Gender matters (2nd ed) E-Book

Anca-Ruxandra Pandea

• Herausgeber: Council of Europe
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Seitenzahl: 424

Beschreibung

Gender-based violence undermines the core values of human rights on which the Council of Europe is based and to which its member states have subscribed

Gender-based violence refers to any type of harm that is perpetrated against a person or group of people because of their actual or perceived sex, gender, sexual orientation and/or gender identity. Gender-based violence can be sexual, physical, verbal, psychological (emotional), or socio-economic and it can take many forms – from verbal violence and hate speech on the internet, to rape or murder. Statistics show that gender-based violence affects women disproportionately.

Gender-based violence undermines the core values of human rights on which the Council of Europe is based and to which its member states have subscribed. It is a problem in all member states and affects millions of women and men, young people and children, regardless of their social status, cultural or religious background, sexual orientation or gender identity.

Preventing, addressing and combating gender-based violence are intrinsic to human rights education, youth work and non-formal learning activities which support young people on their path to autonomy as active citizens, mindful of everyone’s human rights. The issues that are addressed through this work are all relevant to young people’s lives, and they relate directly to the world in which young people live.

Gender Matters is a manual to address gender-based violence with young people. It provides insights into gender and gender-based violence, background information to key social, political and legal issues and, especially, educational activities and methods for education and training activities with young people.

Gender Matters should be used as a practical resource in guiding young people to become more aware of their own actions and the actions of others. It contributes to a better understanding of how to stay safe and secure and how to support those who have experienced violence in their lives. It will not suffice to eradicate gender-based violence. However it is a necessary and urgent step towards dignity for all.

Leseprobe

GENDER MATTERS

A manual on addressing gender-based violence

affecting young people

Second edition – fully revised and updated

Written and edited by

ANCA-RUXANDRA PANDEA, DARIUSZ GRZEMNY, ELLIE KEEN

Final Editor

RUI GOMES

Authors and editors of the first edition

ANNETTE SCHNEIDER, DENNIS VAN DER VEUR,

GORAN BULDIOSKI, KAROLINA VRETHEM,

GAVAN TITLEY, GYÖRGYI TÓTH, YAEL OHANA

Council of Europe, 2019

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude to all those who contributed to this edition of the manual, in particular:

•CÉCILE GREBOVAL and her colleagues at the Gender Equality Division

•ALICE BARBIERI, Gender Equality Rapporteur of the Joint Council on Youth

•EMIE VALIQUETTE, ENRICO ELEFANTE, FABRIZIO PROVENZANO, KAAN SEN, VINCENT SCANLAN, trainees at the European Youth Centre, NATHALIE GUITER and JOANNE HUNTING for their useful advice and care.

We have made every possible effort to trace references of texts and activities to their authors and give them the necessary credits. We apologise for any omissions or inaccuracies and will be pleased to correct them.

GENDER MATTERS

A manual on addressing gender-based violence affecting young people

Second edition, 2019

The views expressed in this manual do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Council of Europe.

Copyright of this publication is held by the Council of Europe.

No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted for commercial purposes in any form or by any means, electronic (CD-ROM, Internet, etc.) or mechanical including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the Publishing Division ([email protected]), Directorate of Communication of the Council of Europe.

Reproduction of material from this publication is authorised for non-commercial education purposes only and on condition that the source is properly quoted.

All other correspondence concerning this document should be addressed to the Youth Department of the Council of Europe:

European Youth Centre Strasbourg

30, rue Pierre de Coubertin

F- 67075 Strasbourg Cedex – France

Email: [email protected]

Credits for photos:

•Cover and pages 14, 56, 174, 194: Alan Poulson, Filip Warulik, WAYHOME studio, Anatol Misnikou © Shutterstock.com

•Page 230: Ivelin Radkov © Shutterstock.com

•Page 180: Metoo - Mihai Surdu

Layout, design and illustrations: Pedro Meca

Printed in Hungary

Paper ISBN: 978-92-871-8958-5

© Council of Europe, 2019Facebook.com/CouncilOfEuropePublications

Poster created by the No Hate Ninjas (Portugal) for the No Hate Speech Movement youth campaign.

Snežana Samardžić-MarkovićDirector General of Democracy, Council of Europe

PREFACE

Gender equality does matter

Gender-based violence is one of the most widespread forms of human rights abuse and a violation of human dignity anywhere. Gender-based violence is a problem in all member states of the Council of Europe and affects millions of women, men and children regardless of their social status, cultural or religious background, civil status, sexual orientation or gender identity. Gender-based violence undermines the core values of human rights on which the Council of Europe is based and to which its member states have subscribed.

As the Council of Europe Istanbul Convention affirms, there can be no real equality between women and men if women experience gender-based violence on a large scale and state agencies and institutions turn a blind eye. It is the responsibility of state authorities to take measures to prevent violence, protect the victims and prosecute the perpetrators.

Legal action, however essential, cannot be the only response if we want to reduce and eradicate such forms of violence. The values of human rights, non-violence and gender equality can be neither imposed nor simply advertised; they must be accepted and respected in real life. The key is education, information and awareness-raising. Only through combined efforts can we ensure that the patterns of oppression and humiliation are not repeated from generation to generation.

