Gas Turbine Propulsion Systems E-Book

Bernie MacIsaac

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Aerospace Series (PEP)
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 509

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Major changes in gas turbine design, especially in the design and complexity of engine control systems, have led to the need for an up to date, systems-oriented treatment of gas turbine propulsion. Pulling together all of the systems and subsystems associated with gas turbine engines in aircraft and marine applications, Gas Turbine Propulsion Systems discusses the latest developments in the field. Chapters include aircraft engine systems functional overview, marine propulsion systems, fuel control and power management systems, engine lubrication and scavenging systems, nacelle and ancillary systems, engine certification, unique engine systems and future developments in gas turbine propulsion systems. The authors also present examples of specific engines and applications. Written from a wholly practical perspective by two authors with long careers in the gas turbine & fuel systems industries, Gas Turbine Propulsion Systems provides an excellent resource for project and program managers in the gas turbine engine community, the aircraft OEM community, and tier 1 equipment suppliers in Europe and the United States. It also offers a useful reference for students and researchers in aerospace engineering.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Aerospace Series List

Title Page

copyright

About the Authors

Preface

Series Preface

Acknowledgements

List of Acronyms

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Gas Turbine Concepts

1.2 Gas Turbine Systems Overview

References

Chapter 2: Basic Gas Turbine Operation

2.1 Turbojet Engine Performance

2.2 Concluding Commentary

References

Chapter 3: Gas Generator Fuel Control Systems

3.1 Basic Concepts of the Gas Generator Fuel Control System

3.2 Gas Generator Control Modes

3.3 Fuel System Design and Implementation

3.4 The Concept of Error Budgets in Control Design

3.5 Installation, Qualification, and Certification Considerations

3.6 Concluding Commentary

References

Chapter 4: Thrust Engine Control and Augmentation Systems

4.1 Thrust Engine Concepts

4.2 Thrust Management and Control

4.3 Thrust Augmentation

Reference

Chapter 5: Shaft Power Propulsion Control Systems

5.1 Turboprop Applications

5.2 Turboshaft Engine Applications

Reference

Chapter 6: Engine Inlet, Exhaust, and Nacelle Systems

6.1 Subsonic Engine Air Inlets

6.2 Supersonic Engine Air Inlets

6.3 Inlet Anti-icing

6.4 Exhaust Systems

References

Chapter 7: Lubrication Systems

7.1 Basic Principles

7.2 Lubrication System Operation

References

Chapter 8: Power Extraction and Starting Systems

8.1 Mechanical Power Extraction

8.2 Engine Starting

8.3 Bleed-air-powered Systems and Equipment

References

Chapter 9: Marine Propulsion Systems

9.1 Propulsion System Designation

9.2 The Aero-derivative Gas Turbine Engine

9.3 The Marine Environment

9.4 The Engine Enclosure

9.5 Engine Ancillary Equipment

9.6 Marine Propulsion Control

9.7 Concluding Commentary

References

Chapter 10: Prognostics and Health Monitoring Systems

10.1 Basic Concepts in Engine Operational Support Systems

10.2 The Role of Design in Engine Maintenance

10.3 Prognostics and Health Monitoring (PHM)

References

Chapter 11: New and Future Gas Turbine Propulsion System Technologies

11.1 Thermal Efficiency

11.2 Improvements in Propulsive Efficiency

11.3 Other Engine Technology Initiatives

References

Appendix A: Compressor Stage Performance

A.1 The Origin of Compressor Stage Characteristics

A.2 Energy Transfer from Rotor to Air

References

Appendix B: Estimation of Compressor Maps

B.1 Design Point Analysis

B.2 Stage Stacking Analysis

References

Appendix C: Thermodynamic Modeling of Gas Turbines

C.1 Linear Small-perturbation Modeling

C.2 Full-range Model: Extended Linear Approach

C.3 Component-based Thermodynamic Models

References

Appendix D: Introduction to Classical Feedback Control

D.1 Closing the Loop

D.2 Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions

D.3 The Concept of Stability

D.4 Frequency Response

D.5 Laplace Transforms

Reference

Index

Aerospace Series List

