramics and ceramic coatings, and understanding on their mechanical properties, has also been discussed in detail. The exploration of friction and wear mechanisms of several engineering ceramic systems provides a thorough background to the readers on how to design and to develop novel materials for tribological applications.
The Transition: Classroom to Industry
The perceived need to meet stringent needs of superior performance of ceramic components in tribological conditions has necessitated a book of this length and depth. The present book is the result of authors' several years of teaching and research in materials tribology, engineering ceramics, and composites at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore, the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee, and the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Overall, the book is designed to enrich the knowledge on basic concepts on ceramic processing and tribology, and to upgrade the understanding of state‐of‐the‐art research findings of advanced ceramic composites. Thus, it will be highly useful for beginners and students pursuing the tribology of ceramics, and for experienced researchers and practitioners engaged in understanding the science of tribology.
The Approach: Decoding the Chapters
The book is essentially structured into six sections, spanning 18 chapters. For those uninitiated in basic ceramics and tribology, the first section is a run‐through of the fundamentals: processing, microstructure, and mechanical properties of bulk ceramics and ceramic coatings. The second section targets the more advanced complexities: contact surface characteristics, friction, interface temperature, wear, wear mechanisms, and lubrication. Keeping in view of the significance of advanced ceramic systems in improving wear resistance and product lifetime, significant results from the authors' own research groups are explained in three subsequent chapters. In the concluding section, the major issues that demand urgent attention, and future directions of tribology toward an improved and new generation of structural ceramic systems, are provided. In addition, a large collection of different types of qualitative and quantitative questions on tribology of ceramic materials is presented as Appendix, both for the novice and experienced tribologists, to assess their knowledge on the subject.
To Conclude: A Word of Thanks
Recognizing the collaboration over the last two decades, Professor Bikramjit Basu specifically acknowledges some of his students, including Debasish Sarkar, Subhadip Bodhak, Rohit Khanna, Manisha, G. B. Raju, T. Venkateswaran, Amartya Mukhopadhyay, and Shekhar Nath. Professor M. Kalin acknowledges cooperation and support from all his co‐workers at Laboratory for Triblogy and Interface Nanotechnology (TINT) at University of Ljubljana, and numerous co‐workers and friends worldwide in the field of ceramics tribology that shared the knowledge, experience and discussions in many occasions over more than two decades of engagement in this filed. Professor B. Venkata Manoj Kumar would like to sincerely thank all his students, particularly Vipin, Sandan, Vikas, Ashish Selokar, Suneel, Rajavel, Yashpal, Sonali, Smita, and Ashish Nayan, and his collaborators Professors Young‐Wook Kim, Sinhoo Kang, S. K. Nath, and Sai Ramudu Meka, and Dr. T. Venkateswaran. The unconditional help from Surya, Nilesh, Rea, Nihal, Nandita and Prerana in each stage of preparation of the book is acknowledged. Professor Basu would like to convey heartfelt thanks to his father Mr. Manoj Mohan Basu for critically checking some part of the manuscript. Professor Basu is particularly grateful to Dr. Damayanti Datta for her help in shaping the Preface of this book. Professors Basu and Kumar would like to express their gratitude to Mr. Amit Ganguli and Mr. N. M. Dube for exciting discussion and suggestions, during the writing of this book. If someone who has helped in completing the book is not acknowledged here, authors sincerely admit that it is purely unintentional, but not due to lack of appreciation.
Further, the authors, Basu and Kumar would like to gratefully acknowledge their respective institutes, IISc Bangalore and IIT Roorkee. They would also like to express their sincere gratitude for the financial support received from various Government of India agencies, including the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), the Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO), the Department of Science & Technology (DST), and the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), which facilitated research in the field of tribology of advanced materials at IIT Kanpur, IISc Bangalore, and IIT Roorkee. One of the authors (Kalin) acknowledges the steady financial support from the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology, and the Slovenian Research Agency over the years. The authors are grateful to Professor Koji Kato and Dr. Sanak Mishra for writing the foreword of this book. They are particularly thankful to Professor Kato for critical comments on some aspects of this book. Most importantly, the authors would like to convey heartfelt appreciation to their respective parents and other members of the families: Pritha and Prithvijit; Janja and Matija; and Lakshmi, Sugatri, and Surag, for their encouragement and support, while writing this book.
