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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
An overview of the practice of strategic global and multicultural public relations in various sectors
Global and Multicultural Public Relations offers students an expert overview of specific public relations practices, focused on strategic analyses of actual case studies and real-world examples. Emphasizing practice rather than theory, this valuable resource explores innovative communication programs that are designed to address culturally-diverse communities worldwide. The five-step strategic public relations process—formative research, planning, implementation, evaluation, and stewardship—is extensively examined and applied to a variety of scenarios, helping students understand the realty of modern public relations practice.
All aspects of public relations practice, including media relations, government relations, employee communications, and shareholder relations are covered to help students gain solid foundational knowledge. Broad in scope, this textbook identifies and describes the strategy formulation and implementation process in private, government, non-profit, and various other sectors.
Academic and trade articles, book chapters, original case studies, and new primary research offer students a realistic and sophisticated approach to global public relations. Figures, tables, photographs, and charts illustrate each topic, while highlighted learning objectives and key points, discussion questions, and framed sections on ethical considerations and best practices strengthen student comprehension.
- Employs a real-world approach to public relations principles, practices, and strategies
- Focuses on global public relations rather than outdated nation-centered models
- Fills a gap in current literature on multinational and multicultural public relations
- Explains the public relations strategies that are best suited for each sector
- Includes summary sections that contain suggested readings and supplemental online links
Designed for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students, Global and Multicultural Public Relations is an ideal textbook for courses in international public relations, global communication, public relations management, and multinational management, as well as business, political sciences, and public administration.
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Seitenzahl: 479
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019
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Table of Contents
Cover
1 Introduction and Overview of Global and Multicultural Public Relations
Central Themes
Introduction
Forces Driving the Growth of the Practice
Definitions and Outlook
The Practice of Global Public Relations
Summary and Structure of the Book
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
2 Research, Measurement, and Evaluation
Central Themes
Introduction
Research Sources and Methods
Measurement and Evaluation
Research Program Stages and Components
Challenges in International Research
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
3 Role of National Culture and Subcultures
Central Themes
Introduction
National Culture and Its Implications for Public Relations Practice
Cultural Belief Systems and Their Influence on Organizational Culture
Cultural Theories and Concepts
Cross‐cultural Management and Training
Conclusion
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
4 Professionalism and Ethical Reasoning
Central Themes
Introduction
What Defines a Profession?
Professionalization in Global Public Relations
The State of the Profession Across the Globe
Licensing or Accreditation?
Why Are Ethics in the Profession Important?
Code of Ethics for the Practice
Corporate Transparency
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
5 Transnational Corporations and Global Public Relations Agencies
Central Themes
Introduction
What Are Transnational Corporations?
Global Public Relations Agencies
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
6 Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs), Multilateral Organizations (MOs), and Activist Networks
Central Themes
Introduction
Strategies and Tactics of NGOs, MOs, and Activist Networks
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
7 Coordination and Control, Standardization and Localization
Central Themes
Introduction
Coordination and Control
Standardization and Localization
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
8 Cross‐national Conflict Shifting
Central Themes
Introduction
Definition of CNCS and Major Components
Conclusion
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
9 Corporate Social Responsibility, Sustainability, and Multisector Partnerships
Central Themes
Introduction
Scope of CSR Across Borders
The Role of a Strategic Participatory Communication Process in Facilitating the Dimensions of MSP
Factors Impacting the Development, Implementation, and Evaluation of MSP Communications Policies and Plans
Making Inferences from Real‐World International MSPs
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
10 Employee Communication and Global Teams
Central Themes
Introduction
What Is Employee Communications?
How Do Global Teams Work?
Virtual Communications in Global Teams
Recommendations for Improving Global Teams and Employee Communications
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
11 Technology, Social Media, and Big Data
Central Themes
Introduction
The Rise of the Internet: From Dial‐Up to Broadband
The Growth of Social Media
The Reach of Social Media
Big Data and Analytics in Public Relations
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
12 Public Diplomacy and Corporate Foreign Policy in Government Institutions and Agencies
Central Themes
Introduction
Public Diplomacy and Corporate Diplomacy as Global Public Relations Practices
Dimensions of Public Diplomacy
The Shift of Influence: From Country Power to Corporate Power
Engaging Stakeholders in Corporate Diplomacy
Discussion Questions
Class Activity
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Pioneering European and North American professional associations.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Shades of opacity. The most and least transparent firms, 2013.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Unilever brands' media contacts in the United States.
Table 5.2 Facts and figures about.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Data sets concerning brand public relations and marketing in corpor...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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Global and Multicultural Public Relations
Juan-Carlos Molleda and Sarab Kochhar
This edition first published 2019© 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Molleda, Juan-Carlos, author. | Kochhar, Sarab, 1982– author.Title: Global and multicultural public relations / Juan-Carlos Molleda, Sarab Kochhar.Description: First Edition. | Hoboken : Wiley-Blackwell, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2019001709 (print) | LCCN 2019005068 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118673973 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781118673928 (ePub) | ISBN 9781118673966 (paperback)Subjects: LCSH: Public relations. | Globalization–Economic aspects. | Strategic planning. | BISAC: BUSINESS & ECONOMICS / Advertising & Promotion.Classification: LCC HD59 (ebook) | LCC HD59 .M586 2019 (print) | DDC 659.2–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019001709
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1Introduction and Overview of Global and Multicultural Public Relations
Keywords
multilateral organizations; trade groups; professional associations; communication hubs; evolution; transition; clearinghouse; home, host, transnational, and multinational corporations; global agencies; communication conglomerates; growth
Central Themes
Significant historical events with economic, political, and social implications have determined the evolution, growth, and sophistication of public relations in countries and regions across the world.