The Council of Europe youth sector has taken this matter seriously because young people are more vulnerable to forms of gender-based violence; they must also be the agents of the changes required to eradicate it. The Youth for Democracy programme consistently combats all forms of discrimination and promotes gender equality with an intersectional approach. A Gender Impact Study concluded that there is adequation between the aims of the programme and the promotion of gender equality. The programme is sensitive to the promotion of diversity and the inclusion of minorities and vulnerable individuals; it has gender equality among its priorities, and its work is in contrast with the current gender inequality patterns in the member states of the Council of Europe. The objectives of the programme are also effective responses to ongoing discriminatory, transphobic and homophobic narratives.

The work of the Council of Europe’s youth sector relies on its youth multipliers. The role of young people and youth work is thus very important to reach out to the rest of society to prevent and combat gender-based violence. Gender Matters was first published to support this work. It builds on the educational approaches of Compass, the manual on human rights education with young people which enables millions of young people across Europe to learn about, through and for human rights.

Gender Matters is a manual on gender-based violence affecting young people. It is a useful introduction to gender and gender-based violence for people who work with young people, providing reflections on gender and gender-based violence, a background to key contemporary issues and, especially, methods and resources for education and training activities with young people.

We hope that youth workers and activists alike will find in this manual inspiration and resources to resist the backlashes to equality and dignity for all and overcome the narratives of supremacy, sexism, hate and violence. Gender equality matters. Gender-based violence has no future.

Table of contents

Introduction to this edition

Chapter 1 Gender identity, gender-based violence and human rights

1. What is gender-based violence?

2. What causes gender-based violence?

3. Types of gender-based violence

4. Exploring gender and gender identity

5. Gender-based violence and human rights

6. Youth work and youth policy responses to gender and gender-based violence

Chapter 2 Activities to address gender and gender-based violence with young people

Educational approaches and guidance for facilitators

Overview of the activities

About Maria

Digital Media Bash

Gender Confusion

Gender-in-a-box

Good, Better, Best

Greater Expectations?

The Impact of Gender-Based Violence

Kati’s Story

The Knight in Shining Armor

N vs Sweden

No Violence Here

Our Daily Sexism

Safety in My Life

Sex Sells?

Spaces and Places

Stella

Too Hard to Respond

What to Do?

Chapter 3 Taking action against gender-based violence

1. Protecting the victims/survivors

2. Prevention of gender-based violence

3. Building a human rights culture

4. Gender in youth work and youth organisations

5. Developing an initiative or a strategy addressing gender-based violence

Chapter 4 Themes related to gender and gender-based violence

Feminism and women’s rights movements

Intersectionality and multiple discrimination

LGBT+

Masculinities

Sexuality

Appendices Selected International Legal Human Rights Instruments Related to Gender-Based Violence

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (unofficial summary)

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women – CEDAW (Summary)

European Convention on Human Rights (simplified version of selected articles)

Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (unofficial summary)

Glossary of terms related to gender and gender-based violence

Introduction to this edition

Welcome to the second edition of Gender Matters, a manual on addressing gender-based violence affecting young people.

Gender Matters was first published in 2007, within the Human Rights Education Youth Programme of the Council of Europe. It followed and built on the publication of Compass – a manual on human rights education with young people and Compasito – a manual on human rights education for children. Both of these publications make reference to issues of gender, gender equality and gender-based violence.

Gender Matters is a manual on gender-based violence affecting young people. The manual constitutes a useful introduction to gender and gender-based violence for people who work with young people, by providing reflections on gender and gender-based violence, a background to key social, political and legal issues, and methods and resources for education and training activities with young people.

Gender Matters has been used as an educational resource in numerous educational activities run at the European Youth Centres in Strasbourg and Budapest. Translated into several languages, the manual has reached youth groups and youth organisations across Europe, supporting work against the gender-based violence which affects young people today.

Gender-based violence undermines the core values on which the Council of Europe is based, notably human rights, democracy and the rule of law. In the years following the first edition of Gender Matters, the Council of Europe introduced a number of legal instruments and policies related to gender equality and protection from gender-based violence, including:

•The Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention) – the most far-reaching international treaty designed to address violence against women. It breaks new ground by requesting states to criminalise the various forms of violence against women;

•The Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse, also known as the Lanzarote Convention. The treaty demands that all types of sexual offences against children be criminalised;

•The Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, which entered into force in 2008 and strengthens the protection afforded to victims of trafficking;

•Recommendation CM/Rec(2010)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on measures to combat discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity. This was the first instrument in the world to deal specifically with one of the most persistent and difficult forms of discrimination.

In the youth sector, a series of recommendations of the Committee of Ministers to member states have reinforced the importance of gender equality as an integral part of youth policies and programmes:

•The Charter on Education for Democratic Citizenship and Human Rights Education (2010) affirms gender equality as an essential element of EDC/HRE

•The Enter! Recommendation (2015) on Access of Young People from Disadvantaged Neighbourhoods to Social Rights stresses the need to develop gender-sensitive approaches to the elaboration of youth policies in disadvantaged neighbourhoods, and provide support for the capacity building and equal participation of young women and young men, as well as to address bullying, sexual harassment, gender-based violence, and all other forms of violence prevalent in disadvantaged neighbourhoods;

•The Recommendation on Young People’s Access to Rights (2016), which asks member states to establish strategies to improve young people’s access to rights that reflect the principles of the universality and indivisibility of human rights, non-discrimination and equal opportunities and gender equality;

•The Recommendation on Supporting Young Refugees in Transition to Adulthood (2019) which calls upon member states to provide to young refugees in transition to adulthood the support and protection they require and give due consideration to the needs of all young refugees at risk, such as survivors of sexual and gender-based violence, trafficking in human beings or exploitation. States are also recommended to take due consideration to the specific needs and situations of young women and of young men in the implementation of the Recommendation.

