91,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Guide to Ruminant Anatomy: Dissection and Clinical Aspectspresents a concise, clinically relevant reference to goat and cattle anatomy, with color schematic illustrations and embalmed arterially injected prosection images for comparison. * Offers 244 color images depicting goat and cattle anatomy * Provides selected line drawings correlated to dissection images of embalmed arterially injected specimens * Takes a practical approach, with material organized by body system within each region * Demonstrates the clinical relevance of basic anatomy * Poses review questions in each chapter, with answers and videos provided on a companion website
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 533
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
Chapter 1: The Head, Neck, and Vertebral Column
1.1 Skull
1.2 Mandible
1.3 Paranasal Sinuses
1.4 Vertebral Column
1.5 Teeth and Age Estimation of Cattle and Small Ruminants (Goats and Sheep)
1.6 Joints of the Head
1.7 Muscles of the Head
1.8 Blood Vessels, Lymph Nodes, and Nerves of the Head
1.9 Salivary Glands
1.10 The Pharynx
1.11 Tongue
1.12 The Larynx and Hyoid Apparatus
1.13 The Eye
1.14 Neck Skeleton
1.15 Neck Muscles, Nerves, and Vessels
1.16 Nuchal Ligament
1.17 Surface Topography (Head and Neck)
1.18 Lab ID List for the Head and Neck
Chapter 2: The Thorax
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bones of the Thorax
2.3 Thoracic Inlet
2.4 Basal Border of the Lung and Area for Lung Auscultation
2.5 Diaphragmatic Line of Pleural Reflection
2.6 Muscles of the Thoracic Wall
2.7 Pleura
2.8 Vessels (Arteries and Veins)
2.9 Major Veins of the Thorax
2.10 Major Arteries of the Thorax
2.11 Lymphatic Structures
2.12 Nerves (Motor Somatic, Sympathetic, and Parasympathetic)
2.13 Heart (Cor)
2.14 Point of Maximum Intensity or Puncta Maxima
2.15 Lab ID List for the Thorax
Chapter 3: The Abdomen
3.1 Lumbar Vertebrae
3.2 Ligaments of Lumbar Vertebrae
3.3 Abdominal Wall
3.4 Abdominal Cavity
3.5 Intestines
3.6 Other Abdominal Organs
3.7 Vessels
3.8 Palpation of the Live Animal
3.9 Lab ID List for the Abdomen
Chapter 4: The Pelvis and Reproductive Organs
4.1 Bones of the Pelvis
4.2 Sacrosciatic Ligament
4.3 Pelvic Peritoneal Pouches
4.4 Urinary Bladder, Ureters, and Ligaments of the Bladder
4.5 Male Genitalia
4.6 Female Reproductive Tract
4.7 Live Cow
4.8 Lab ID List for the Pelvis and Reproductive Structures
Chapter 5: The Forelimb
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Bones of the Thoracic Limb
5.3 Muscles and Tendons of the Thoracic Limb
5.4 Retinacula
5.5 Carpal Canal
5.6 Ligaments of the Digits
5.7 Hoof (Wall, Sole, Bulb, and White Line)
5.8 Arteries and Nerves of the Thoracic Limb
5.9 Veins of the Forelimb
5.10 Lymphatics of the Thoracic Limb
5.11 Nerves of the Thoracic Limb
5.12 Joints of the Forelimbs
Chapter 6: The Hind Limb
6.1 Bones of the Hind Limb
6.2 Muscles of the Pelvic Limb
6.3 Blood Vessels and Nerves of the Hind Limbs
6.4 Joints of the Hind Limb
6.5 Live Cow
6.6 Lab ID List for Forelimb and Hind Limb
Appendix A: Dissection Instructions for a Goat Cadaver
A.1 Dissection Labs
A.2 Dissection of Goat Neck and Body Cavities (Labs, 1, 2, and 3)
A.2.7 Dissection of Male and Female Pelvis (Lab 4)
A.3 Head Dissection (Lab 5)
A.4 Forelimb Dissection (Labs 6 and 7)
A.5 Hind Limb Dissection (Labs 8 and 9)
Appendix B: Further Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
Pages
xiii
xiv
xv
xvii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
92
93
94
95
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
211
212
213
214
215
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: The Head, Neck, and Vertebral Column
Figure 1.1 Bovine skull: caudodorsal view. The epidermal part of the horn (horn sheath or capsule) and the bony part (cornual process) form the horn. Akin to the hoof, the horn sheath and the cornual process are glued together by dermal tissue that contains blood vessels and nerve endings of the corneal nerve and artery. The cornual process and the horn capsule are sawed in dehorning operations.
Figure 1.2 A polled (no horns present) bovine skull: dorsal view. Dotted line shows the location of right supraorbital groove. In the live animal, the supraorbital groove houses the supraorbital vein (called the frontal vein after passing through the supraorbital foramen). The ox may have multiple supraorbital foramina (single in small ruminants).
Figure 1.3 Goat skull: lateral view. The horn sheath (epidermal part) is removed. * Temporomandibular joint (TMJ). A, parietal bone; B, temporal bone. Note the proximity of the cornual process to the parietal bone. In dehorning of mature goats, the cut must not be made too far caudally to avoid exposure of the brain.
Figure 1.4 Bovine skull: lateral view. The bony orbit is complete where the frontal process of the zygomatic bone (FZ) and the zygomatic process of the frontal bone (ZF) meet. The FZ is not present in the horse. The zygomatic arch is palpable in the live animal and is formed by two bones: the zygomatic bone rostrally and zygomatic process of the temporal bone caudally.
Temporal line
(dotted) is used as a landmark for blocking the cornual nerve in dehorning operations in adult cattle. M, molar; P, premolar. P1 is not present in upper or lower jaws. TZ, temporal process of the zygomatic bone.
Figure 1.5 The bovine skull showing the bony land marks for Peterson’s nerve block: caudolateral view. The white arrow points to the angle where the needle is inserted to deposit an anesthetic close to the foramen orbitorotundum. The pterygoid crest and coronoid process of the mandible are encountered and avoided as a long curved needle is advanced toward the foramen. FZ, frontal process of the zygomatic bone; ZF, zygomatic process of the frontal bone.
Figure 1.6 Bovine skull showing caudal parts of the occipital bone: caudal view. The foramen magnum is the exit pathway for the spinal cord. The external occipital protuberance is the attachment site for the funicular part of the nuchal ligament. In small ruminants, the nuchal crest (poll) forms the highest point of the skull. The nuchal crest is not present in the ox.