Emergent technologies are dramatically speeding up the development and increasing the reach of organizations, media outlets, citizens, and consumers, facilitating the instantaneous exchange of contents from one location to multiple locations.
Communication conglomerates, global agencies, and networks of independent agencies are major players and influencers in the public relations industry worldwide.
Since the 1940s, European and North American professional associations have made significant contributions to modern and strategic public relations as a profession and to the career development of national and international professionals.
All types of organizations practice global and multicultural public relations, including government and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), multilateral organizations, multinational corporations (MNCs), and agencies.
The complexity of public relations programs increases when organizations operate across borders, because of the existence and dynamism of home, host, and transnational stakeholders and publics.
Introduction
The geographical scope of action and level of specialization of public relations and communications management professionals are expanding rapidly worldwide. All types of organizations face the need to communicate with and engage stakeholders in a multiplicity of national and regional environments. Concerning the need for public relations professionals to spend time overseas, the 2013 Career Guide of PRWeek emphasizes:
This embrace of international experience comes as the industry has become increasingly global. Technology makes it even easier to communicate across the world. The supply chain now stretches across continents; as more companies draw talent, materials, and resources from all corners of the world. These changes require communications pros to speak to a growing range of audiences.
(Palmer 2013, p. 25)
This textbook documents and discusses specific practices used by various business, government, and nongovernment sectors to cultivate relationships and develop corporate reputations among foreign and multicultural stakeholders. Overall, the textbook will cover some main questions, like: What are the skills and knowledge required to practice strategic global and multicultural public relations in a specific sector? What are the implications for practice when managing relationships with home, host, transnational, and multicultural stakeholders? Which strategies are considered best practices in each sector?
Understanding global public relations in multicultural environments is essential in an increasingly interconnected world. Organizations constantly face the emergence, expansion, and contraction of markets; better informed and engaged stakeholders and consumers; greater competition; and the availability of communications and media technologies. Technologic platforms and channels blur geographical boundaries and facilitate the coordination, production, implementation, and evaluation of public relations and communications efforts, with the active participation of agency, in‐house, and outsourcing teams working from several world locations.
Thus, the primary goal of this textbook is to introduce you to the evolving field of global and multicultural public relations, including its infrastructure, issues and opportunities, and strategies and tactics, through illustrations and case studies.
Forces Driving the Growth of the Practice
Historically, the evolution of public relations can be attributed to the result of social pressures on organizations or the empowerment of public opinion demanding social responsibility and organizational transparency, both locally and globally (Sharpe and Pritchard 2004). Historical events have also impacted the evolution of the practice and field of study. The reconstruction of Western European countries after World War II and the subsequent increase in cross‐Atlantic trade led to a significant growth in modern public relations. Similarly, other successive economic, political, social, and sporting events positively impacted the growth and sophistication of public relations and communications management in regions and countries across the world. Examples include the Olympic Games in South Korea in 1988, which stimulated the country's economy and catapulted it on to the world stage as a technology center; the fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, which led to new freedoms for Central and Eastern European nations; and the end of apartheid in South Africa and the subsequent election of Nelson Mandela (1918–2013) – the so‐called Father of the New South Africa – as the country's president in 1994, which put into action a reconciliation commission and nation‐building plans to unify segregated populations into one national identity. Strategic public relations has contributed to these countries' and regions' ability to plan and communicate their dynamic economic, political, and social transitions.1
Previous studies have found at least six major environmental variables affecting the evolution and growth of public relations in many countries.2 In no specific order, these are: (i) social culture and traditions; (ii) political systems; (iii) the level of economic development; (iv) news media practices and infrastructure; (v) the nature and types of activism or social movements; and (vi) the laws and regulations directly or indirectly impacting the practice of public relations in a given country. International business scholars Christopher Bartlett and Sumantra Ghoshal (2002) explain how multinational corporations (MNCs) adapt or react to evolving, challenging contexts:
Even within particular industries, worldwide companies have developed very different strategic and organizational responses to changes in their environment. While a few players have prospered by turning environmental turmoil to their advantage, many more are merely surviving – struggling to adjust to complex, often contradictory demands. Some large well‐established worldwide companies have been forced to take large losses or even to abandon businesses.
(Bartlett and Ghoshal 2002, p. 3)
The public relations industry follows historical events closely because such events offer great challenges and opportunities for multinational organizations (MNOs) and the involved societies. For instance, when the outlook is positive, MNCs and global public relations agencies follow the path of economic growth and initiate or expand operations in the growing market. Poland is an example of a Central European country that has benefited from the economic and political changes caused by the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The size and location of the country – next to Germany, surrounded by former Soviet republics, and with a large coast on the Baltic Sea – further contribute to its level of development and geopolitical importance. The middle class has grown, consumers are more demanding, and business competition has increased, which attracts MNCs and public relations agencies to this evolving and expanding market.
Professional Associations
Among the leading players who have catapulted the growth of public relations as a profession are trade groups or professional associations, which continue to build, advocate, and strengthen the profession and to support the career development of professionals. European and North American professional associations have influenced the practice since the 1940s (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Pioneering European and North American professional associations.
Professional association
Foundation year
The Netherlands Association for Public Contact, renamed first as the Association for Public Relations in the Netherlands and later as the Dutch Association of Communication
1946
Public Relations Society of America
1947
The Canadian Public Relations Society
1948
UK Institute of Public Relations, named the Chartered Institute of Public Relations after obtaining government recognition
1948, 2005
The Norwegian Public Relations Club, later named the Norwegian Public Relations Association and finally the Norwegian Communication Association
1949, 1972, 2000
The establishment of public relations associations and institutes progressively continued in the 1950s and 1960s, on every continent. In particular, the UK Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR) and the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) have been influential in the development of trade groups on various continents. Similarly, the International Public Relations Association (IPRA), founded in 1949, has promoted ethical, professional, and educational standards worldwide. For instance, the IPRA Code of Conduct was adopted in 2011 by consolidating the 1961 Code of Venice, the 1965 Code of Athens, and the 2007 Code of Brussels, and provides global intellectual leadership for the public relations profession.