These new treaties and recommendations, as well as other developments such as the experience of the No Hate Speech Movement campaign regarding sexist, homo- and transphobic hate speech, made the need to revise and update Gender Matters particularly pressing. The growing awareness of gender inequality and gender-based violence as obstacles to the full participation and development of young people needs to be accompanied by up-to-date and accessible educational resources.

Gender Matters is an important resource in support of the Council of Europe youth sector strategy 2030 and the Youth for Democracy programme, notably regarding young people’s access to rights, human rights education and combating all forms of discrimination with an intersectional approach.

This manual is also useful for pursuing the UN Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 5 on Gender Equality, and the Council of Europe’s Gender Equality Strategy.

What has changed

This second edition has been substantially rewritten, taking into account feedback from users, and changes in legislation and policy – particularly from the Council of Europe.

•The structure has changed

The manual still includes four chapters, but these have been organised differently from the first edition. Users still find a theoretical chapter addressing the issues of gender, gender-based violence and human rights instruments (Chapter 1), and a set of activities (Chapter 2). Taking action against gender-based violence is now a chapter on its own. There is also a new chapter, ‘Themes relating to gender and gender-based violence’, where readers can find information on different topics which may be useful when exploring issues like feminism, intersectionality or sexuality. A glossary of terms relating to gender and gender-based violence has also been added.

•Language has been simplified

Talking about gender can be very difficult and often includes complicated terms or theories, which may be hard to understand for young people – and the detail is not always necessary. To make the content clearer and the manual more readable for young people we have tried to use more user-friendly language, but without over-simplifying content.

•The language is more inclusive

We have tried to use gender-sensitive language throughout the manual and avoid the trap of gender binary. However, this was not always possible, for example in parts of the manual where the content deals with different legal instruments which sometimes use less gender-sensitive language.

•A new set of experiential activities

There are new activities in Chapter 2 which take into account new legal instruments and deal with topics absent from the first version, such as remembrance. Some of the activities have been adapted from Compass or Bookmarks.

What has not changed

The purpose, educational approach and methods proposed remain largely valid; if anything, they are probably improved in this edition.

Gender Matters provides information, ideas and resources to deepen youth and educational activities addressing issues related to gender and gender-based violence and places these issues within the framework of human rights education.

Gender Matters does not aim to be an exhaustive publication and will not provide readers with all possible theories or ideas related to gender or gender equality. Nor does it deal with all aspects of gender-based violence. Instead, it focuses on issues and concerns relating to gender-based violence which are likely to be relevant to young people’s lives. These issues and concerns may differ depending on social and political context, and some of the material and activities may need to be adapted in order to respond to the concrete needs of young people in a given community, region or country.

While there is no particular starting point, and it is our intention that readers are able to choose the parts that are relevant for them, we strongly recommend you look through the whole manual to gain an overall picture of the contents, and read the parts of the conceptual chapters most closely related to the issues being addressed by your work with young people. Working with the topic of gender and gender-based violence can be challenging and requires sensitivity and specific competences to be able to deal with the ethical issues which may arise.

Gender Matters is for everybody who wants to explore the topics related to gender and gender-based violence through human rights education. It does not provide all the answers – and may instead create new questions! The manual should be used as a resource to guide young people in the world of human rights issues, helping them to become more aware of their own actions and the actions of others, and contributing to a better understanding of how to stay safe and secure and how to support those who have experienced violence in their lives.

chapter 1

Gender identity, gender-based violence and human rights

Gender identity, gender-based violence and human rights

Gender equality is an essential aim for any society based on human rights, democracy and the rule of law. Gender equality concerns almost every aspect of social interaction and public policy, including youth policy and youth work. Every individual is directly and personally affected by issues relating to gender equality and gender-based violence.

However, discussing gender and gender-based violence can be difficult, as these discussions include concepts and terms which are not always clear, which may change over time, and which cut across different disciplines such as psychology, sociology, culture, medicine, law, education, activism or politics.

The baseline is that gender-based violence is a human rights violation and affects not only people who are directly targeted by it, but also the whole of society.

The Spotlight Initiative of the United Nations and the European Union provides the following data1:

In addition:

•1612 transgender people were killed in 62 countries between 2008 and 20142;

•almost half of the respondents to an EU LGBT survey stated that they had experienced discrimination or harassment because of their sexual orientation3.

These statistics show a little of the extent of gender-based violence, but it is important to note that most examples of the problem continue to go unreported. Acting against gender-based violence requires active involvement from state authorities, from institutions, NGOs and indeed from all members of society. Addressing the problem is a key task for youth work.