Figure 1.7 The bovine skull: ventral view. * Choanal region, caudal opening of the nasal cavity into the nasopharynx in the live animal. M, molar; P, premolar. The premolar teeth start with P2 in both the upper and lower jaws (the upper P2 are removed to show the shallow alveolar sinuses [teeth sockets in lay terms]). The upper and lower P1 are considered absent in ruminants (see lower P2 in Figure 1.8a). The roots of the cheek teeth in ruminants are shallow compared with horses and it is possible to remove upper cheek teeth without entering the maxillary sinus.
Figure 1.8 (a) Bovine mandible: lateral view. I, incisor; M, molar; P, premolar. The coronoid process in the horse is vertically oriented compared with caudally inclined coronoid processes in ruminants. (b) Bovine mandible: medial view.
Figure 1.9 (a) Bovine skull with sculptured frontal sinus: dorsal view. An oblique transverse septum (dotted line) divides the frontal sinus into rostral and caudal compartments. The line extends obliquely from the mid-dorsal border of the orbit to the median septum. The median septum separates the left and right frontal sinuses. The caudal compartment of the frontal sinus has three diverticuli the cornual (within the cornual process), nuchal (rostral to the nuchal tubercle), and postorbital (caudal to the orbit) diverticuli. The bony supraorbital canal, which houses the supraorbital vein, passes through the caudal compartment of the frontal sinus. (b) Compartments of the bovine left and right frontal sinus. Bovine skull showing caudal (yellow and blue) and rostral (multiple colors) compartments and diverticuli of the frontal sinus: dorsal view. The caudal compartment of the frontal sinus is larger than the rostral compartment and has three diverticuli (postorbital, nuchal, and cornual). The cornual diverticulum is absent in this skull (no horns present; Figure 1.9a). The rostral compartment of the frontal sinus is divided into three smaller spaces (lateral, intermediate, and medial parts). The rostral and caudal compartments of the frontal sinus communicate with ethmoidal meatuses (not visible). Another major paranasal sinus in cattle is the maxillary sinus (Figure 1.9c). Minor sinuses of less clinical significance include the lacrimal, palatine, sphenoid, and conchal sinuses (Figure 1.11).
Figure 1.10 Bovine head: sagittal section. The Figure shows the location of the conchal sinuses within the nasal conchae. The frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and middle conchal sinuses open into the ethmoid meatuses at the caudal aspect of the nasal cavity. The palatine sinus is the space within the caudal part of the hard palate. C1, atlas; C2, axis.
Figure 1.11 Goat skull excavated to show the medial and lateral parts of the frontal sinus: dorsal view. The left horn is removed to show cornual diverticulum from the lateral frontal sinus. In small ruminants, the frontal sinus is composed of lateral (relatively large) and medial (small) frontal sinus. The lateral frontal sinus is equivalent to the caudal frontal sinus in the ox. Note that the compartments of the frontal sinus are shallower compared with cattle.
Figure 1.12 Bovine lower jaw showing the permanent central incisors (I1) just erupting while the rest of the incisor teeth (2– 4) are still decidous. This suggests an 18-month-old cow.
Figure 1.13 (a) Bovine mouth showing internal structures that include the
dental pad
on the upper jaw and
lower incisor teeth
. The dental pad replaces the upper incisors and canine teeth in ruminants. I1 (central or pincher), I2 (first intermediate), I3 (second intermediate), and I4 (corner incisor) on the left side of the mandible. (b) Opened mouth of small ruminant showing the dental pad (replaces upper incisors and canines) and deciduous lower incisors (I1–I4): left lateral view. The incisive papilla is a small projection located caudal to the dental pad where the incisive ducts open on either sides of the papilla. The incisive ducts connect dorsally with paired vomeronasal organs located above the hard plate on the floor of the nasal cavity. The vomeronasal organs are olfactory tubular structures that transmit sexual stimuli (pheromones) to the brain. They are associated with what is known as the Flehmen response. Image modified from free source (wikipedia.org) by Helena Bowen and Richard Bowen. (c) Occlusal surface of upper premolar and molar teeth. Note that the upper premolar teeth have a single infundibulum while the molar teeth each have two.
Figure 1.14 Lower bovine jaw showing permanent central incisors (I1) that are fully erupted but not in wear. The remaining set of incisors (first intermediate [I2], second intermdiate [I3], and corner [I4] incisors) are deciduous. Estimated age of this cow is 24 months (2 years). Note the
small size
and
peg-shaped
appearance of decidous I2–I4 compared to the
broad-shaped
appearance of the fully erupted permanent central incisors (I1).
Figure 1.15 (a) Bovine lower mandible showing permanent lower incisors that are all fully erupted and in
wear
but
not level
yet. Note the shovel-like appearance of teeth charactersitic of ruminant incisors. The enamel–dentin junction line on the lingual surface of incisors is serrated or
wavy
(i.e., not level; see dotted wavy line on I1). Estimated age of this cow is 5 years. The corner incisors (I4) mandibular canines have fully developed and their shapes is similar to the other true incisors. Blue arrow denotes the lingual surface. (b) Permanent incisors in the left half of a lower bovine jaw. All permanent incisors in this mouth are in wear with I1 level
.
Note the round lingual surface of the central incisor (I1) that indicates leveling. I2–I4 are not level and have wavy or serrated lingual surfaces. The approximate age of this cow is 6 years.
Figure 1.16 Lower bovine jaw showing all 8 incisors are
permanent
and
level.
Note the round and smooth arc lines at the enamel–dentin junctions of the lingual surfaces. Estimated age of this cow is above 9 years of age.
Figure 1.17 Dissection of superficial structures of the bovine head: lateral view. Note that the
cutaneus faciei
muscle is reflected dorsally to uncover facial vessels (artery and vein), nerves, and the parotid duct.
Figure 1.18 (a) Superficial structures of goat head: lateral view. Note the distinct tendon of the sternozygomaticus muscle inserting on the zygomatic arch. (b,c) Selected superficial muscles of the bovine (b) and caprine (c) heads.
Figure 1.19 (a) Bovine head: lateral view. The cutaneus faciei muscle is reflected cranially to uncover the superficial vessels and nerves of the bovine head. The parotidoauricularis muscle that covers the parotid salivary gland is removed. (b) Bovine head: lateral view. Close-up view of the superficial temporal artery and vein, and cornual artery and nerve. In dehorning operations, the cornual nerve is blocked along the bony temporal line. The cornual artery is a branch of the superficial temporal artery.
Figure 1.20 Caprine head: lateral view. Parotid gland, parotid lymph node, vessels and nerves of the goat head.