International and national associations rely on a clearinghouse organization to share common interests, concerns, and issues facing the industry. Established by 23 professional organizations at a meeting that followed the 2000 World Public Relations Congress (PRSA and IPRA were the cosponsors) in Chicago, the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication Management (GA) unites and represents national professional associations and offers knowledge and programs to help with their development. As a clearinghouse organization, the GA works to set standards for the practice and provide venues and channels for increasing interactions among global professionals. The GA's core offering is that it allows member associations and institutional members to share resources and achieve greater unity by building constructive relationships.
Strategic Communications Hubs
The business of global and multicultural public relations has historically been concentrated in four major world hubs: France (Paris), Japan (Tokyo), the United Kingdom (London), and the United States (New York City). Singapore has emerged as a strategic hub of the South East Asian region. In the same geographical order, the five conglomerates that lead the strategic communications industry today are: Publicis Groupe and Havas (France), Dentsu (Japan), WPP (UK), and Omnicom Group and Interpublic Group (USA).3 Omnicom and Publicis announced their potential merger in 2013 and again in 2018. We should expect mergers, associations, and the emergence of new conglomerates and agencies in an ever‐changing global environment.
In particular, WPP has a group of public relations and public affairs agencies with a great global reach, such as Hill + Knowlton, Ogilvy Public Relations Worldwide, Burson Cohn & Wolfe, and Specialist Public Relations. Edelman Public Relations Worldwide is the biggest global independent agency and not a part of any strategic communication conglomerate. In addition, at least four networks of independent agencies assist organizations in coordinating public relations and communications practices in a matrix of world locations: Iprex, Pinnacle Worldwide, Public Relations Global Network, and Worldcom. Organizations reaching out to home, host, transnational, and multicultural stakeholders combined their in‐company public relations and communications departments with global, regional, and national agencies from the strategic communications conglomerates and independent networks. The benefit of these configurations is that they allow MNCs to act and react speedily in multiple world locations with a combination of their own resources and specialized outsourcing capabilities. The extent of the use of agency support by MNCs is determined by their in‐house capabilities, the scope of their work, and the complexity of the markets they are trying to reach.
Globalization has redefined global and multicultural public relations and increased the interdependence of countries through an integration of trade, finance, resources, and ideas. The information technology revolution has further helped MNCs, in particular, operate in a world market outside of their national boundaries and attain relative comparative advantage among their global counterparts, leading to growth in global and multicultural public relations. The next section will define strategic global public relations in a multicultural environment – a definition that will guide the viewpoint of this textbook.
Definitions and Outlook
Public relations and communications management professionals practicing in a foreign location must coordinate between the headquarters of their organizations or agencies in one or several world subsidiaries or offices and involve and engage stakeholders at the home, host, and transnational levels. “The important elements in an international program, therefore, boil down to where the entity is located and to which publics it must build relationships” (Wakefield 2008, p. 141, italics in original). Thus, global and multicultural public relations is a strategic communication function of organizations responsible for relationship‐cultivation and reputation‐management programs with internal and external stakeholders in multiple world locations. These settings include a variety of home, host, and transnational stakeholders, as well as a diversity of subcultures between and within national boundaries.
Let's first understand the concepts of home, host, and transnational stakeholders. Home stakeholders are those operating in the country where they have their main office or headquarters, host stakeholders are those existing in other countries where a given organization is operating, and transnational stakeholders are a combination of stakeholders in several world locations simultaneously, such as activist networks or global news media. To illustrate this, let us take the example of H&M, an apparel company founded in Sweden in 1947, which as 2015 has more than 132000 employees in 62 markets (see case study). The home stakeholders are in Sweden, and the host stakeholders are in countries including Germany, Canada, and Singapore. An example of a transnational stakeholder is the Agence France Presse, which has published news articles on H&M and many other MNCs.
Illustrations from Various Economic Sectors
Examples from different kinds of organizations practicing global and multicultural public relations are plentiful. In New Zealand, the government has promoted the country's natural landscapes to the world by giving financial incentives to domestic and international film companies. The New Zealand government paid about US$150 million in support of the “Lord of the Rings” trilogy, and an estimated US$117 million for “The Hobbit” trilogy: US$99 million for production costs, US$10 million to help market the movies, and US$8 million to promote New Zealand tourism. Mexico, on the other hand, coordinates the promotion of its tourist destinations through its extensive network of embassies and consulates, with the assistance of advertising, lobbying, and public relations agencies mainly in Europe and North America.
Disneyland Paris plans and executes special events with a European or, more specifically, a French flavor to engage potential and actual visitors with the local offerings of their US‐originated theme parks. British firm BP promotes energy alternative projects such as community relations, corporate responsibility, and sustainability programs in all its subsidiaries worldwide.
A Danish‐Swedish dairy cooperative, Arla Foods, faced a boycott that affected its business in the Middle East following negative reactions among citizens there to the publication of cartoons depicting the Prophet Muhammad in a Danish newspaper.
How Can Global Public Relations Be Defined?
The evolving nature of public relations as a field of study and practice motivates trade groups, professionals, and scholars to define and redefine domestic and global public relations. Since 2012, PRSA has defined public relations simply as “a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics.” CIPR offers an expanded definition:
Public relations is about reputation – the result of what you do, what you say and what others say about you.