1. What is gender-based violence?

‘Gender-based violence’ and ‘violence against women’ are two terms that are often used interchangeably, as most violence against women is inflicted (by men) for gender-based reasons, and gender-based violence affects women disproportionately. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women defines violence against women as

any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life4.

In more recent legal documents, there are examples of the two terms being merged, and the term ‘gender-based violence against women’ is used. For example, in the Council of Europe’s Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention), Article 3 offers the following definition:

gender-based violence against women shall mean violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that affects women disproportionately5.

Definitions such as these apply to instances where gender is the basis for violence carried out against a person. However, there is more to gender than being male or female: someone may be born with female sexual characteristics but identify as male, or as male and female at the same time, or sometimes as neither male nor female. LGBT+ people (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and other people who do not fit the heterosexual norm or traditional gender binary categories) also suffer from violence which is based on their factual or perceived sexual orientation, and/or gender identity. For that reason, violence against such people falls within the scope of gender-based violence. Furthermore, men can also be targeted with gender-based violence: statistically, the number of such cases is much smaller, in comparison with women, but it should not be neglected.

Using the definition of ‘gender-based violence against women’ from the Explanatory report to the Istanbul Convention6 as a starting point we can say that:

Gender-based violence refers to any type of harm that is perpetrated against a person or group of people because of their factual or perceived sex, gender, sexual orientation and/or gender identity.

Gender-based violence is based on an imbalance of power and is carried out with the intention to humiliate and make a person or group of people feel inferior and/or subordinate. This type of violence is deeply rooted in the social and cultural structures, norms and values that govern society, and is often perpetuated by a culture of denial and silence. Gender-based violence can happen in both the private and public spheres and it affects women disproportionately.

Gender-based violence can be sexual, physical, verbal, psychological (emotional), or socio-economic and it can take many forms – from verbal violence and hate speech on the Internet, to rape or murder. It can be perpetrated by anyone: a current or former spouse/partner, a family member, a colleague from work, schoolmates, friends, an unknown person, or people who act on behalf of cultural, religious, state, or intra-state institutions. Gender-based violence, as with any type of violence, is an issue involving relations of power. It is based on a feeling of superiority, and an intention to assert that superiority in the family, at school, at work, in the community or in society as a whole.

Why is gender-based violence a problem?

•Gender-based violence is a human rights violation

It is an unrelenting assault on human dignity, depriving people of their human rights. Freedom from violence is a fundamental human right, and gender-based violence undermines a person’s sense of self-worth and self-esteem. It affects not only physical health but also mental health and may lead to self-harm, isolation, depression and suicidal attempts.

•Gender-based violence threatens a person’s physical and psychological integrity

Everyone has the right to feel safe and secure, and where this is not present, people’s ability to function in the family, community and society is likely to be impaired, as self-realisation and development are affected. Gender-based violence is an obstacle to the realisation of every person’s well-being and to their right to fulfilment and self-development.

•Gender-based violence is discrimination

It is deeply rooted in harmful stereotypes and prejudices against women or other people who do not fit into a traditional gender binary or heteronormative society. For that reason, gender-based violence can have the effect of pushing women and others who are affected to the margins of society and making them feel inferior or helpless. In the case of men who do not act according to dominant masculine gender roles, gender-based violence has the function of correction by example. The severity of the ‘punishment’ for men who do not act according to expectations concerning male gender roles (whether gay, bisexual or heterosexual) may be related to the perceived danger that their difference presents to normalised and dominant assumptions about gender. Their very lives might collide and appear to contradict the idea that there are natural forms of behaviour and social roles in general for men and women.

•Gender-based violence is an obstacle to gender equality

Gender equality is central to safeguarding human rights, upholding democracy and preserving the rule of law. Gender-based violence contributes to cultivating a heteronormative society and perpetuates the power of men. Gender equality, on the other hand, entails equal rights for people of all genders, as well as equal visibility, and equal opportunities for empowerment, taking responsibility and participating in all spheres of public and private life. Gender equality also implies equal access to, and equal distribution of resources between women and men.

•Gender-based violence is under-reported and there is often impunity for perpetrators

Common myths, such as that ‘what happens at home should stay at home’ or that ‘it is nobody’s business what happens in the family’ are very powerful. This makes denouncing violence in the family difficult, and it may affect the provision of help and support services, thereby exposing the abused person to greater harm, with possibly fatal consequences. Furthermore, violence very often silences those who are affected by it. By failing to speak out against domestic violence we also mirror the techniques used by perpetrators. In some countries, most types and forms of gender-based violence are illegal and punishable by law, but there are countries which lag behind in this respect. The Istanbul Convention of the Council of Europe asks for criminalisation of different forms of gender-based violence.

•Gender-based violence affects everyone

Children raised in families where a woman is abused are also victims of violence (sometimes not physically, but always psychologically). The children witness violence and may form the impression that such behaviour is justified or ‘normal’; in other words, they assimilate violent norms. They are also brought up in a culture of violence that may negatively affect their self-development and ability to function in society. Gender-based violence affects family members, friends and colleagues.

•Gender-based violence has a very heavy economic cost.

It requires the involvement of different services - medical, psychological, the police or justice system – and it results in the loss of resources or of employment by victims. It makes people underachieve at work and in education, and it negatively affects their productivity. Many people who suffer from gender-based violence cannot stay at home and need a place to stay, which sometimes results in homelessness. Shelter services need to be provided for such people, and while there are services for abused women and their children in many places in Europe (although not in sufficient numbers), the inadequate number of shelters for LGBT+ people remains critical.