Figure 1.21 Bovine head: dorsal view. The facial vein travels dorsally across the face and gives rise to the lateral and dorsal nasal veins. The
facial vein
is continued dorsally by the angularis oculi vein (courses to medial canthus of the eye) and the
frontal vein
(courses more dorsally in the supraorbital groove towards the supraorbital foramen). At the supraorbital foramen, the frontal vein becomes the supraorbital vein. The supraorbital vein drains into the ophthalmic plexus within the bony orbit.
Figure 1.22 Right bovine sagittal head and neck section: ventrolateral view. Note that the external jugular vein is formed by the confluence of the maxillary and linguofacial veins.
Figure 1.23 Caprine right half head and neck: ventrolateral view. Note that the mandibular salivary gland is located caudal and medial to the mandibular lymph node.
Figure 1.24 Lymphocenters of the bovine head and neck.
Figure 1.25 Bovine skull and articulated mandible: caudolateral view. Figure shows the landmarks for Peterson’s nerve block for enucleation of the eye. The angle formed by the frontal process of the zygomatic bone and the zygomatic process of the temporal bone is used for anesthetic injection. The ramus of the mandible (coronoid process) and the pterygoid crest are in the needle pathway and should be avoided.
Figure 1.26 Bovine median sagittal section of the head passing through the nasal septum. Study the major regions of the pharynx that include the oropharynx, nasopharynx, and laryngopharynx. The nasal septum has small caudal bony part, and large cartilaginous rostral part that does not project distal to the choana.
Figure 1.27 (a) Bovine tongue. The torus and fossa linguae (lingual torus and lingual fossa) are peculiar features on the bovine tongue. Note their clinical significance in Box 1.20. (b) Bovine median sagittal section of the head. The nasal septum has been removed to demonstrate the nasal and ethmoid conchae. The paper-thin spaces between the nasal conchae (arrows) are the dorsal nasal meatus (1), middle nasal meatus (2), and ventral nasal meatus (3). A common nasal meatus is the space that communicates with 1–3 meatuses and is located immediately lateral to the nasal septum and medial to the nasal and ethmoid conchae.
Figure 1.28 Median sagittal section of the bovine head. Conchae are opened to show the sinusal space within each.
Figure 1.29 Bovine median sagittal section of the head. Identify laryngeal cartilages from caudal to rostral.
Figure 1.30 Bones of the bovine hyoid apparatus.
Figure 1.31 External features of the bovine eye. Note that the bovine iris is wide horizontally. Yellow star denotes the location of the palpebral conjunctiva on the lower eyelid. The bulbar conjunctiva covers the surface of the sclera (white of the eye).
Figure 1.32 Bovine eye: section through the optic axis. A, anterior chamber; B, posterior chamber; C, vitreous chamber.
Figure 1.33 Posterior view of the eye, equatorial section of the bovine eye. Note the topographic relationship of the ciliary processes of the ciliary body, zonules (less visible), and lens.
Figure 1.34 Vitreous chamber of a bovine eye (the vitreous body was removed): posterior view. Note that the retina appears as thin transparent membrane peeled off from the dark outer choroid layer. The retina is more firmly attached at the optic disc.
Figure 1.35 Fundus of the eye (view of the interior posterior surface of eye that include the area of the optic disc). Sheep (left) and bovine (right) eye axial sections showing tapetum lucidum and optic disc. The vitreous bodies and retinae have been removed.
Figure 1.36 Bovine eye: axial section. Magnified anterior portion of the eye. Note the anterior chamber between the cornea and iris (A), the posterior chamber between the iris and ciliary body (B), and the vitreous chamber with vitreous body between the ciliary body and choroid (C). A, anterior chamber; B, posterior chamber; C, vitreous chamber.
Figure 1.37 (a) Bovine cervical vertebrae. Note the large wings of the atlas (palpable in the live animal). The atlas has lateral vertebral foramen (on the dorsal arch) and alar foramen (in the wings, not visible here). Transverse foramina are present on wings of the atlas in horses and dogs but are absent in ruminants. Note the dorsal and ventral tubercles of transverse processes of C2–C7 (two-pronged transverse processes; see Figure 1.37b). *Atlantoaxial joint. C7 has a large spinous process. (b) Three close-up views (lateral, cranial, and caudal) of a bovine cervical vertebra. In the articulated skeleton, the summation of the vertebral foramina forms the vertebral canal. 1, cranial vertebral notch; 2, caudal vertebral notch. The articular surfaces of the cranial articular processes are directed dorsomedially. The articular surfaces of the caudal articular processes are directed ventrolaterally. * Body of the vertebra.
Figure 1.38 Bovine superficial neck and head muscles. Identify the
dorsal
and
ventral
boundaries of the jugular groove formed by the cleidomastoideus muscle (ventral part of the brachiocephalicus muscle) and sternomandibularis muscle (superficial part of the sternocephalicus muscle), respectively. The deep part of the sternocephalicus muscle is formed by the sternomastoideus muscle.
Figure 1.39 Bovine superficial muscles of the neck. Clavicular intersection shown by dotted line. Trapezius muscle has cervical and thoracic parts.
Figure 1.40 (a) Left lateral view of the bovine neck. Dorsolateral superficial muscles of the neck. Note the location of the large superficial cervical lymph nodes between the cervical part of the trapezius, omotransversarius, and cleidooccipitalis muscles. (b) Ventral neck muscles (goat). The thin sternohyoideus and sternothyroideus muscle are separated and the sternohyoideus is reflected cranially. The two muscles are fused at their origin from the manubrium (called sternothyrohyoideus muscle when fused). The sternohyoideus inserts on the basihyoid at the midline. The sternothyroideus muscle inserts laterally on the lamina of the thyroid cartilage. The two muscles help with swallowing by drawing the larynx and hyoid apparatus caudally.
Figure 1.41 Dorsal branch of the accessory nerve (yellow in figure) coursing deep to the cervical part of the trapezius muscle.
Figure 1.42 Goat neck: ventral view. Dissection of common carotid artery and vagosympathetic trunk by spreading the ventral neck muscles apart using a Gelpi self-retaining retractor. The common carotid artery and the vagosympathetic trunk are partially separated. Spreading of the mid-ventral neck muscles (combined sternothyrohyoideus muscles) is also used for exposure of the trachea.
Figure 1.43 Dissection of the external jugular vein and common carotid artery (bovine of the neck: left lateral view). The brachiocephalicus muscle (dorsal boundary of the external jugular vein) is removed to uncover the common carotid artery. The external jugular vein is pulled down to demonstrate the sternomastoideus muscle which forms the medial border of the jugular furrow. It is transected in the cranial neck.