Advanced Control of Aircraft, Rockets and SpacecraftTewariJuly 2011Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics: Third EditionSeddon et al.July 2011Cooperative Path Planning of Unmanned Aerial VehiclesTsourdos et al.November 2010Principles of Flight for PilotsSwattonOctober 2010Air Travel and Health: A Systems PerspectiveSeabridge et al.September 2010Design and Analysis of Composite Structures: With applications to aerospace StructuresKassapoglouSeptember 2010Unmanned Aircraft Systems: UAVS Design, Development and DeploymentAustinApril 2010Introduction to Antenna Placement & InstallationsMacnamaraApril 2010Principles of Flight SimulationAllertonOctober 2009Aircraft Fuel SystemsLangton et al.May 2009The Global Airline IndustryBelobabaApril 2009Computational Modelling and Simulation of Aircraft and the Environment: Volume 1 - Platform Kinematics and Synthetic EnvironmentDistonApril 2009Handbook of Space TechnologyLey, Wittmann HallmannApril 2009Aircraft Performance Theory and Practice for PilotsSwattonAugust 2008Surrogate Modelling in Engineering Design: A Practical GuideForrester, Sobester, KeaneAugust 2008Aircraft Systems, 3rd EditionMoir & SeabridgeMarch 2008Introduction to Aircraft Aeroelasticity And LoadsWright & CooperDecember 2007Stability and Control of Aircraft SystemsLangtonSeptember 2006Military Avionics SystemsMoir & SeabridgeFebruary 2006Design and Development of Aircraft SystemsMoir & SeabridgeJune 2004Aircraft Loading and Structural LayoutHoweMay 2004Aircraft Display SystemsJukesDecember 2003Civil Avionics SystemsMoir & SeabridgeDecember 2002

This edition first published 2011

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Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

MacIsaac, Bernie.

Gas turbine propulsion systems / Bernie MacIsaac, Roy Langton.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-06563-1 (hardback)

1. Airplanes - Turbojet engines. 2. Jet boat engines. 3. Vehicles, Military. I. Langton, Roy. II. Title.

TL709.3.T83M25 2011

629.134′353-dc23

2011016566

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Print ISBN: 978-0-470-06563-1

ePDF ISBN: 978-1-119-97549-6

oBook ISBN: 978-1-119-97548-9

ePub ISBN: 978-1-119-97614-1

Mobi ISBN: 978-1-119-97615-8

About the Authors

BD (Bernie) MacIsaac

Dr MacIsaac received an Honors B. Eng. (Mechanical) from the Technical University of Nova Scotia in 1970. He was awarded a Science '67 graduate scholarship which took him to Ottawa to study Jet Engine Dynamics and Controls at Carleton University. He was awarded an M.Eng. in 1972 and a Ph.D. in 1974.

Following completion of his studies, Dr MacIsaac spent four years at the National Research Council of Canada where he helped to develop the first 8-bit microprocessor control for general aviation gas turbines. He was awarded a patent for a control design to prevent in-flight engine stalls on helicopter engines.

Dr MacIsaac formed GasTOPS Ltd. (Gas Turbines and Other Propulsion Systems ) in 1979, an Ottawa-based company which specializes in the application of intelligent systems to machinery protection and machinery maintenance systems. Much of this company's work has focused on aerospace and industrial power plants. About 1991, GasTOPS began the development of an on-line oil debris detector for damage recognition of the oil-wetted components of power plants. This device is now fitted to many modern fighter aircraft, many land-based CoGen and pipeline engines and is selling well in the new emerging wind turbine market. This development has led to the establishment of a manufacturing facility and to worldwide sales of this product.

Dr MacIsaac served as GasTOPS Ltd. President until 2007, at which point he turned management of the company over to his longtime colleague Mr David Muir. Since then, Dr MacIsaac has devoted his efforts to the establishment of an R&D group at GasTOPS, which is responsible for the definition and subsequent demonstration of new technologies that will form the basis of the next product line for GasTOPS.

Dr MacIsaac participates as a lecturer in professional practice courses at both Ottawa and Carleton Universities as well as Carleton University-sponsored short courses on gas turbines.

He is a past president of the Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute and is a past Chairman of PRECARN, a network of companies engaged in collaborative applied research. He currently serves as Chairman of the Senior Awards Committee of the Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute.

Dr MacIsaac was born in 1945. He is married (1969) and has twin daughters who were born on Christmas Day in 1973 and three granddaughters and one grandson. He has lived in Ottawa, Canada with his wife Ann since 1970.

Roy Langton

Roy Langton began his career as a Student Apprentice in 1956 with English Electric Aviation (now BAE Systems) at Warton in Lancashire, UK. After graduating in Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, he worked on powered flight control actuation systems for several military aircraft, including the English Electric Lightning, the Anglo-French Jaguar, and Panavia Tornado.