Poster created by the No Hate Ninjas (Portugal) for the No Hate Speech Movement youth campaign.

2. What causes gender-based violence?

Gender-based violence, and in particular violence against women, is one of the most pronounced expressions of the unequal power relations between women and men. The main cause of the violence is the perpetrator him or herself: it is very important to keep in mind that a person who has been affected by gender-based violence is never responsible for the perpetrator’s actions.

There is no single factor that can explain gender-based violence in our societies, but rather a myriad of factors contribute to it, and the interplay of these factors lies at the root of the problem. Four types of factors can be identified: cultural, legal, economic and political.

Cultural factors

Patriarchal and sexist views legitimise violence to ensure the dominance and superiority of men. Other cultural factors include gender stereotypes and prejudice, normative expectations of femininity and masculinity, the socialisation of gender, an understanding of the family sphere as private and under male authority, and a general acceptance of violence as part of the public sphere (e.g. street sexual harassment of women), and/or as an acceptable means to solve conflict and assert oneself.

Religious and historical traditions have sanctioned the physical punishment of women under the notion of entitlement and ownership of women. The concept of ownership, in turn, legitimises control over women’s sexuality, which, according to many legal codes, has been deemed essential to ensure patrilineal inheritance.

Sexuality is also tied to the concept of so-called “family honour” in many societies. Traditional norms in these societies allow the killing of women suspected of defiling the “honour” of the family by indulging in forbidden sex or marrying and divorcing without the consent of the family. Norms around sexuality also help to account for the high numbers of homeless LGBT+ young people, and for the prevalence of hate crimes against them, on the grounds that they are considered a “threat” to societal norms. The same norms around sexuality can help to account for the mass rape of women.

Legal factors

Being a victim of gender-based violence is perceived in many societies as shameful and weak, with many women still being considered guilty of attracting violence against themselves through their behaviour. This partly accounts for enduring low levels of reporting and investigation.

Until recently, the law in some countries still differentiated between the public and private spaces, which left women particularly vulnerable to domestic violence. The Istanbul Convention ensures the right for everyone, particularly women, to live free from violence in both the public and the private spheres.

While most forms of gender-based violence are criminalised in most European countries, the practices of law enforcement in many cases favour the perpetrators, which helps to account for low levels of trust in public authorities and for the fact that most of these crimes go unreported.

The decriminalisation of homosexuality is still very recent in many societies. While progress has been achieved in many states by adopting equal marriage, this has sometimes led to a backlash, for example by strengthening opinions holding the traditional family to be the union between a man and a woman, or where countries have adopted laws that forbid “homosexual propaganda”.

Economic factors

The lack of economic resources generally makes women, but also LGBT+ people particularly vulnerable to violence. It creates patterns of violence and poverty that become self-perpetuating, making it extremely difficult for the victims to extricate themselves. When unemployment and poverty affect men, this can also cause them to assert their masculinity through violent means.

Political factors

The under-representation of women and LGBT+ people in power and politics means that they have fewer opportunities to shape the discussion and to affect changes in policy, or to adopt measures to combat gender-based violence and support equality. The topic of gender-based violence is in some cases deemed not to be important, with domestic violence also being given insufficient resources and attention. Women’s and LGBT+ movements have raised questions and increased public awareness around traditional gender norms, highlighting aspects of inequality. For some, this threat to the status quo has been used as a justification for violence.

3. Types of gender-based violence

Violence is often associated only with physical violence, neglecting other non-physical forms. Violence is a complex issue and categorising different ‘types’ of violence can never be exact. The Council of Europe Istambul Convention mentions the following types of violence:

•psychological violence (Art. 33)

•stalking (Art. 34)

•physical violence (Art. 35)

•forced marriages (Art. 37)

•sexual violence, including rape (Art. 36)

•female genital mutilation (Art. 38)

•forced abortion and forced sterilisation (Art. 39)

•sexual harassment (Art. 40)

•aiding or abetting and attempt (Art. 41)

•unacceptable justifications for crimes, including crimes committed in the name of so-called “honour” (Art. 42).

Using these as a basis, in this publication, we shall distinguish five inter-related types of violence:

•Physical

•verbal (including hate speech)

•sexual

•psychological, and

•socio-economic.

There also two other categories of violence that can be found in this chapter: domestic violence and (sexual) harassment – both of which may be a combination of all five types of violence mentioned above. In reality, some or many forms of violence can be present at the same time, particularly in abusive relationships. All forms can occur both in the private sphere (in families and intimate relationships) and in the public sphere, committed by (unknown) individuals in public space, or by organisations, institutions, and states.

Physical violence

Physical violence includes beating, burning, kicking, punching, biting, maiming or killing, or the use of objects or weapons. Some classifications also include human trafficking and slavery in the category of physical violence because initial coercion is often experienced, and the people involved often end up becoming victims of further violence as a result of their enslavement. Physical violence is an act attempting to cause, or resulting in, pain and/or physical injury. As with all forms of violence, the main aim of the perpetrator is not only – or may not always be – to cause physical pain, but also to limit the other’s self-determination. Physical violence sends a clear message to the victim from the perpetrator: “I can do things to you that you do not want to happen.” Such violence demonstrates differences of social power, or may intend to promote particular demands, sometimes regularly, through coercion. Physical violence in intimate relationships, often referred to as domestic violence, continues to be a widespread phenomenon in every country.