Figure 1.44 Bovine nuchal ligament: left lateral view of deep neck muscles. The semispinalis is freed from the nuchal ligament and reflected ventrally. The funicular part of the nuchal ligament courses between the first few thoracic vertebrae to the external occipital protuberance. The laminar part spans the distance from C2 to C7 and merges with the funicular part. It has cranial (paired) and caudal (unpaired) parts.
Figure 1.45 Palpable structures on the lateral surface of live cattle. The straight white solid line caudal to the eye depicts the temporal line, a landmark for localization of the cornual nerve and cornual artery. The curved white dotted line depicts the course of the facial artery, facial vein, and parotid duct. The filled circles depict approximate locations of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and the facial tuberosity.
Figure 1.46 External features of the eye. The inner surface of the upper (superior) and lower (inferior) eyelids is lined with palpebral conjunctiva. The third eyelid is covered by bulbar conjunctiva of the third eyelid.
Figure 1.47 Common terms for areas on the bovine head. The poll (intercornual protuberance) is the highest point on the bovine skull.
Figure 1.48 Jugular groove or furrow containing the external jugular vein, a major site for venipuncture in domestic animals including cattle. The muscular boundaries for the jugular groove include the brachiocephalicus muscle dorsally (specifically the cleidomastoideus part), and sternomandibularis muscle ventrally (superficial part of the sternocephalicus). Pulling the head up and to the opposite side is helpful in visualization of the jugular groove.
Figure 1.49 Technique for opening the mouth and holding it open for teeth inspection or medication. Pry the mouth open by placing several fingers at the corner of the mouth inside the space behind the incisor teeth (diastema). Note that the tongue is grabbed and pulled to one side to hold the mouth open.
Figure 1.50 Another technique for mouth opening. A rope or custom cattle halter is helpful in restraining the animal by an assistant. The mouth is opened and tongue pulled to one side through the diastema.
Figure 1.51 Cross-section of a cow tail showing location of the
median caudal vein
(tail vein) and
median caudal arter
y on the midline of the ventral surface of the proximal third of the tail. * Hemal arch. 1, nucleus pulposus; 2, anulus fibrosus of the intervertebral disc.
Chapter 2: The Thorax
Figure 2.1 Articulated bovine thorax. Rib 2 and part of rib 3 are concealed by the scapula.
Figure 2.2 Typical bovine thoracic vertebra: lateral, cranial, and caudal views. Each transverse process has a costal fovea for articulation with a tubercle of a corresponding rib. Note the large spinous process of thoracic vertebrae compared with cervical and lumbar vertebrae. The rib head articulates with the cranial and caudal costal fovea of two successive thoracic vertebrae.
Figure 2.3 Triangular area for lung auscultation on live animal: left lateral view.
Figure 2.4 Superficial muscles of the bovine thoracic wall: left lateral view.
Figure 2.7 Bovine thoracic wall: left lateral view. The left thoracic limb is removed. Note the extent of the thoracic and cervical parts of the serratus ventralis muscle.
Figure 2.5 Lateral thoracic muscles deep to the cutaneous muscles. Dotted lines show the interdigitation of serratus ventralis thoracis muscle with the origin of the external abdominal oblique muscle.
Figure 2.6 Select deep muscles of the thoracic wall.
Figure 2.8 Bovine left thoracic and cranial abdominal cavities. Identify the major vessels and nerves on the left thoracic cavity. * Longus colli m.
Figure 2.9 Medial surfaces of the left (a) and right (b) bovine lungs.
Figure 2.10 Simplified overview of systemic and pulmonary circulations. Venous blood returns to the right side of the heart (right atrium and ventricle) is by the caudal (1) and cranial (2) vena cavae. Relatively unoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart (right ventricle) passes to lungs through the pulmonary trunk (dotted lines) which gives the left and right pulmonary arteries. From the lungs, oxygenated blood passes by several pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart (left atrium and ventricle). Oxygenated blood from the left ventricle is distributed to the body (systemic circulation) by the way of the aorta and named branches. Blood outflow from the pulmonary trunk and aorta is regulated by semilunar valves located in the right and left ventricles, respectively. Blood flow from the atria to the ventricles is regulated by right and left atrioventricular valves (R-AV and L-AV). Venous return from the gastrointestinal tract (GI) is channeled through the portal vein (PV) to the liver for detoxification before joining the caudal vena cava by the hepatic veins. Circulatory diseases such as patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), persistent foramen ovalae, intra- and extrahepatic shunts are clinically more important in small animals. AV-M, left atrioventricular valve (mitral); AV-T, right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid).
Figure 2.11 Bovine left thorax (cranial part). Figure shows vessels and nerves cranial to the heart. Nerves are labeled in Figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12 Bovine left thorax (cranial part). Figure shows major nerves cranial to the heart.
Figure 2.13 Bovine left thorax. Figure shows branches of the left vagus nerve, sympathetic trunk and vessels in caudal thoracic region.
Figure 2.14 (a) Isolated bovine heart (auricular surface). Figure shows fibrous pericardium covering the auricular (left) surface of the heart. (b) Schematic illustration of the layers of the pericardium. Understand that the layers of the pericardium form a sac around the heart. The fibrous pericardium extends ventrally from the apex of the heart to form the
sternopericardial ligament
that anchors the heart to the sternum (not illustrated). The outer three layers (with the fibrous pericardium being the thickest) are fused and are inseparable. The pericardial cavity is a very small capillary space filled with small amount of serous fluid. The visceral layer of the serous pericardium (or the epicardium) adheres closely to the wall of the heart.
Figure 2.15 Bovine heart. External features of the heart on (a) auricular (left) surface; (b) atrial (right) surface.
Figure 2.16 Bovine heart. Right atrium opened to show interior structures.
Figure 2.17 Bovine heart: sagittal section. Note the difference in wall thickness of the right (thin) and left (thick) ventricles. The term trabeculae septomarginale is plural for trabecula septomarginalis.
Figure 2.18 Bovine heart valves. Transverse section of the bovine heart at the level of the coronary groove: dorsal view. Singular for the term ossa cordis is os cordis.
Chapter 3: The Abdomen
Figure 3.1 (a) Bovine skeleton showing articulated caudal thoracic and L1–L6 lumbar vertebrae. Note the long transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae compared for example to T12–T13 thoracic vertebrae. Note that the intervertebral foramen between L and L2 is divided by a small bone into two foramina. Two intervertebral foramina may be present in some parts of the lumbar region. (b) Typical bovine lumbar vertebra: lateral, cranial, and caudal views. The cranial articular processes are deep and face dorsomedially. The caudal articular processes are cylindrical in shape and fit in the groove (articular surfaces) of the cranial articular processes of caudally located vertebra. On the lateral view, note the formation of a complete intervertebral foramen on this lumbar vertebra. * Body.