Public relations is the discipline which looks after reputation, with the aim of earning understanding and support and influencing opinion and behaviour. It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics.
(CIPR n.d.)
The core terms in these definitions, among many others that have been crafted worldwide, are “communication,” “relationships,” “reputation,” “understanding,” and “goodwill between organizations and publics.” When we take the practice and field of study to global and multicultural levels, these definitions need to incorporate a more complex set of publics or stakeholders. The stakeholders at home where the organization is headquartered, host locations where the organization operates in other countries or regions, and the transnational “marketspace” where voices are heard from all geographical directions – that is, a transnational flow of relationships – are all important for an organization. For instance, global public relations has been defined as “the planned and organized effort of a company, institution, or government to establish and build relationships with the publics of other nations” (Wilcox and Cameron 2009, p. 504). Concerning the public in other nations, the multicultural aspect implies relationships and involvement with diverse communities in host locations (other nations). Thus, the definition of global and multicultural public relations that frames the content of this textbook is:
A strategic and dynamic process that cultivates shared understanding, relationships, and goodwill among organizations and a combination of their culturally heterogeneous home, host, and transnational stakeholders, with the aim of achieving and maintaining a consistent reputation and established legitimation.
With this definition, we would like to emphasize that the diverse stakeholders across the globe dictate the practice of global and multicultural public relations. The definition also encompasses outcomes that help to measure the value and contributions of public relations and communications management to all types of multinational and multilateral organizations.4
The Practice of Global Public Relations
The increasing movement of people, commodities, products and services, and financial transactions in the world economy offers attractive opportunities and unavoidable challenges to all types of organizations. Public relations professionals globally experience the difficulty of cultivating and developing strategic relationships between organizations and stakeholders. This complexity exponentially increases when organizations engage stakeholders and consumers in more than one country simultaneously. Governments, corporations, multilateral organizations with membership of and representation in many nations (e.g. the International Monetary Fund, the United Nations and all its agencies, the World Bank), large media operations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and activist networks (e.g. Amnesty International, CorpWatch, Greenpeace) operating in multiple world locations practice global and multicultural public relations.
More than ever before, corporations based in developed or Western economies are sharing international trade with corporations in emergent and developing countries. For instance, Grupo Bimbo of Mexico became the biggest producer and distributer of baked goods in the United States in 2013. Similarly, HTC of Taiwan is ranked a top‐three smartphone seller in China, and Chilean LAN Airlines is ranked as the top carrier in South America after buying TAM Airlines of Brazil, also in 2013.
The world economy is becoming more dynamic with the participation of diverse actors. The Boston Consulting Group produces an annual study of the top‐100 global challengers from emerging economies. This growing competition for national and regional markets spans many economic sectors. North–South trade has traditionally been dominant globally, but South–South trade is acquiring prominence. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) explains that “South–South cooperation is a broad framework for collaboration among countries of the South in the political, social, cultural, environmental and technical domains” (United Nations Office for South–South Cooperation 2014, para. 1). These emerging business giants represent opportunity and growth, as well as high levels of competition and obstacles. For instance, Tata Group of India employs people in the United Kingdom, and the Chinese carmaker Wanxiang employs people in the United States. Emerging multinational business giants engage in internal communication and employee relations that cross geographic borders and time zones.
Moreover, escaping the world's financial crisis of the late 1990s and early 2000s, many countries in Africa, Asia, and Central and South America have experienced economic growth and the subsequent rise of their middle class. This segment of the population is associated with greater consumerism, activism, and plurality of voices in society. The growth of public relations and an increase in sophistication in societies with a significant consumer and civil society base have posed new challenges for the field.
All types of organizations and influential individuals practice global and multicultural public relations, including MNCs, national and local governments, international nongovernmental and nonprofit organizations, multilateral and trade organizations, activist and other interest groups, and an array of celebrities, intellectuals, and experts. MNCs are becoming larger than many national economies. This is important, as their immense resources give them the power to positively and negatively influence entire countries and regions in terms of their economic, social, political, environmental, and technological development. This entails significant corporate responsibilities. For example, General Electric's revenue is larger than New Zealand's GDP. MNCs from developed nations have been dominant in international trade and commerce; however, MNCs from developing nations and emergent economies are successfully competing in increasingly interconnected global and regional marketplaces.
MNCs launch global and regional brands and services that are not limited to just one business offering. They diversify into different industries as part of their business strategy, with the aim of expanding their operations around the world. An example is Al Othman Holding Company, a Saudi Arabian construction company that has established itself as a key international player in several industries, including construction, dairy production, oil and gas supply, steel grating manufacture, industrial material trading, high‐quality plastic packaging manufacture, and spun melt nonwoven fabrics production, information technology services, and the hotel industry.
MNCs may develop their own global public relations departments or hire global and national public relations agencies for assistance in coordinating a myriad of projects. They have also introduced modern and strategic public relations practices to countries all over the world. It is common to include the influence of MNCs in historical accounts of the evolution and professionalization of practice in many developing and emergent countries.
National and local governments develop public relations and communication plans to capture the attention of and build relationships with foreign (host and transnational) publics. For example, Mexico launched its “Vive Mexico” campaign to increase tourism, which is its third‐largest sector. A country may be promoted holistically or by highlighting specific sectors of its social, political, cultural, or economic structure. The main aims of countries using global public relations are to attract foreign investment, gain political clout, increase the number of tourists visiting their destinations, increase development or social change, and achieve membership in the international community of nations, trading blocs, and regional political alliances.