Physical violence in the private sphere also affects young people. As mentioned above, witnessing the abuse of one parent by another leads to serious psychological harm in children. Often, children and young people who are present during an act of spousal abuse will also be injured, sometimes by accident and sometimes because they try to intervene. Young men sometimes commit criminal offences against the abusive parent (mostly fathers), in order to protect their mother and siblings, and children regularly become victims of an act of revenge by the abuser against the mother. In fact, for many mothers a prime motivation to stay in an abusive relationship is that the abuser threatens to harm or kill the children if she tries to leave.

Physical violence also appears in the intimate relationships of young people. The fact that they might not live together often adds to the difficulties in talking about it.

Gender-based violence in public is often related to assumptions and expectations concerning gender roles. Verbal abuse, name-calling, threats and attacks may take place, and it is common that LGBT+ people or those perceived to be gay, lesbian or ‘different’ may become victims of public violence. Violence against LGBT+ people can be organised (groups going to well-known meeting places of gay men to beat them up) or ‘spontaneous’ outbursts, for example, when a lesbian woman is attacked when she walks in the street holding hands with her partner. In this respect, public affection becomes a safety issue, and research shows that many LGBTs refrain from showing affection in public. This kind of street violence usually remains under-reported.

Verbal violence and hate speech

Many cultures have sayings or expressions to the effect that words are harmless, and there is a long tradition that teaches us to ignore verbal attacks. However, when these attacks become regular and systematic and purposefully target someone’s sensitive spots7, the object of the attacks is right to consider themselves victims of verbal abuse.

Verbal violence can include issues that are specific to a person, such as put-downs (in private or in front of others), ridiculing, the use of swear-words that are especially uncomfortable for the other, saying bad things about the other’s loved ones, threatening with other forms of violence, either against the victim or against somebody dear to them. At other times, the verbal abuse may be relevant to the background of the victim, such as their religion, culture, language, (perceived) sexual orientation or traditions. Depending on the most emotionally sensitive areas of the victim, abusers often consciously target these issues in a way that is painful, humiliating and threatening to the victim.

Most of the verbal violence that women experience because of being women is sexualised, and counts as sexual violence. Verbal gender-based violence in the public sphere is also largely related to gender roles: it may include comments and jokes about women or may present women as sex objects (e.g. jokes about sexual availability, prostitution, rape). A great deal of bullying is related to the (perceived) sexuality of young people (especially boys). The regular negative use of words such as ‘queer’ or ‘fag’ is often traumatising for those perceived as gays and lesbians. This is very likely one of the reasons why many gays and lesbians only ‘come out’ after secondary school.

Verbal violence may be classified as hate speech. It can take many forms: words, videos, memes, or pictures that are posted on social networks, or it may carry a violent message threatening a person or a group of people because of certain characteristics. The European Commission on Racism and Intolerance defines hate speech as:

(…) advocacy, promotion or incitement, in any form, of the denigration, hatred or vilification of a person or group of persons, as well as any harassment, insult, negative stereotyping, stigmatisation or threat in respect of such a person or group of persons and the justification of all the preceding types of expression, on the ground of “race”8, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin, age, disability, language, religion or belief, sex, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation and other personal characteristics or status9.

Gender-based hate speech mainly targets women (in this case, it is often called ‘sexist hate speech’) 10and LGBT+ people, on the basis of sex, gender, sexual orientation or gender identity both in the private and public spheres. This includes the Internet, which is considered a public sphere. However, people may also be affected by this kind of gender-based violence in private e-mails or messages sent using online messaging software.

Gender-based hate speech can take many different forms – jokes, spreading rumours, threats, slander, incitement of violence or hate. It aims at humiliating, dehumanising and making a person or group of people scared. As with any type of violence, gender-based hate speech is usually very destructive for the person targeted: people who experience hate speech often feel helpless, and do not know what to do. They feel uneasy, frightened, and they lose self-confidence and sometimes even attempt suicide. Hate speech can sometimes lead to hate crimes – crimes that are motivated by prejudices targeting a person whose identity is different from the perpetrator’s. Hate crimes can take various forms: physical violence, destroying property, arson or killing. The victims are deliberately chosen because of certain characteristics that they are perceived to possess.

Psychological violence

All forms of violence have a psychological aspect, since the main aim of being violent or abusive is to hurt the integrity and dignity of another person. Apart from this, there are certain forms of violence which take place using methods which cannot be placed in other categories, and which therefore can be said to achieve psychological violence in a ‘pure’ form. This includes isolation or confinement, withholding information, disinformation, and threatening behaviour.

In the private sphere, psychological violence includes threatening conduct which lacks physical violence or verbal elements, for example, actions that refer to former acts of violence, or purposeful ignorance and neglect of another person.

One common example of such violence in the public sphere includes the isolation of young women or men who do not act according to traditional gender roles. Isolation in the public sphere is most often used by peer groups, but responsible adults – such as teachers and sports coaches – can also be perpetrators. Most typically, isolation means exclusion from certain group activities. It can also include intimidation, in a similar fashion to psychological abuse in the private sphere.