Figure 3.2 Bovine left paralumbar fossa. Triangular depression bounded dorsally by the tips of transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae, caudoventrally by the ridge formed by the internal abdominal muscle, and cranially by the last rib (number 13).
Figure 3.3 (a) Spinal nerves of the left lateral flank in a goat.
T13 (costoabdominal), L1 (iliohypogastric), and L2 (ilioinguinal)
are blocked in flank anesthesia (Box 3.1). Source: adapted from Garrett PD. (1988)
Guide to Ruminant Anatomy Based on the Dissection of the Goat
, Iowa State University Press. (b) Dissection of the dorsal and ventral branches of spinal nerves
T13 (costoabdominal), L1 (iliohypogastric),
and
L2 (ilioinguinal)
on a bovine cadaver (suspended on a hanger). The epaxial muscles of the trunk (iliocostalis and longissimus lumborum systems) located dorsal to the transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae have been removed. The dorsal branches run dorsally between the iliocostalis and longissimus lumborum systems. They supply the epaxial muscles and gives cutaneous branches. The ventral branches run ventrally between the IAO and TA muscles. They give cutaneous branches and supply muscles of the abdominal wall. (c) Needle placement for anesthesia of the flank using
proximal (P)
or
distal (D) paravertebral nerve blocks in cattle
. In the proximal paravertebral nerve block, the dorsal and ventral nerve roots of T13, L1, and L2 spinal nerves are blocked close to where they emerge from their respective intervertebral foramina. In the distal paravertebral nerve block, ventral and dorsal rami of T13, L1, and L2 are blocked at the distal ends of the transverse processes of L1, L2, and L4, respectively. Because of variations in the pathways of spinal nerves, L2 branches should be blocked at tips of the transverse processes of both L3 and L4 vertebrae. D, distal; P, proximal; T, thoracic, L, lumbar. Source: adapted from Holtgrew-Bohling K. (2016)
Large Animal Clinical Procedure for Veterinary Technicians
, 3rd edn, Kristin Holtgrew-Bohling.
Figure 3.4
Inverted L-block
is used as easy alternative to paravertebral blocks. This technique is performed in relatively minor abdominal surgery via flank incision with the animal standing. A local anesthetic is injected along a line parallel with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae and along the caudal border of the last rib (solid lines). The flank incision (dotted line) is ventral and caudal to the injection lines. Nonspecific
line block
can also be used to desensitize the incision site.
Epidural
local anesthesia in cattle is also used for induction of regional anesthesia through anesthetic injections in the interarcuate spaces between L1 and L2, L6–S1, or Cd1–2 vertebrae.
Figure 3.5 Bovine cutaneous muscles over the brachium and ventral thorax and flank regions.
Figure 3.6 (a) Bovine body wall showing the external abdominal oblique (EAO) muscle covered by the yellow elastic deep facial layer, tunica flava abdominis: left lateral view. This tunica helps support the heavy weight of the viscera. (b) Close-up view of the insertion of the EAO muscle. The attachment of the EAO on the ribs is transected and removed. Note the exposure of the internal abdominal oblique fibers caudal to the last rib coursing in a cranioventral direction.
Figure 3.7 Schematic illustration of the inguinal canal in a male ruminant. The inguinal canal is a potential space and pathway for structures located between the abdominal muscles. It is exaggerated for illustration purposes. Other structures that pass through the inguinal canal such as the genitofemoral nerve, lymphatics, and autonomic nerves are not depicted.
Figure 3.8 Dissection of the bovine internal abdominal oblique (IAO) muscle by transection and reflection of the EAO ventrally: left lateral view. Note the cranioventral direction of the IAO muscle fibers. Distally, the aponeurosis of the EAO and IAO are fused forming the external lamina of the rectus sheath that inserts on the linea alba on the mid-ventral line.
Figure 3.9 Caudal thorax and abdominal flank regions showing the transverse abdominis (TA) muscle and parietal peritoneum: left lateral view. Note the dorsoventral direction of the TA muscle fibers and some of the lumbar spinal nerves running across its surface. The external and internal abdominal oblique (EAO/IAO) muscles are transected and reflected down. Dorsally, the TA muscle is transected and peeled off the transversalis fascia to demonstrate the parietal peritoneum.
Figure 3.10 (a) Goat abdominal wall with cutaneus trunci muscle removed: left lateral view. The ventrally located rectus abdominis (RA) muscle becomes progressively wider as it courses toward the pubic bone but narrows at its point of attachment on the pubic brim (pectin) to give rise to prepubic tendon (not visible). Note the distinct transverse tendinous intersections deep to the external lamina of the rectus sheath. The external lamina of the rectus sheath is formed by fusion of the aponeurosis of the EAO and IAO muscles. (b) The abdominal and pelvic cavities showing insertion of the RA muscle on the pectin and the disposition of the internal lamina of the rectus sheath: cranial view.
Figure 3.11 Bovine thoracic and abdominal cavities (limbs removed):
right
lateral view. The
greater omentum
is composed of a
superficial leaf or wall
(visible) and a deep leaf or wall (directly deep to the superficial leaf; not visible in this view). The deep leaf can be exposed by gently lifting up the superficial leaf on the right flank. Note the line of attachments of the superficial leaf along the greater curvature of the abomasum and the ventral border of the descending duodenum. Trace this leaf ventrally to the abdominal floor where it passes to the left side under the ventral sac of the rumen. On the left side, it attaches to the left longitudinal groove of the rumen (Figure 3.12). The
lesser omentum
(*) covers the right lateral surface of the omasum and attaches along the lesser curvature of the abomasum, pylorus, and beginning of the duodenum (Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.12 Bovine abdominal and thoracic viscera (limbs removed) to show the
superficial leaf (
or
wall)
of the greater omentum on the left side:
left
lateral view. Note the attachment of the superficial leaf of the greater omentum on the
left longitudinal groove
of the rumen passing cranially to the reticulum. Dotted line shows left longitudinal groove.
Figure 3.13 The abdominal cavity of the goat showing the
lesser omentum
coursing from the visceral surface of the liver to the lesser curvature of the abomasum (dotted line): right lateral view. The omental bursa, between the superficial and deep leaves of the greater omentum, is opened caudally (see also Figure 3.24a). No organ is present in the omental bursa.
Figure 3.14 (a) Abdominal and thoracic cavity of the goat showing what is colloquially known as “
pig’s ear
” in the lesser omentum: right lateral view. Dotted line shows the location of the lesser curvature of the abomasum. (b) Lesser omentum “pig’s ear”: right lateral view of isolated bovine abdominal viscera.