Individual cities, states, or regions can also design and execute global and multicultural public relations campaigns and programs in order to build understanding with publics in other countries. There may be some coordination between national and local governments during the development of these global public relations efforts. For example, the governor of the US state of Florida, Rick Scott, went to Spain in May of 2012. His delegation encouraged Spanish companies and individuals to develop business in Florida. In particular, Florida Realtors' President Summer Greene presented to Spanish investors the advantages of investing in the state's real estate industry.
International nongovernmental and nonprofit organizations focusing on development practice global public relations to achieve their missions and goals. For example, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), an international NGO working on issues regarding the conservation, research, and restoration of the environment, developed the Earth Hour Campaign. This campaign was launched in Sydney, Australia in 2007 to raise awareness of climate change, encourage energy efficiency, and make a significant contribution toward reducing the global carbon footprint. The symbolic gesture encouraging people to switch off their lights for an hour grew from one city in 2007 to 188 countries in 2018. The Earth Hour is a global call to action to every individual, business, and community throughout the world. It is a call to stand up, to take responsibility, to get involved, and to lead the way toward a sustainable future.
Multilateral and trade organizations, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), World Bank, United Nations International Children's Education Fund (UNICEF), and United Nations Development Program (UNDP), work with multiple governments to address their particular issues, such as public health, education, and poverty. As part of this, they practice global public relations to raise awareness about their campaigns for poverty reduction. The World Bank, for instance, provides a source of financial and technical assistance to developing countries. Established in 1944, it is headquartered in Washington, DC, has more than 100 offices worldwide, and supports governments in attempts to reduce poverty and support development. The organization has 188 member countries, which come together to help reduce poverty in middle‐income and poorer countries.
Celebrities use media and public relations extensively to increase their popularity and build their personal reputation in the public eye. For example, “Gangnam Style,” the record‐breaking single by the South Korean musician Psy, helped promote “hallyu” or the Korean Wave: the increasing popularity of Korean culture in other countries, including pop music, television programs, and film. The South Korean government has supported the movement; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade announced in 2012 that promoting its culture would be a major aspect of its programs. The South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Tourism formed a fund of US$10.7 million in order to promote the Korean Wave. Within five months of being posted on YouTube, the “Gangnam Style” video had received 1 billion views. An Australian morning show, “Sunrise,” declared a “Psy Day” in October of 2012.
Case Study A Multinational Crisis that Tested H&M's Commitments
Home and transnational news media, NGOs, politicians, and netizens are increasingly scrutinizing the operations of MNCs in developed, emergent, and developing countries. In October 2012, the Swedish television show Kalla Fakta5 aired a 22‐minute segment reporting that workers at Cambodian facilities where H&M6 clothes were made earned 34 € cents an hour (2.92 Swedish Krona), and at least one employee worked 70 hours a week. This is not the first allegation of issues with facilities in the South East Asian country for H&M. In August 2011, 86 workers became ill at an H&M‐related manufacturing facility close to the Cambodian province of Kampong Chhnang. Two days later, 198 workers collapsed. More than 100 were hospitalized overall. This occurred despite the fact that H&M has worked with Better Factories Cambodia since 2005.
Royalty and politics have played a role in the crisis. The Prince of Cambodia, Charin Norodom, lives in Sweden. He said he had requested to meet with H&M executives in October 2012. The MNC did not agree to the meeting. However, in May 2012, H&M's chief executive officer (CEO) Karl‐Johan Persson met with Sheikh Hasina, the Prime Minister of Bangladesh, to request an increase of the minimum wage. H&M has been in Bangladesh since 1982.
The garment industry is important in Cambodia. In 2011, it accounted for 85% of total exports and employed about 300 000 people. In February 2012, there was a 2‐day tribunal at which more than 200 factory workers spoke about debt, poor living conditions, malnutrition, and other topics. While Adidas and Puma had representatives at the tribunal, H&M and Gap did not attend. The judges, who were from three continents, stated the MNCs needed to take action so that factory workers would not continue to live in poverty.
The tribunal's conclusions and the factories' practices demonstrated the effects of fast fashion. H&M constantly changes its inventory, with clothing that is cheap, to feed customer demand for new designs. In achieving this goal, human labor may be exploited. If so, this would violate one of H&M's seven commitments: “Choose & reward responsible partners” (see www.hm.com). H&M positions itself as one of the leaders in the realm of corporate social responsibility (CSR).
Kalla Fakta posted about the segment on Facebook and Twitter in both Swedish and English, and the segment has English subtitles. H&M has multiple Twitter accounts, but only one, @hmsverige, tweeted about the segment, stating that the program contained incorrect information.
The Accusations
The Swedish television show led a series of online and broadcast accusations that were liked, commented on, shared, retweeted, and selected as favorite by netizens in Sweden and abroad. The series of allegations were generated during four months from October 2012 to February 2013.
The segment aired on October 24. During the show, Kalla Fakta invited Karl‐Johan Persson to the TV4 Studio via two tweets, which were retweeted for a combined total of 18 times. The same day, the show also tweeted: “For our foreign viewers. This is our story tonight. #Kallafakta.” A link led to an article in The Local newspaper, the headline of which was: “H&M Slams Claims of ‘Low’ Cambodian Wages” (The Local2012). Between October 23 and February 28, Kalla Fakta posted about H&M on Facebook 45 times on 19 days. Some of the posts contained links to newspapers such as The Local and Expressen, while others linked to the segment with English subtitles and H&M's response. During the same time period, Kalla Fakta tweeted, retweeted, or had a conversation with people that mentioned H&M 55 times on 18 days.
H&M's Responses
H&M went on the offensive even before the segment was aired. Persson said, “We are working with one of the world's leading experts on salaries in countries like Cambodia. We want the salaries to be raised. Furthermore, I was in Bangladesh myself recently and visited the prime minister where I put forward our demands that the wages are raised and that they're increased annually” (The Local2012, pp. 5–6). He accused Kalla Fakta of not being an objective news program.