Sexual violence

As more and more information has become available about the circumstances surrounding sexual violence, it has become clear that sexual violence, like other forms of violence, is an abuse of power. Sexual violence includes: engaging in non-consensual vaginal, anal or oral penetration with another person, by the use of any body part or object; engaging in other non-consensual acts of a sexual nature with a person; or causing someone else to engage in non-consensual acts of a sexual nature with a third person. Marital rape and attempted rape constitute sexual violence. Examples of forced sexual activities include being forced to watch somebody masturbate, forcing somebody to masturbate in front of others, forced unsafe sex, sexual harassment, and abuse related to reproduction (e.g. forced pregnancy, forced abortion, forced sterilisation, female genital mutilation).

Certain forms of sexual violence are related to a victim’s personal limits, and are more typical of the private sphere. The perpetrator deliberately violates these limits: examples include date rape, forcing certain types of sexual activities, withdrawal of sexual attention as a form of punishment, or forcing other(s) to watch (and sometimes to imitate) pornography.

All forms of sexual violence can appear in both the private and the public spheres. There are, however, three particular forms of sexual violence in the public sphere which are worth noting: sexual harassment at the workplace, sexual violence as a weapon of war and torture, and sexual violence against (perceived) LGBT+ people as a means of ‘punishment’ for abandoning prescribed gender roles.

Socio-economic violence

Socio-economic deprivation can make a victim more vulnerable to other forms of violence and can even be the reason why other forms of violence are inflicted. Global economic data clearly show that one of the consequences of globalisation is the feminisation of poverty11 (making women generally more economically vulnerable than men), however economic vulnerability is a phenomenon that also exists on the personal level. It has been recognised in a vast number of abusive relationships as a distinct phenomenon, which is why it deserves a category of its own. However, even when the relationship is reversed, and a woman has a higher economic status in a relationship, this does not necessarily eliminate the threat of violence: conflicts about status and emasculation may arise, particularly in already abusive relationships.

Typical forms of socio-economic violence include taking away the earnings of the victim, not allowing them to have a separate income (giving them ‘housewife’ status, or making them work in a family business without a salary), or making the victim unfit for work through targeted physical abuse.

Socio-economic violence in the public sphere is both a cause and an effect of dominant gender power relations in societies. It may include denial of access to education or (equally) paid work (mainly to women), denial of access to services, exclusion from certain jobs, denial of pleasure and the enjoyment of civil, cultural, social and political rights. In the case of LGBT+ people, they may even be subject to criminalisation.

Some public forms of socio-economic gender-based violence contribute to women becoming economically dependent on their partner (lower wages, very low or no child-care benefits, or benefits being tied to the income tax of the wage-earning male partner). Such a relation of dependency then offers someone with a tendency to be abusive in their relationships the chance to act without fear of losing their partner.

Domestic violence or violence in intimate relationships

Domestic violence, or intimate partnership violence, is the most common type of gender-based violence. It also requires special attention, because it is a relational type of violence, and the dynamics are therefore very different from violent incidents that occur among strangers.

The fact that domestic violence was long considered to be a private, domestic issue has significantly hampered recognition of the phenomenon as a human rights violation. The invisibility of the phenomenon was reinforced by an understanding of international human rights law as applicable only to relations between individual and the state (or states). However, it is now recognised that state responsibility under international law can arise not only from state action, but also from state inaction, where a state fails to protect citizens against violence or abuse (the “due diligence” principle).

According to the Istanbul Convention, domestic violence includes “acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence that occur within the family or domestic unit or between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim”. Although the vast majority of domestic violence is perpetrated against women by men, it actually occurs in same sex relationships just as frequently as in heterosexual relationships, and there are cases of women abusing their male partners. Domestic violence such as rape, battering, sexual or psychological abuse leads to severe physical and mental suffering, injuries, and often death. It is inflicted against the will of the victim, with the intention to humiliate, intimidate and exert control over her or him. Very often the victim is left without recourse to any remedies, because police and law enforcement mechanisms are often gender-insensitive, hostile or absent12.

A question often asked in relation to domestic violence is ‘why doesn’t (s)he leave?’ There is no simple answer to this question, because domestic violence is a complex phenomenon which often involves physical, psychological, emotional and economic forms of abuse. It may often lead to ‘battered woman syndrome’, where a woman in an abusive relationship starts feeling helpless, worthless, powerless, and accepting of the status quo. However, this syndrome does not explain why some women kill their violent partners and detracts attention from other reasons why women end up staying in a violent relationship. Such reasons may include financial dependence on the abuser, social constraints, and a lack of alternatives such as shelters for abuse victims. Domestic violence often involves isolation of the victim from family and friends, deprivation of personal possessions, manipulation of children, threats of reprisals against the individual, against children, or against other family members. Furthermore, common social pressures regarding the nature of a family – ‘some kind of father is better than no father for your children’ – often makes getting out of an abusive relationship not only difficult, but also extremely dangerous.