Figure 3.15 (a) Schematic cross-section of the abdominal cavity which illustrates the disposition of the
superficial
and
deep layers of the greater omentum
. The
omental bursa
(enlarged for demonstration purposes) is a paper-thin space between the superficial and deep layers of the greater omentum. The ventral sac of the rumen projects into the omental bursa. The
supraomental recess
is a sling formed by the deep leaf of the greater omentum. It suspends the intestinal mass. (b) Thorax and abdomen in a goat showing the
supraomental recess:
right lateral view. Fingers are inserted medial to the superficial and deep leaves of the greater omentum to demonstrate the supraomental recess.
Figure 3.24 (a) Goat: right lateral view. The cecum and intestine are pulled out of the supraomental recess. The superficial leaf is incised to open the omental bursa. Star, omental bursa. (b) Small and large intestines of the goat: left view of the cecum and ascending colon. The cecum and ascending colon are pulled cranially. In a normal arrangement, the part of the spiral colon shown here faces the right wall of the rumen. (c) Isolated goat abdominal viscera: lateral right view. The intestines are pulled caudally from the supraomental recess. (d) Abdominal and thoracic viscera in a goat: left lateral view. Note the spillover of the jejunum from the right side to the left side residing behind the blind sacs of the rumen. (e) Abdominal and thoracic viscera in a goat: left lateral view. Note spillover of the jejunum and the spiral colon (left surface) from the right side to the left side because of a relatively empty ruminal compartment. This spill could also be a postmortem event.
Figure 3.16 The bovine abdominal cavity: right lateral partial view. The
epiploic foramen
is seen ventral to
caudate process of the caudate lobe of the liver
and dorsal to the
mesoduodenum
. The liver is pulled dorsally to demonstrate the epiploic foramen. Study the complete boundaries of the epiploic foramen from the text.
Figure 3.17 (a) The abdominal and thoracic cavities in a goat cadaver:
left
lateral view. The
rumen, reticulum,
and
the fundus of the abomasum
are the major occupants of the left side of the abdominal cavity with the ruminoreticular compartment dominating most of the left flank in situ. In live animal, the dorsal sac of the rumen occupies the left paralumbar fossa. Note that the fundic part of the abomasum lies between the reticulum and ventral sac of the rumen. * Cranial sac is also called the ruminal atrium. Dotted line, left longitudinal groove. (b) Bovine thoracic and abdominal cavities:
left
lateral view. The
rumen
extends from the cardia (8th rib or 7th intercostal space) to the pelvic inlet. The
spleen
is relatively enlarged in this cadaver and covers the lateral wall of the reticulum.
Figure 3.18 (a) Bovine ruminoreticular compartment:
left
lateral surface. Dotted line is the left longitudinal groove. The cranial, caudal, left, and right longitudinal grooves encircle the rumen dividing the rumen into dorsal and ventral sacs. The coronary grooves define the caudodorsal and caudoventral blind sacs. (b) Bovine ruminoreticular compartment:
right
lateral view. Dotted line is the right longitudinal groove. The right longitudinal groove gives off a right accessory groove with a bulge, insula ruminis, in between the two grooves. (c) Goat’s stomach:
left
lateral view. Note that the caudoventral blind sac extends more caudally than the caudodorsal blind sac. Dotted line is the left longitudinal groove. (d) Goat’s four-chamber stomach:
right
lateral view. Chambers are the reticulum, rumen, omasum, and abomasum. Dotted line is the right longitudinal groove. (e,f) Schematic illustrations of the left (e) and right (f) views of a
goat’s stomach.
Figure 3.19 (a) Bovine rumen opened in situ to demonstrate
chambers of the rumen
and internal
pillars
on the right interior wall of the rumen. 1, caudodorsal blind sac; 2, caudoventral blind sac. The reticulum is held open by a small stick. Note that the right accessory pillar coursing dorsal and parallel to the right longitudinal pillar. (b) Illustration of the
pillars
in the interior of the bovine stomach: left sagittal view. Practice drawing this sketch on your own. In the ox, the right longitudinal pillar reaches the caudal pillar (the left longitudinal pillar does not). (c) Bovine stomach: left sagittal view. Star 1, cranial sac (ruminal atrium); star 2, ruminal recess; star 3, dorsal sac; star 4, ventral sac; star 5, caudodorsal blind sac; star 6, caudoventral blind sac. (d) Opened bovine rumen: left sagittal view (insert on the left) with a close-up view of the reticular groove (insert on the right). (e) Close-up view of the interior of the caudodorsal and caudoventral blind sacs and dorsal (right and left) and ventral (right and left) coronary pillars. The dorsal and ventral coronary pillars separate between the dorsal and ventral blind sacs and dorsal and ventral ruminal sacs, respectively.
Figure 3.20
Omasum
and
abomasum
opened along the lesser curvature (the cut is along the omasal and abomasal grooves). Note the small variable omasal papillae dotted on the large flat
omasal laminae.
The laminae are stacked together giving an appearance of pages of a book. The two folds at the omasoabomasal orifice form a valve known as the
vela abomascia
.
Figure 3.21 (a) Bovine omasum, abomasum, and proximal part of the duodenum (opened along the lesser curvature). The muscular projection at the pylorus is the
torus pyloricus
(see also Figure 3.21b). The mucosa of the abomasum contains
cardiac glands
(at the omasoabomasal orifice),
proper gastric glands
(in the fundus and body), and
pyloric glands
(at the pyloric region). (b) Distal part of the abomasum, and proximal part of the duodenum. The abomasum and duodenum are opened and reflected along the lesser curvature.
Figure 3.22 Overview of the bovine intestinal tract: right lateral view. The small intestine includes the duodenum (has several parts), jejunum (longest part), and ileum (defined by the ileocecal fold). The large intestine consists of the cecum, ascending, transverse, and descending colons. The ascending colon is more complex. Trace the three loops of the ascending colon (
proximal
,
spiral
, and
distal loops
). The spiral loop has
centripetal turns
,
central flexure,
and
centrifugal turns
. The last centrifugal fold of the spiral colon in goats lies close to the jejunum and is adhered to the great mesentery (mesojejunum). Its appearance has been likened to that of a “pearl necklace.”
Figure 3.23 Isolated bovine abdominal viscera showing the course of the duodenum: right lateral view. Trace the cranial part of the duodenum off the pylorus, the sigmoid flexure, cranial duodenal flexure (distal part of the sigmoid flexure), descending duodenum, caudal duodenal flexure, and ascending duodenum. The liver is pulled dorsally to expose the lesser omentum and the origin of the duodenum from the distal part of the pylorus. * Duodenocolic fold.