In 1968 he emigrated to the USA working for Chandler Evans Corporation in West Hartford Connecticut (now part of the Goodrich Corporation) and later with Hamilton Standard (now Hamilton Sundstrand) on engine fuel controls as the technology transitioned from hydromechanics to digital electronics. During this period he was exposed to a wide variety of projects from small gas turbines such as the Tomahawk Missile cruise-engine to large, high-bypass gas turbines used on today's commercial transports. A major milestone during this period was the introduction of the first FADEC into commercial service on the Pratt & Whitney PW2037 engine, which powers many of the Boeing 757 aircraft.

In 1984, he began a career in aircraft fuel controls with Parker Hannifin Corporation as Chief Engineer for the Fuel Products Division of the Corporation's Aerospace Group in Irvine California. In the 20-year period prior to his retirement in 2004 as Group Vice-President of Engineering, he played a major role in establishing Parker Aerospace as a leading supplier of complete fuel systems to aircraft manufacturers around the world. This began in 1993 with the Bombardier Global Express business jet and culminated in 2000 with the Fuel Measurement and Management system for the A380 superjumbo commercial transport.

Roy Langton was born in 1939, married his wife June in 1960 and has two daughters and five grandchildren. Roy and June currently reside in Boise Idaho USA.

Roy continues to work as a part-time technical consultant for Parker Aerospace and has been an Aerospace Series Editor for John Wiley & Sons since 2005.

Preface

The gas turbine industry began in the 1940s and, for many decades, it remained an object of research by universities and government laboratories as well as the many commercial establishments which sprang to life in an effort to exploit the technology. During this period, much basic research was conducted and information exchange was encouraged. It is noteworthy that the British Government, which had sponsored much of the development of the Whittle engine, shared the entire technical package with the US Government as a war measure. This resulted in the US Government supporting its continued development at the General Electric facilities at Lynn, Massachusetts.

Many companies were formed in Europe and in North America during the 1950s, each of which offered designs tailored to specific applications. In addition to the rapidly expanding aeronautical and defense industries, other applications began to emerge for non-aeronautical engines. These included gas pipelines, electrical power generation and naval propulsion. In short, the industry was booming and employment for engineers was readily obtained. More importantly, there were many opportunities to learn about this fascinating machine.

Today, the industry is reduced to a handful of very large companies. The investment required to develop an engine is enormous and the competition can only be described as fierce. Engineers are much more specialized and commercial secrecy is a fundamental element of corporate survival. For the true engineering specialist, the work remains a fascinating push into the unknown. For the systems engineer who must develop strategies and equipment which supports and manages the operation of the engine, the work has however become more complex and information has become more difficult to obtain in a form that allows synthesis of system behavior.

There are many books available that describe gas turbine engines, focusing primarily on the ‘turn and burn’ machinery from an aerothermodynamic perspective. Typically, the coverage given to the peripheral systems that support the complete gas turbine propulsion system is either not described at all or is often superficial. As the industry continues to demand improvements in performance and reductions in weight, the engine continues to be refined and, in some instances, made more complex. The system engineer can therefore expect to be working on not only more refined control systems but also information management systems designed to keep ownership costs as low as possible.

This book is organized to provide the reader with a basic understanding of how a gas turbine works, with emphasis on those aspects of its operation which most affect the task of the system designer. We have attempted to cover the propulsion package as a combination of functional components that must operate properly in unison to produce power. The famous remark by Sir Frank Whittle–that the gas turbine has only one moving part–happily neglects the many subsystems that must operate in unison with the prime mover to create a viable propulsion system package. In Whittle's day, it was sufficient for the engine to run smoothly. Today, the complete engine design must take into account cost of ownership, maintainability, safety, and prognostics and health monitoring.

The book describes the basic gas turbine in terms of its major components at a level sufficient to understand its operation and to appreciate the hard limits of its operating envelope. In particular, the issues associated with the handling of the gas generator or ‘core’ of the turbine engine in aircraft propulsion applications in preventing the onset of compressor surge or flame-out during transient throttle changes is addressed in some depth, including the need for stable speed governing in steady-state operation.

The importance of understanding and managing the engine inlet and exhaust systems together with the issues associated with power extraction and bearing lubrication are also given extensive coverage.

The gas turbine has found application in a number of important non-aeronautical industries. These include pipeline compressor drives, electrical power generation and naval propulsion systems. From a systems design perspective, the naval application is arguably the most demanding. In keeping with the propulsion focus of this book, the naval application has been chosen as an example of the challenges of introducing the gas turbine engine–developed for airborne applications–into such a hostile environment. The subsystems required to support and protect the engine in a navy ship are described in some detail.

Finally, prognostics and health monitoring must be recognized as a key aspect of the need to develop reliable algorithms that can effectively forecast the operational life remaining. This is increasingly important as both the commercial and military operators move into the realm of condition-based maintenance as a means of controlling and minimizing cost of ownership. Some of these systems will be fitted to future engines; as their underlying advantages are recognized, it is of equal importance that they interact with ground-based logistics systems.