H&M's UK Twitter account, @hmunitedkingdom, made no mention of “Cambodia,” “Kalla Fakta,” or “Scandal.” Its “main” Twitter account, @hm, made no mention of the case either. H&M did tweet about Kalla Fakta on its Swedish account, @hmsverige. On October 24, it tweeted in Swedish, stating that the program had incorrect information and providing a link to its statement. It did not post anything about the situation on Facebook.
Following a second segment on H&M's Bangladesh manufacturing in December, H&M posted a statement on its website claiming that Kalla Fakta was not objective and that therefore its CEO had declined to be interviewed on the show. Persson did answer questions from the Kalla Fakta reporter about conditions in Cambodia before the segment was aired. Given that H&M does not own any factories, he claimed, factory workers are not H&M employees. Consequently, H&M does not directly pay any of the Cambodian workers. Persson reiterated that H&M is not the only company that utilizes these facilities.
In February 2013, H&M was criticized for not properly handling its Facebook account. A 21‐year‐old woman posted that it should not make a sweatshirt with the face of Tupac Shakur, who was convicted of sexual abuse in 1995. People who disagreed with her wrote comments stating that they hoped she would be raped. One comment included her address. Even though H&M posted that comments with swearwords or unpleasant language would be removed, some remained on its Facebook page for a month (Hansegard 2013).
The MNC announced that it would be collaborating with IF Metal, a Swedish union, to help in Cambodia. The relations between the employers at the factories and the workers were “confrontational,” and IF Metal helped facilitate communication between the two groups. Helena Helmersson, the head of sustainability at H&M, met with the ILO/Better Works Cambodia and discussed the conditions for factory workers.
H&M addressed the use of Cambodian facilities. All of the supplier factories in Cambodia where H&M clothes are produced have a trade union. In 2012, the MNC conducted 2541 audits of its “first‐tier” factories worldwide. It examined 485 potential factories, and found that 119 failed; 96% of the factories where H&M clothes were manufactured were audited before it agreed to have clothes produced in them. Among the factory workers, 62% were female. The minimum monthly wage for a factory worker in Cambodia was around €63, and the average wage for workers at factories where H&M had contracts was about €68. Four of the seven factories in Cambodia where workers either fainted or felt nauseous produced clothes for H&M.
In April 2013, six months after the segment first aired, H&M published the names of its suppliers in all 23 countries where it had clothes manufactured. The list named 785 suppliers operating in 1798 factories. These suppliers accounted for 95% of all the clothes manufactured for H&M. Out of the 785 suppliers, 148 were “strategic partners,” which produced more than 50% of H&M's products.
As of May 2013, 33 factories in Cambodia produced clothes for H&M. In March of that year, an H&M supplier, New Archid, agreed to pay more than €34 000 for workers who were not compensated when a factory closed in December 2012 in Phnom Penh. H&M, along with Walmart, the Cambodian Legal Education Center, New Archid, Saramax, and three government ministries, attended a meeting chaired by the American Center for International Labor Solidarity before the decision was announced.
Governmental Reactions
Hun Sen, the Prime Minister of Cambodia, said that if protests over factory conditions and wages continued, manufacturers would leave the country; he was referring to protests against H&M and Nike. Pia Olsen Dyhr, Minister for Trade and Investment in Denmark, said in November 2012 that she would ask H&M what it was doing to correct the problems in the South East Asian country. The government in Norway also asked to meet with H&M following the segment on Kalla Fakta. The Swedish government did not publicly meet with H&M. On May 1, 2013, an increase in minimum wage went into effect in Cambodia.
NGOs Stepping In
NGOs were quick to respond to Kalla Fakta's segment. One was the Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC), established in 1989 and now comprising organizations in 15 countries in Europe. CCC believes companies are responsible for the wellbeing of each worker in their supply chain, even if they do not directly employ them. It works with other organizations with similar goals in Canada, Australia, and the United States. The International Labor Rights Forum, which was established in 1986 under the name International Labor Rights Education & Research Fund, works with CCC in the United States. CCC was involved in planning “fashion mobs” in 10 European countries in December 2012, which helped pressure H&M and other stores into creating a living wage in Cambodia.
In 2013, CCC launched the “No More Excuses” campaign in Europe, demanding that companies increase the wages of Cambodian facility workers. From October 23 to February 28, CCC had nine posts, shares, and photos about H&M and Cambodia. On Twitter, it had 12 tweets, retweets, or links that mentioned H&M and Cambodia. CCC created a petition for people to sign against H&M, Gap, and Zara. Labour Behind the Label (LBL), a branch of CCC in the United Kingdom, has its own Facebook and Twitter accounts. On Facebook, LBL had 10 posts, shares, or mentions of H&M between October 23 and February 28. On Twitter, it tweeted, retweeted, or included links about H&M 55 times.
In response to H&M's announcing that it would be adding a line of clothes to its already existing collection in March 2013, CCC altered an H&M ad with model Vanessa Paradis, adding photos of factory workers to show that they were malnourished. Additionally, a series of cartoons and illustrations designed by the Humor Chic blog compared H&M with Adolf Hitler.
What's Next for H&M?
H&M was expected to be in eight new countries between January 2013 and the end of 2014. In 2019, the H&M group, a global fashion and design company is in 47 online markets and stores in72 markets. As H&M expands, the MNC needs to consider governments, NGOs, home and transnational media, netizens, and the consumers that purchase clothes at each of its six brands. Public perceptions of H&M are negative, and it seems that people do not believe what it says. For example, no H&M clothes were found at Rana Plaza, a building that collapsed in Bangladesh, killing more than 1000 people, in 2013. However, Avaaz, a nonprofit organization established in 2007, created an advertisement with a photo of Persson and a survivor from the building collapse. Furthermore, even though H&M stated that it is not a fast‐fashion operation, the Triple Pundit classified it as such (Kaye 2012).