Figure 3.25 (a) Right lateral projection of the bovine liver between the ventral end of the 6th rib and dorsal aspect of the last (13th) rib. (b) Goat: right lateral view. Liver lobes as they are seen from the visceral surface of the liver. The papillary process of the caudate lobe is not visible.
Figure 3.26 The bovine thoracic and abdominal cavities:
left
lateral view. Note the long and oblong-shaped spleen on the craniodorsal surface of the rumen (ribs are removed).
Figure 3.27 Thoracic and abdominal cavities in a goat:
left
lateral view. Note the small quadrilateral spleen in goats compared to the large oblong-shaped spleen in cattle (compare with spleen in Figure 3.26).
Figure 3.28 (a) Bovine kidney. Figure shows intact (left) and sagittal section (right). (b) Sagittal section of the bovine kidney showing renal pyramids and renal papillae.
Figure 3.29 (a) Goat kidney: intact kidney (left) and median section (right). (b) Goat kidney: a dorsal plane section (off the center) of a caprine kidney showing the renal pyramids and interlobar vessels.
Figure 3.30 Isolated sheep abdominal viscera: dorsal view. The dotted circles show the location of the origins of the celiac, cranial mesenteric, and renal arteries on the floor of the abdominal aorta.
Chapter 4: The Pelvis and Reproductive Organs
Figure 4.1 Bones of the bovine pelvis. Note the vertical and horizontal diameters of the pelvis. They are important measurements used for predicting calving difficulties. Differences in pelvic inlet and outlet exist between the male and female pelvis (Box 4.1).
Figure 4.2 Schematic illustration of the bovine sacrosciatic ligament and the structures passing through the greater and lesser ischiatic foramina: left lateral view.
Figure 4.3 (a) Pelvic peritoneal pouches. Female bovine pelvis: sagittal section. 1, rectum; 2, uterus; 3, vagina; 4, bladder; 5, pubic bone; dotted line, pelvic symphysis, black star, rectovaginal septum or perineal body. (b) Cranial view of the pelvic bovine (cow) pouches and ligaments of the bladder.
Figure 4.4 Isolated urogenital tract of the bull (urinary bladder, penis, accessory sex glands, and testis). Note the pre-scrotal position of the sigmoid flexure. Keep this location in mind when palpating the sigmoid flexure in the live animal. 1 and 2, the proximal and distal bends of the sigmoid flexure, respectively (review the clinical significance of the sigmoid flexure in Box 4.6).
Figure 4.5 (a) Schematic illustration of the reproductive tract of the bull in situ. Note the location of the superficial inguinal lymph nodes which are also known as scrotal lymph nodes. They drain the scrotum, prepuce, and penis but not the testes. Star, suspensory ligament of the penis (bilateral). (b) Cross-section of the bovine penis at the level of the sigmoid flexure.
Figure 4.6 (a) Right lateral, left lateral, and dorsal views of the apical ligament in the penis of the bull. Source: adapted from Garrett, P.D. (1988)
Guide to Ruminant Anatomy Based on the Dissection of the Goat,
Iowa State University Press. (b) Dissection of the apical ligament on the dorsum of the bull penis: right lateral view. The apical ligament is a feature of the tunica albuginea covering corpus cavernosum penis (CCP). It arises distal to sigmoid flexure from the dorsal midline and left side, with thinner fibers on the left side (a).
Figure 4.7 (a) The
free part
and glans of the penis: right lateral view. The right lateral wall of the prepuce is transected longitudinally and removed to expose the
preputial cavity
and the
free part of the penis
. (b) The glans penis in the bull and small male ruminants (buck and ram): right lateral view. Note the extension of the
urethral process
beyond the glans in the penis of small ruminants (2-4 cm). The internal lamina of the prepuce is peeled backward.
Figure 4.8 In situ dissection of the bull reproductive tract showing the dorsal nerves of a bull penis and the sigmoid flexure.
Figure 4.9 (a) Schematic illustration of a longitudinal section of the urinary bladder to show an opening of the ureter on the craniodorsal surface of the urinary bladder. (b) Schematic illustration of the inner dorsal surface (roof) of the urinary bladder showing the
trigone of the bladder:
ventral view. (c) The
testes
and
prepuce (external lamina)
of the bull: left lateral view. Note the vertically suspended (pendulous) testicles.
Rudimentary teats
may be present on the scrotum. The
external lamina of the prepuce
is very long and extends from the scrotum to the
umbilicus
. Note the
preputial hair ring
around the external
preputial orifice
. The external lamina is continuous with the skin of the abdominal wall dorsally.
Figure 4.10 (a) Sagittal section of the pelvis of a bull showing arterial supply of the penis. Note that the
internal pudendal artery
and
pudendal nerve
make a cross (X) intersection close to the ischial arch. (b) Nerves and vessels located medial to the sacrosciatic ligament (cow). The cross sign (X) represents the intersection of the internal pudendal artery with the pudendal nerve. Curved dotted line=pelvic symphysis.
Figure 4.11 (a) Reproductive tract of the bull: distal parts. Testicular layers deep to the scrotal sac include the parietal and visceral vaginal tunics with a vaginal cavity in between. The Figure shows the proper ligament of the testis and ligament of the tail of the epididymis. (b,c) Ram testis: (b) lateral and (c) medial views. The testicular parietal vaginal tunic is incised to show ligaments of the testis. Identify the proper ligament of the testis and ligament of the tail of the epididymis. The body of the epididymis is out of sight (Figure 4.11a).
Figure 4.12 Bovine male (bull) reproductive tract and major pelvic nerves. Dissection of cremaster muscle and pelvic nerves. Note the testicles are oriented vertically. * Medial circumflex femoral artery.
Figure 4.13 Close-up view of the accessory sex glands of the bull.
Figure 4.14 In situ overview of the bovine (cow) reproductive tract.
Figure 4.15 Bovine ovary (cow). Ovarian bursa opened.
Figure 4.16 (a) Isolated bovine (cow) uterus: dorsal view. * Location of intercornual ligament. (b) Bovine (cow) dorsal and ventral intercornual ligaments: cranial view. Small ruminants have a single intercornual ligament.
Figure 4.17 (a) Bovine (cow) cotyledonary placenta opened to show the round, raised caruncles on the internal surface of the uterus (endometrium). Union of the caruncles and cotyledons form the placentomes. The placentome is mushroom-shaped in the cow and dish-shaped in small ruminants (goat and sheep). (b) Bovine (cow) fetus surrounded by placenta. The fetus has been pulled out of the interlocking of the caruncles (maternal side of the placentome) and cotyledons (fetal side of the placentome).