One further reason why people stay in abusive relationships can be understood through the so-called ‘Cycle of Violence’13:

The abusive behaviour involved in this cycle is sometimes instinctive and reactive, and sometimes planned and deliberate. It aims to keep the abused person in the relationship through promises and denials. The basic cycle consists of an outburst of violence, which is followed by a so-called ‘honeymoon period’ characterised by a sudden positive change in the behaviour of the abuser. It is known as the honeymoon period because victims often describe this period as being very similar to the early part of the relationship. The abuser is typically very apologetic about his or her behaviour, makes promises to change, and may even offer presents. However, this period does not last long, as its only function is to eliminate the worries of the victim regarding the future of the relationship. The victim is typically engaged and involved at this stage, as nobody likes to remember negative experiences. The victim therefore welcomes the apparent changes and promises made.

Once the victim’s worries have been silenced, the old power structure is re-asserted. The many typical characteristics of domestic violence will again breed the kind of tension that eventually erupts in a further act of violence on the part of the abuser. Early in a relationship, violent incidents may be as far apart as six months or even a year, making it difficult to recognise the cyclical nature. Early incidents are likely to be verbal incidents followed by minor acts of physical violence, also making it hard for the victim to recognise the cycle, or to realise that put-downs, breaking of cups, even shoves and slaps are likely to escalate and end in beatings or worse.

The cycle does not only escalate as far as the severity of violence is concerned, but the incidents typically become closer to each other. Eventually, the honeymoon phase can disappear completely, and in some abusive relationships it may not exist at all. Instead, it may be replaced, particularly in social groups where domestic violence and rigid gender roles are less accepted, by attempts to minimise or deny the violence altogether.

In contexts where gender roles are more rigid, the perpetrator has greater freedom to deny responsibility. The set of gender roles that we are taught to adhere to as women and men contain many contradictions or demands that cannot be fulfilled. At the same time, part of the hegemonic male gender role is to oversee women and children in fulfilling their roles, and if necessary, to discipline them. These two conditions combine to create common justifications for those who are abusive in relationships: they can easily find one thing or another to blame the woman for in cases of violence inflicted, and thereby to claim the right to inflict it.

In many countries, physical abuse and emotional abuse, often accompanied by acts of sexual violence, are seen as acts or crimes of ‘passion’, motivated by jealousy or the failure of the partner to fulfil expectations. Such a portrayal is particularly common in the media. However, this kind of vocabulary should be avoided when talking about forms of gender-based violence as it perpetuates ideas of impunity and implies responsibility on the part of the victim. The influence of alcohol is also often cited as a mitigating factor in cases of sexual abuse or exploitation, but this ignores the fact that abuse is perpetrated in a systematic way. As Ronda Copelon remarks, alcohol does cause violence, but “many men get drunk without beating their wives and…men often beat their wives without being drunk. To the extent that alcohol facilitates male violence, it is an important factor in the effort to reduce violence, but it is not the cause”14.

Harassment and sexual harassment

Can I hug my colleague at work without asking, or is this sexual harassment?Is it OK to comment on a woman’s body?

When, in fact, does harassment start? It is helpful to note, from the start, that any form of harassment is usually humiliating and degrading and threatens the physical and mental integrity of a person. The Istanbul Convention of the Council of Europe defines sexual harassment as:

any form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature with the purpose or effect of violating the dignity of a person, in particular when creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment.15

Harassment and sexual harassment are also defined in EU Directive 2002/73/EC16. Harassment is said to occur “where an unwanted conduct related to the sex of a person occurs with the purpose or effect of violating the dignity of a person, and of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment”. Sexual harassment is “where any form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature occurs, with the purpose or effect of violating the dignity of a person, in particular when creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment”. This EU Directive states that harassment is both a form of discrimination and that it is illegal.

Verbal examples of sexual harassment may include: making sexual comments about a person’s body, making sexual comments or innuendos, asking about sexual fantasies, preferences, or history, asking personal questions about someone’s social or sex life, making sexual comments about a person’s clothing, anatomy, or looks, repeatedly trying to date a person who is not interested, telling lies or spreading rumours about a person’s sex life or sexual preferences.

Examples of non-verbal harassment include: looking a person up and down (‘elevator eyes’), following or stalking someone, using sexually suggestive visuals, making sexual gestures with the hands or through body movements, using facial expressions such as winking, throwing kisses, or licking lips.

Instances of physical harassment include: giving someone a massage around the neck or shoulders, touching another person’s clothing, hair, or body, hugging, kissing, patting, touching or rubbing oneself sexually against another person.

The key concept in understanding harassment is that any overtures are unwelcome. A person may welcome and accept a sexist remark or a comment about their body, but this is likely to depend on the particular situation and circumstances. However, it is important to remember that even if someone accepts – or welcomes – the behaviour, it may still be degrading and humiliating. In addition, such acceptance may not be fully voluntary: it may be a result of often invisible pressure from the outside world.

4. Exploring gender and gender identity

Gender enters into all our social relations. When people interact, their view of themselves, including their identity and their rights and possibilities, comes up against the way they are perceived by other people, and the way that others behave towards them. However, it often appears that gender in its truest sense is absent from our social relations, because the way in which most people perceive gender tends to be internalised so deeply that it appears ‘normal’ and natural. Understanding how we live together means being able to question the things we take for granted in our everyday lives. This includes a key part of our identity: our gender.