Given that Kalla Fakta provided English subtitles of its 22‐minute segment about H&M and Cambodia, one might think that H&M would respond in English on its social media sites. After all, H&M's official Twitter account is in English. However, there is no mention of the crisis. CCC has partnerships with other NGOs that conduct campaigns in predominantly English‐speaking countries such as the United States and United Kingdom; H&M has stores in both countries.
However, H&M is due credit; it released the factories that it works with and signed a fire safety agreement (along with the Spanish Inditex and other MNCs) in Bangladesh. Persson met with the Prime Minister of Bangladesh and asked for the minimum wage to be increased. The minimum wage in Cambodia also increased, and H&M did not leave the country.
Lessons Learned
The crisis demonstrated to H&M and other MNCs that they are not immune from criticism and conflict, even if they do not directly employ the workers at the factories they use. It also demonstrated that the public does not “buy” everything that a company says; one article refers to H&M as a “fast‐fashion” store, even though H&M states that it is not.
A third lesson following the crisis is that one 22‐minute segment has the potential to spark petitions and negative reactions online in numerous countries. Multiple government officials from different countries, and even the Prince of Cambodia, wanted to meet with H&M following Kalla Fakta's segment. H&M had been aware since May 2012 that Kalla Fakta was planning on doing a show about the MNC, and it did do some work proactively. Other MNCs, regardless of their home and host countries, learned the need to respond to the crisis in different markets and to manage the message. There were articles in English in the United States, but H&M did not communicate directly to its second‐largest market. Consequently, consumers there may have heard the criticism over the problems in Cambodia but not H&M's response.
Summary and Structure of the Book
Planning, executing, and evaluating public relations strategies and tactics across borders challenges the practice and the professional because of the distinctive characteristics of the countries and stakeholders involved. Throughout this book, we hope it will become clear how the complexity of simultaneously or individually engaging home, host, and transnational stakeholders in a variety of national and regional environments determines the sophistication and coordination of public relations in multilateral organizations and MNOs. In‐house and agency global teams are active participants in this dynamic.
The book is divided into two main parts: the first focuses on strategy formulation and the second on strategy implementation. Chapter 1 provides a definition of global and multicultural public relations, introduces key industry players, and provides a brief illustration of the different types of organizations using public relations across borders. Chapter 2 explains the strategic process for global and multicultural public relations, the importance of formative and evaluative research unique to the practice, and the measurement and evaluation of programs and campaigns.
Culture, traditions, and other contributing contextual or environmental variables of importance in practicing global public relations are elaborated in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 emphasizes the state of professionalism and ethics integral for professionals practicing global public relations, as well as the skill sets and training necessary for success in international assignments. Chapters 5 and 6 develop the reader's understanding of each organization practicing global and multicultural public relations. Transnational corporations (TNCs), government institutions and agencies, NGOs and multilateral organizations, global public relations agencies, and activist networks are discussed individually to analyze how global public relations is practiced and the opportunities it may provide for professionals.
Chapter 7 discusses coordination and control, and standardization and localization, as ways of managing global public relations campaigns. Chapter 8 describes a crisis situation as handled in an international environment, developing a cross‐national conflict‐shifting or transnational crisis approach. Chapter 9 highlights the importance of CSR and the role multisector partnerships can play in the strategic management of global campaigns and other communications efforts. Chapter 10 explains how teams work across the globe and how employee relations are streamlined using communication. The emergent technology as an important indicator of success in global public relations practice is developed in Chapter 11. Finally, public diplomacy, corporate foreign policy, and how they can influence nation building and country branding efforts are covered in Chapter 12.
All of the chapters follow the format of explaining the key concepts and illustrating them with case studies to elaborate on the practice of public relations and communications management globally.
Discussion Questions
1
How can we identify the unique challenges of global and multicultural public relations and learn to appreciate them?
2
What dominant forces do you think will further shape the practice of global and multicultural public relations?
3
What role do you think media systems play in defining the practice of global and multicultural public relations?
Class Activity
Students should visit the website of the communication conglomerate WPP and read about its structure and services. The instructor may want to divide the class into small teams and assign each one of WPP's global public relations agencies, asking it to identify the core services that agency offers and where in the world its operations are concentrated. The class then could discuss how much the conglomerate's operations and network of offices overlap and complement one another.
References
Bartlett, C.A. and Ghoshal, S. (2002).
Managing across Borders: The Transnational Solution
, 2e. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
CIPR. (n.d.). “What is PR?” Retrieved January 10, 2019 from
https://www.cipr.co.uk/content/policy/careers‐advice/what‐pr
.
Hansegard, J. (2013). “H&M fumbles on Facebook.”
The Wall Street Journal
. Retrieved January 10, 2019 from
http://blogs.wsj.com/corporate‐intelligence/2013/02/07/hm‐fumbles‐on‐facebook
.
Holmes Report. (2018). “Global top 250 PR agency ranking 2018.” Retrieved January 10, 2019 from
https://www.holmesreport.com/ranking‐and‐data/global‐pr‐agency‐rankings/2018‐pr‐agency‐rankings/top‐250
.
Kaye, L. (2012). “H&M, the ethical fast fashion leader?”
Triple Pundit
. Retrieved January 10, 2019 from
http://www.triplepundit.com/2012/04/hm‐sustainability‐report‐2011
.
Ławniczak, R. (ed.) (2001).
Public Relations Contribution to Transition in Central and Eastern Europe: Research and Practice
. Poznań: Biuro Usługowo‐Handlowe.