Notwithstanding the book's focus on the system aspects of gas turbine propulsion systems, the fundamentals of gas turbine engine design are covered to a level that is considered more than adequate for the practicing systems engineer and/or business program manager. In addition to the devotion of one complete chapter to gas turbine basics, there are several appendices that provide a substantial grounding in the fundamentals of gas turbine design, modeling and operation.

Series Preface

The propulsion system of an aircraft performs a number of key functions. Firstly it provides the propulsive energy to propel the aircraft throughput its route or mission with the appropriate achievement of performance, efficiency, safety and availability. Secondly it provides the prime source of energy for the on-board systems by enabling the generation of electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic power for their effectors. Finally it provides the air to create a habitable environment for crew, passengers and avionic equipment. It is also a major capital item in any modern commercial and military aircraft and its incorporation into the aircraft affects both airframe and systems, not only in technical interface terms, but also in terms of safety, reliability and cost of ownership.

Unsurprisingly then, a knowledge of the propulsion system is key to understanding how to integrate it with the airframe and the aircraft systems. Other books in the Aerospace Series cover the topics of aircraft performance, avionic and aircraft systems—all of which depend on the propulsion system to complete their tasks. A number of these systems have an intimate link with the propulsion system such as aerodynamics, structural design, fuel types, onboard fuel storage and system design, cabin environment and cooling, hydraulic and electrical generation, flight control, flight management, flight deck displays and controls, prognostic and health management, and finally systems modelling. The degree of integration of these systems varies with aircraft role and type, but in all cases the design of the systems cannot be complete without an understanding of the system that provides their energy.

This book, Gas Turbine Propulsion Systems, provides the key to that understanding by describing the propulsion system in terms of its major sub-systems with a suitable and readily understandable treatment of the underlying mathematics. An important point is that the book completes the picture of the aircraft systems by taking a systems engineering approach to propulsion. It deals, not only with the gas turbine engine and its aero-thermodynamics, but with the propulsion system as an integrated set of sub-systems that control the engine throughout the flight envelope and provide suitable controlled off-takes. The treatment of fuel control, thrust control, installation aspects and prognostics clearly link into integration of the propulsion system with the aircraft and its systems for pure gas turbines and shaft power turbines.

For good measure there is a chapter devoted to marine propulsion systems, and appendices complete the treatment of the underlying theory and provide guidance on thermodynamic modelling. There is also a discussion of the future direction of propulsion systems that addresses some aspects of reducing engine off-takes and contributes to the more-electric aircraft concept.

This is a book for all practising aircraft systems engineers who want to understand the interactions between their systems and the provider of their power source.

Allan Seabridge, Roy Langton, Jonathan Cooper and Peter Belobaba

Acknowledgements

This book has been completed with the help of many colleagues and organizations who were able to provide valuable information and support, specifically:

Herb Saravanamuttoo of Carlton University;Richard Dupuis, Peter MacGillivray, Shawn Horning, and Doug Dubowski of GasTOPS; andJean-Pierre Beauregard of Pratt & Whitney Canada (retired).

In particular, the authors would like to acknowledge the support received on three specific topics:

1. the Pratt & Whitney Canada PW150A engine control system;

2. the Concorde air inlet control system; and

3. the Meggitt Engine Monitoring Unit installed on all of the A380 engine options.

The first subject, addressed in Chapter 5, describes a modern turboprop application embodying a state-of-the art FADEC-based control system. In support of this topic, the authors would like to thank Pratt & Whitney Canada and particularly Jim Jarvo for his consultant services and active participation in the generation and review of the material. Jim is currently a Control Systems Fellow in the Engineering department of Pratt Whitney Canada based in Longueil, Quebec, Canada.

Regarding the second topic, the authors would like to thank the British Aircraft Corporation (now BAE Systems) for access to historical technical documents describing the Concorde air inlet system. We would also like to thank Roger Taplin who was the Lead Engineer on the Concorde AICS project during the design, development, and operational launch phases of the program. Roger, who is currently employed by Airbus at their Filton (UK) facility in the position of Aircraft Architect-Wing, provided valuable consultant and editorial support throughout the generation of the material presented in Chapter 6.

Thirdly, the authors are grateful for the information and support provided by Mervyn Floyd of Meggitt Plc in the UK concerning one of their most recent Engine Monitoring Unit programs. This topic is covered in Chapter 10 in support of the prognostics and health monitoring discussion.