Bikramjit Basu
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
Mitjan Kalin
University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
B. Venkata Manoj Kumar
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Section IFundamentals of Ceramics: Processing and Properties
1Introduction: Ceramics and Tribology
This foundational chapter introduces the readers to the multidisciplinary facets of tribology, viz. friction, wear, and lubrication. The technological significance of tribology is discussed and an overview of classification of engineering materials is provided. As this book largely discusses the tribological behavior of ceramics and their composites, typical properties and tribological applications of structural ceramic materials are emphasized. The overall structure of the book is presented toward the last part of the chapter.
1.1 Introduction
The word “tribology” originated from the Greek word “tribos” means rubbing [1, 2]. Tribology is described as “the science of interacting surfaces in relative motion and practices related there to.” The science of tribology primarily embraces the study of three components: friction, wear, and lubrication, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
While a committee of UK government coined the word “Tribology” in 1966 [3], the interest in the tribology field is much older than the documented history. It is worth finding the footprints of tribology in early human age when fire was invented by friction between stones and/or woods [4]. Archives also show the knowledge of ancestors in reducing friction during translatory motion by studded wheels of a harvest car or by lubricating the path for transporting heavy Egyptian statues. Other records on tribology concepts in Paleolithic age include drill bits for hole drilling, stone or wood wheels for grinding cereals, etc. It is to note that systematic scientific investigations of friction and lubrication date back to few centuries, whereas the concept of wear is much younger, almost five years. This delayed attention on wear concept is probably due to the unavailability of electron microscopy and other instrumentation tools in the past. However, with the recent development of advanced microanalysis and spectroscopy tools, wear is now considered to be one of the potential components of tribology that helps in assessing the material loss and understanding the physics of material removal at surface and subsurface regions.
Figure 1.1 Schematic illustration of basic concept in tribology.
It is widely accepted in modern times that the friction and wear are major concerns in achieving sustainable growth in various industrial sectors like automotive, aerospace, construction, biomedical, optical, and microelectronics. In fact, a better understanding of tribology concepts is perceived to increase energy efficiency, reduce fossil fuels, and even improve health and lifestyle. As the performance of friction/wear components is strongly influenced by materials' behavior, novel material systems with superior properties and their processing technologies significantly influence the product efficiency and thereby cause impact on the economic sustainability.
Friction is the resistance to motion that arises from the interactions of two solid surfaces at real contact area. It should be noted that the frictionless movement is needed in some applications, whereas some applications need friction.
For example, applications like bridge supports, hinges on doors, bearings, rivets, human knee or hip joints, etc., need less friction at the contacts. However, applications like clutches, brake pads, etc., demand high and controllable friction at the contact. Nevertheless, the performance and life of engineering components for a particular application are generally based on the efficient control of friction and surface properties.
The progressive material damage from the surface due to relative velocity at the contact with other material is referred to as wear.
The phenomenon of wear can occur on surfaces of either or both mating materials, under different conditions like sliding, erosion, fretting, rolling, etc. It is important to note that mild wear in initial contact can progress rapidly during later stages to severe wear. Such transition can cause vibration and heating that may further lead to reduced product efficiency and loss. In fact, a majority of engineering disasters can be traced back to the instances of severe wear, which initiated in a mild scale. On the other hand, high and controllable wear rates are required in cases like polishing, grinding, machining, etc. Like friction, wear has to be controlled with early identification and design of suitable material systems for a better performance. In fact, the extent of friction and wear depends on the mating materials, contact conditions, and the surrounding environment. Thus, friction and wear are to be treated as system properties, not material intrinsic properties [5].
The extent of friction and material damage can be minimized by properly lubricating the contact. Several examples, where lubrication is useful, include metal cutting, gears, brakes, bearings, seals, orthopedic joints, etc. The role of the lubricant is to separate the contacting surface by forming viscous low‐shear films. In fact, understanding the viscous flow characteristics of the lubricant, and interactions of solid surface and lubricant is necessary to control the friction [6–8]. Even in the absence of an external lubricant, it is quite possible that the contact is filled with a lubricating product, formed as a result of reaction between the mating materials and/or wear debris with the surrounding atmosphere. The later part of the book covers case studies where such surface interactions notably influence the wear and friction properties of ceramic composites.
While friction is the temporary and immediate response of the body in contact, wear accounts for the history of contact conditions [9].
A thorough understanding on the behavior of materials with respect to varying contact conditions in terms of contact stress, contact temperature, and environment is strictly needed to achieve desirable tribological performance.
The science of tribology is unarguably an interdisciplinary field that can be explained by synergetic interaction among concepts drawn from fundamentals of Materials Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Physics, and Chemistry (see Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 The conceptual illustration of contribution from disciplines of basic engineering and, system properties and surface interaction to tribology science.