Ławniczak, R. (ed.) (2005).
Introducing Market Economy Institutions and Instruments: The Role of Public Relations in Transition Economies
. Poznań: Piar Publications.
Ławniczak, R. (2007). Public relations role in a global competition ‘to sell’ alternative political and socio‐economic models of market economy.
Public Relations Review
33: 377–386.
The Local
. (2012). “H&M slams claims of ‘low’ Cambodian wages.” Retrieved January 10, 2019 from
http://www.thelocal.se/44016/20121024
.
Palmer, A. (2013). Global growth.
PR Week Career Guide
24–26.
Sharpe, M.L. and Pritchard, B.J. (2004). The historical empowerment of public opinion and its relationship to the emergence of public relations as a profession. In:
Toward the Common Good; Perspectives in International Public Relations
(ed. D.J. Tilson and E.C. Alozie), 14–36. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Sriramesh, K. and Verčič, D. (eds.) (2009).
The Global Public Relations Handbook: Theory, Research, and Practice
. New York: Routledge.
United Nations Office for South–South Cooperation. (2014). “What is South–South cooperation?” Retrieved January 10, 2019 from
http://www.arab‐ecis.unsouthsouth.org/about/what‐is‐south‐south‐cooperation/
Wakefield, R.I. (2008). Theory of international public relations, the Internet, and activism: A personal reflection.
Journal of Public Relations Research
20: 138–157.
Wilcox, D.L. and Cameron, G.T. (2009).
Public Relations Strategies and Tactics
, 9e. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Notes
1
For an extended analysis of transitional public relations and the evolution of public relations, see Ławniczak (
2001
,
2005
,
2007
) and Sharpe and Pritchard (
2004
).
2
Chapter 3
fully describes and illustrates three of the environmental or contextual variables impacting the evolution, growth, and practice of public relations across the world. For a complete exploration of contextualized research, see Sriramesh and Verčič (
2009
).
3
For more information, see The Global 250 Agency Ranking of the Holmes Report (
2018
).
4
Measurement and evaluation are core components of
Chapter 2
.
5
Kalla Fakta
, which literally translates to “Cold Facts,” is similar to the show
Frontline
on PBS and
Panorama
on the BBC. The show started in 1991 and is on TV4. It has won multiple awards, including first place in the History & Society category at the 2012 New York Festivals in Las Vegas.
6
The first H&M store opened in 1947 in Västerås, Sweden, under the name “Hennes.” The store only sold apparel for women. Hennes became a multinational corporation in 1964 when a store opened in Norway. Erling Persson, the founder, purchased Mauritz Widforss in 1968, which sold hunting and fishing gear. Later that year, the name of the stores was changed to Hennes & Mauritz (H&M). The clothing store first went on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1974, and the first H&M outside of Scandinavia opened in London in 1976. The United States and Spain each welcomed H&M stores in 2000, and stores were opened in Hong Kong and Shanghai in 2007. Today, the company operates in 49 markets; the largest, in order, are: Germany, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. Hennes & Mauritz AB has six brands, all of which are independent: H&M, COS, Monki, Weekday, Cheap Monday, and & Other Stories. Combined, there are about 2900 stores. Despite its size, H&M only has an in‐house public relations department, which handles worldwide communication from its headquarters.
2Research, Measurement, and Evaluation
Keywords
measurement; primary research; secondary research; evaluation; quantitative research; qualitative research; media monitoring; outtakes; outcomes; domestic consultancy; internal and external validity; transnational corporation; corporate social responsibility
Central Themes
Research is an essential part of public relations management, especially on the global stage. Without research, public relations would not be a true management function. It would not be strategic or a part of executive strategic planning within an organization.
Research makes public relations activities strategic by ensuring that communication is specifically targeted to a variety of stakeholder groups that want, need, or care about the information and, most important, are willing to be involved.
The purpose of research is to develop strategy in public relations, to define goals and objectives for a campaign, to operate as a part of the strategic management function within an organization, and to measure the success of efforts.
Designing an international media measurement program is a challenging task, but a very important one for global organizations.
After a public relations plan has been formulated and put into practice, evaluative research allows an organization to determine whether and to what degree its objectives have been achieved.
Quantitative and qualitative research methods have complementary and unique strengths. These two research approaches should be used in conjunction whenever possible in public relations management.
Introduction
Let's imagine a scenario where a large consumer‐goods corporation with headquarters in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom is in the process of creating a multiple‐platform corporate identity campaign to emphasize its contribution to consumer health and wellbeing in South East Asia. A corporate identity campaign focuses on the core values and philosophy of management of an organization, including its visual identity components and the main causes it supports. It is executed in multiple communication platforms and channels, including traditional media and emergent interactive technologies. The corporation requests its global public relations agency and regional headquarters in Singapore to evaluate public perceptions concerning these topics in the region, as well as opinions on the corporation's corporate social performance. In a conference call, the UK marketing‐communication team explains the rationale and business goals behind such a request and articulates the specific questions and countries involved in this phase of a global communications effort. With a purpose and goal in mind, the public relations team in Singapore then follows the articulation of overall questions to guide the design of a research methodology. In the case of multinational businesses, research is a systematic process that follows a specific purpose, clear goal, and strict timelines. In public relations, formative research is used for data gathering, which helps initiate a strategic plan. This formal and informal data‐gathering process is used to develop an analysis of the situation, to define goals and objectives with desired outcomes or effects, to select strategies and tactics, and to outline a timeline for implementation. Monitoring research is used for the assessment of the partial impact of the campaign under implementation, and evaluation research focuses on the final results and the measurement of outcomes; that is, the effectiveness of the campaign.