In addition, the authors would like to acknowledge the following organizations that provided an important source of information through published material in support of the preparation of this book:

Boeing;CFM International;General Electric Honeywell;Parker Aerospace;Pratt & Whitney; andRolls-Royce.

List of Acronyms

ACARSAircraft Communication And Reporting SystemADCAir Data ComputerAFDXAvionics Full Duplex Switched EthernetAICSAir Inlet Control SystemAICUAir Inlet Control UnitAMADAircraft Mounted Accessory DriveAPUAuxiliary Power UnitARINCAeronautical Radio IncorporatedASMAir Separation ModuleC-DConvergent-DivergentCDPCompressor Delivery PressureCDUCockpit Display UnitCFDComputer Fluid DynamicsCLACondition Lever AngleCMCCeramic-Metal CompositeCPPControllable Pitch PropellerCRPControllable Reversible PitchCSDConstant Speed DriveCSUConstant Speed UnitDEECDigital Electronic Engine ControlEBHAElectric Back-up Hydraulic ActuatorECIUEngine-Cockpit Interface UnitECAMElectronic Centralized Aircraft MonitorECSEnvironmental Control SystemEDPEngine Driven PumpEDUEngine Display UnitEECElectronic Engine ControlEFMPSElectric Fuel Pumping & Metering SystemEHAElectro Hydrostatic ActuatorEHDElasto-Hydro-DynamicEHSVElectro-Hydraulic Servo ValveEICASEngine Indication and Caution Advisory SystemEMIElectro-Magnetic InterferenceEPREngine Pressure RatioFAAFederal Airworthiness AuthorityFADECFull Authority Digital Electronic ControlFMUFuel Metering UnitFRTTFuel Return To TankIEPRIntegrated Engine Pressure RatioHBVHandling Bleed ValveICAOInternational Civil Aviation OrganizationIBVInterstage Bleed ValveIDGIntegrated Drive GeneratorIGVInlet Guide VanesIPIntermediate PressureHIRFHigh Intensity Radiated FrequenciesHPHigh PressureLPLow PressureLVDTLinear Variable Differential TransformerMCLMaximum ClimbMCRMaximum CRuiseMEAMore Electric AircraftMEEMore Electric EngineMRMaximum ReverseMTOMaximum Take-OffNGSNitrogen Generation SystemNTSBNational Transportation Safety BoardOLTFOpen Loop Transfer FunctionO&MOverhaul & MaintenancePCUPropeller Control UnitPECPropeller Electronic ControlPEMPower Electronic ModulePHMPrognostics and Health MonitoringPLAPower Lever AnglePLFPressure Loss FactorPMAPermanent Magnet AlternatorPTITPower Turbine Inlet TemperatureR&ORepair & OverhaulRATRam Air TurbineRTDResistance Temperature DeviceSDShut-DownSFARSpecial Federal Airworthiness RegulationSHPShaft HorsepowerSLSSea Level StaticSOVShut-Off ValveSTOVLShort Take-Off and Vertical LandingteosTechnology for Energy Optimized Aircraft Equipment & SystemsTGTTurbine Gas TemperatureTITTurbine Inlet TemperatureTMTorque MotorTRUTransformer Rectifier UnitVIFVectoring In FlightVLSIVery Large Scale IntegrationVSCFVariable Speed Constant FrequencyVSTOLVertical or Short Take-Off and LandingVSVVariable Stator VaneUAVUnmanned Air Vehicle

Chapter 1

Introduction

The modern gas turbine engine used for aircraft propulsion is a complex machine comprising many systems and subsystems that are required to operate together as a complex integrated entity. The complexity of the gas turbine propulsion engine has evolved over a period of more than 70 years. Today, these machines can be seen in a wide range of applications from small auxiliary power units (APUs) delivering shaft power to sophisticated vectored thrust engines in modern fighter aircraft.

The military imperative of air superiority was the driving force behind the development of the gas turbine for aircraft propulsion. It had to be lighter, smaller and, above all, it had to provide thrust in a form which would allow higher aircraft speed. Since aircraft propulsion is, by definition, a reaction to a flow of air or gas created by a prime mover, the idea of using a gas turbine to create a hot jet was first suggested by Sir Frank Whittle in 1929. He applied for and obtained a patent on the idea in 1930. He attracted commercial interests in the idea in 1935 and set up Power Jets Ltd. to develop a demonstrator engine which first ran in 1937. By 1939, the British Air Ministry became interested enough to support a flight demonstration. They contracted Power Jets Ltd. for the engine and the Gloucester Aircraft Co. to build an experimental aircraft. Its first flight took place on 15 May 1941. This historic event ushered in the jet age.