While Mechanical Engineering concepts are greatly helpful to design the component, to understand contact mechanics and lubrication regimes; the Metallurgical Engineering concepts are useful in improving wear resistance by strengthening the bulk material or hardening the surface. On the other hand, the major aim of the material scientists is to control friction and wear by appropriately designing the process and tailoring the microstructure so that the performance in the given tribological conditions can be maximized [10]. Several technological, socioeconomic, and environmental requirements such as improved integrity, reliability, and performance of systems; higher durability of products; etc., drive the development of advanced material systems. In particular, the ever‐increasing need for the development of advanced materials for extreme tribological applications necessitates comprehensive understanding on microstructure–properties–tribological performance relationship.
1.2 Classification of Engineering Materials
In general, engineering materials are classified into three primary classes: metals and alloys, ceramics and glasses, and polymers and elastomers [11–16] Among these primary classes, ceramics and glasses are widely being investigated for several engineering applications. The industrial‐scale applications requiring moderate wear resistances are still dominated by steels and other metallic alloys. However, ceramics are potentially considered for use in extreme tribological environments.
While the widespread use of polymers and elastomers is driven by distinct advantages in terms of availability in different shapes or sizes, high flexibility, and low density; metallic materials have advantages of high toughness, high tensile strength, and manufacturability.
However, polymers and elastomers have a low melting point and very low elastic modulus and strength, whereas metals and alloys have much lower melting points, lower strength, hardness, and elastic modulus compared with ceramics and glasses. In particular, ceramics and glasses have superior properties: high melting points, high hardness, high compressive strength, high elastic modulus, and can withstand high temperatures without significant degradation of strength. Accordingly, ceramics are preferred for various elevated temperature structural or tribological applications.
On the other hand, another class of engineering materials, composites, is being developed to combine beneficial properties of the three primary classes of materials.
The microstructure of a composite consists of three important constituents: matrix, reinforcement, and their interface. While equiaxed or an elongated grain structure is generally found in crystalline matrix phase, the reinforcement phases can have different morphology: particulates, fibers, and whiskers. The composites with fibers exhibit anisotropy in properties. Based on the major constituent type, composites are further classified as polymer matrix composites (PMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs), and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) [17, 18]. While several resin‐bonded PMCs are largely studied for their use in aerospace applications, aluminum (Al)–silicon carbide (SiC) particulate composites and magnesium (Mg)–SiC particulate composites are widely investigated MMCs for their use as automotive and structural parts. Among CMCs, Al2O3–SiC whisker composites and Al2O3–zirconia (ZrO2) particulate composites are largely studied for cutting tool inserts and other wear parts.
As the present book largely focuses on friction and wear behavior of ceramics and ceramic composites, a brief note on engineering ceramics followed by typical properties and important tribological applications of structural ceramics is provided in the following sections.
1.3 Engineering Ceramics
Ceramics are defined as “a class of inorganic non‐metallic materials that can be either processed or used at high temperatures and have an ionic and/or a covalent bonding.”
Although the major use of ceramic materials in the last few decades was focused on traditional applications such as construction materials, kitchen wares, and sanitary wares, the progress of ceramic science and technology since the early 1990s enabled this important material class to extend applications to engineering fields like aerospace, electronics, nuclear, biomedical, etc. [11–16].
It is widely agreed that ceramics can be classified as traditional ceramics and engineering ceramics. Less expensive silica‐based ceramics prepared for daily‐life application are named as traditional ceramics. In contrast, engineering ceramics are prepared using highly pure and expensive ceramic powders and strategic process design to tailor properties for use in advanced applications. In this regard, the present book discusses the applicability of structural ceramics for tribological applications. From application view point, engineering ceramics are broadly categorized as functional ceramics and structural ceramics.
The perfomance of functional ceramics is determined by magnetic, electric, dielectric, optical, and other properties; while the development and performance of structural ceramics is driven by the optimisation of mechanical properties, such as hardness, strength, and toughness.
Structural ceramics can be further classified as oxide ceramics (e.g. SiO2, ZrO2, and Al2O3) and non‐oxide ceramics (e.g. TiN, Si3N4, TiC, SiC, TiB2, and B4C). As friction and wear properties largely influence performance of structural ceramics, it is imperative to understand the properties and tribological applications of structural ceramics.
1.4 Structural Ceramics: Typical Properties and Tribological Applications
Among advanced materials, ceramics are candidates for several wear‐resistance applications owing to the unique set of their attractive properties like low density, high compressive strength, high hardness, high elastic modulus, and superior resistance against oxidation and creep [19]. The moderate fracture toughness can be improved by microstructural engineering via suitable process design.
The relevance of important properties of structural ceramics for tribological applications is presented in Figure 1.3. Table 1.1 summarizes typical properties of important metallic, polymeric, and ceramic materials. Detailed discussion on mechanical behavior of ceramics, fracture mechanics, and the assessment of different mechanical properties is provided in a later chapter. Using multiple case studies in this book, it has been emphasized that higher elastic modulus and higher hardness are, respectively, needed for superior resistance against Hertzian contact damage and abrasive wear. On the other hand, the shift of maximum Hertzian shear stress from bulk to the surface, and higher modulus‐dependent contact pressures are some of the issues of concern with ceramics in tribological contacts. Further, few nitride and boride ceramics can be used for components exposed to temperatures close to 1500 °C, while Ni‐based superalloys can be used only up to 1000 °C. In addition, ceramic composite (e.g. Si3N4‐based or SiC‐based composites) are demonstrated to retain high strength at temperatures as high as 1000 °C.
Figure 1.3 Important relevance of structural ceramics properties for tribological applications.
Table 1.1 Physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of some important metallic, polymers, and ceramic materials, which are relevant for various tribological applications [20].
Source: Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.
Material
Density,
ρ
(g/cm
3
)
Elastic modulus,
E
(GPa)
Fracture toughness,
K
IC
(MPa·m
1/2
)
Vickers hardness,
H
V
(GPa)
Thermal conductivity,
K
(W/m·K)
Steel
7.8–7.9
21
5–214
1–9
3–6
Cast iron
7.1–7.4
64–181
2–6
1–8.5
3–6
Al‐alloy
2.6–2.9
6–8
23–45
0.25–1.4
121–237
Al
2
O
3
3.9
21–39
3–5
14–19
25–35
ZrO
2
5.6–6.25
14–21
1–8
12
2
Si
3
N
4
3.2
17
4–7
16–18
5–25
SiC
3.2
45
4.5
25
9–125
Polyamide (PA)
1.1–1.14
2–4
3
0.8–1
0.25–0.35
Polyimide (PI)
1.3
3–5
—
—
0.37–0.52
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
2.1–2.3
0.4
—
0.12
0.25
High‐density polyethylene (HDPE)
0.92
0.2
1–2
0.13
0.33–0.57
With respect to frictional heating, a large increase in friction‐induced temperature is a concern with oxide ceramics having low thermal conductivity, whereas boride and carbide ceramics with relatively good thermal conductivity easily dissipate the heat from the contact. Further, density of ceramics is lower compared with many metals (see Table 1.1). This allows, high‐speed machining possible with ceramic tool inserts.
The compressive strength of structural ceramics is almost eight times larger than the tensile strength and therefore, ceramics will be useful for tribological applications where contacts experience compressive loading conditions. It is to note that the compressive strength of ceramics is mostly superior to that of metals.
Ceramics are identified as potential materials to replace existing materials for several tribological components like cutting tools, seals, valves, bearings, cylinder liners, etc.
However, the fundamental understanding of the relationship between material characteristics like microstructure, phases, etc., and wear behavior shall be understood for optimal use in tribological applications. For example, the wear behavior of non‐oxide ceramics like SiC is largely reported to be influenced by test parameters, material, or environmental parameters [21]. As illustrated in Figure 1.4 [22], compared with SiC ceramics with equiaxed grains, the wear resistance was better for SiC ceramics having elongated grain morphology due to the in situ toughening by hard interlocking network of grains.
In general, the tribological materials development is focused mainly in two directions: ceramic coatings on metallic substrates and ceramics or ceramic composites. Coatings are mostly fabricated using nitrides, carbides, or borides with recent development of diamond or diamond‐like (C–H) films at the higher end of the hardness‐cost scale [23]. As the thickness of the coating is normally between 1 and 5 μm, property or performance of the relatively soft substrate is limited. In recent times, processing technology for diamond‐like carbon (DLC) coatings has been improved to achieve low friction and wear for several lubricated and non‐lubricated applications [24–31]. Thermal spraying can be applied for thicker coatings (in the millimeter range), but compatibility with substrate properties (thermal expansion, etc.) and cohesion are rather limited. This aspect is particularly discussed in later chapters of the book.
Monolithic ceramics, i.e. ceramics without any addition of second phase, particularly those with improved toughness and strength are being developed in several research labs and industries [32