Figure 4.18 Bovine (cow) reproductive tract with uterus opened dorsally to show the caruncles on the surface of the endometrium: dorsal view.
Figure 4.19 Bovine (cow) cervix opened dorsally to demonstrate the
cervical canal,
and
the internal
(towards the uterine body) and
external
(toward the vagina)
uterine orifices
.
Figure 4.20 Bovine (cow) pelvic cavity showing pregnancy in the right uterine horn: cranial view. Note the significant enlargement of the right uterine horn (palpable feature of pregnancy). Fertilized ova usually come from the contralateral ovary. Gestation in cattle is about 280 days.
Figure 4.21 Bovine (cow) reproductive tract (vagina and vestibule): dorsal view. The tract is opened ventrally looking into the roof. Note the large dorsal longitudinal fold on the roof of the vagina (for clarification of the location of the suburethral diverticulum see Figure 4.23b).
Figure 4.23 (a) Schematic illustration of arterial blood supply to the ruminant (cow) reproductive tract (isolated tract). (b) In situ schematic illustration of arterial blood supply to the bovine (cow) reproductive tract.
Figure 4.22 External genitalia of the cow.
Figure 4.24 The bovine udder: left lateral view. The whole udder is composed of four quarters, two on each side.
Figure 4.25 (a) Schematic illustration of the interior of the bovine (cow) udder: longitudinal section passing through left and right hind quarters of the udder. (b) Bovine (cow) teat and distal part of the udder: longitudinal section. Dotted line shows location of the cross-section seen in Figure 4.25(c). (c) Cross-section of bovine (cow) teat to show layers and inner longitudinal folds of the teat canal: dorsal view.
Figure 4.26 Milk vein in a Friesian dairy cow. The
milk vein
is formed during the first lactation period by the fusion of the
cranial
and
caudal superficial epigastric veins
.
Figure 4.27 Palpation of the tuber coxae (hook).
Figure 4.28 Palpation of the tuber ischium (pin).
Chapter 5: The Forelimb
Figure 5.1 Bones of the bovine thoracic limb: left lateral view. Forelimb regions are the shoulder (scapula), brachium (humerus), antebrachium (radius and ulna), and manus (carpus, metacarpals, and digits).
Figure 5.2 The left bovine scapula: medial and lateral views * Supraglenoid tubercle.
Figure 5.3 Left humerus of the ox: cranial, caudal, and lateral views.
Figure 5.4 Left bovine radius and ulna: lateral, cranial, and caudal views.
Figure 5.5 (a) The left bovine carpus and proximal metacarpal region: dorsal and palmar views. The carpus has two rows. The
proximal row
contains four carpal bones: accessory carpal (
AC
), ulnar (
U
), intermediate (
I
), and radial (
R
), from lateral (L) to medial (M). On the dorsal view, the accessory carpal bone is obscured but can be seen on the palmar view palmar to the ulnar carpal bone. The
distal row
contains two bones, the fourth carpal and fused second and third carpal bones. The distal row articulates with fused metacarpals III and IV (large metacarpal bone). Rudimentary metacarpal V is shown in (b). (b) Lateral (left) and laterocaudal (right) views of bovine left carpus showing metacarpal V bone. 1, radiocarpal joint; 2, mid-carpal joint; 3, carpometacarpal joint.
Figure 5.6 Bovine left manus (carpus, metacarpals, and digits): dorsal view. The image on the left shows articulation of the large metacarpal bone with the carpus proximally, and digits III and IV distally. The image on the right shows an isolated bovine large metacarpal bone. Each digit has a proximal (P1), middle (P2), and distal phalanx (P3).
Figure 5.7 The left bovine digits: (a) palmar and (b) lateral views. In the live animal, digit IV (lateral) and digit III (medial) are interconnected by proximal and distal interdigital ligaments.
Figure 5.8 The cutaneus trunci and cutaneus omobrachialis muscles in a goat: left lateral view. Dotted line denotes the location of the clavicular intersection. * Omotransversarius muscle.
Figure 5.9 Superficial muscles of the goat showing several of the superficially located extrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb: left lateral view. Dotted line (white arrow) denotes the location of the clavicular intersection. * Omotransversarius muscle.
Figure 5.10 The superficial (descending and transverse pectorals) and deep pectoral muscles (goat): ventral view.
Figure 5.11 Dissection of serratus ventralis muscle (goat: left lateral view; the left forelimb has been removed). Note the fanshaped cervical and thoracic parts of the serratus ventralis muscle (insertion of the muscle cut along the dotted line). The long thoracic nerve (from the brachial plexus) supplies the serratus ventralis muscle.
Figure 5.12 (a) Overview of the lateral intrinsic muscles of the
left
thoracic limb (goat). (b) Overview of the medial intrinsic muscles of the
left
thoracic limb (goat).
Figure 5.13 (a) Overview of the lateral intrinsic muscles of the
left
bovine thoracic limb. The bovine intrinsic thoracic limb muscles are like those of the goat (Figure 5.12). IV, lateral digit. (b) Overview of the medial intrinsic muscles of the
left
bovine thoracic limb. The bovine intrinsic thoracic limb muscles are like those of the goat (Figure 5.12). III, medial digit.
Figure 5.14 Bovine proximal muscles of the shoulder, brachium, and antebrachium: close up left lateral view.
Figure 5.15 Medial bovine intrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb in the shoulder, brachium, and proximal antebrachium regions: close-up view.
Figure 5.16 Craniolateral muscles of the antebrachium and digits (left bovine forelimb). IV, lateral digit. The superficial and deep antebrachial fascia have been removed except for the carpal extensor retinaculum.
Figure 5.17 (a,b) Distal extensor tendons of the left bovine forelimb. Extensors tendons originate proximally from the common and lateral digital extensor muscles in the forearm region (a). (c) Distal insertion of extensor tendons of the lateral and common digital extensor muscles, and axial and abaxial extensor branches of the interosseus III and IV muscles. Goat right forelimb: dorsal view. Source: adapted from Garrett PD. (1988)
Guide to Ruminant Anatomy Based on the Dissection of the Goat
, Iowa State University Press.
Figure 5.18 Bovine left forelimb. Caudomedial flexor muscles of the antebrachium and digits.
Figure 5.19 (a) Bovine left forelimb. Figure shows caudomedial flexors tendons of the distal forelimb. Tendons are separated apart to demonstrate the heads of the superficial digital flexor (SDF) and a band analogous to accessory (check) ligament coursing from the interosseus muscle to SDF tendon. Proximally, the flexor retinaculum is incised and removed to open the carpal canal. (b) Bovine left forelimb: caudal view. The Figure shows caudal view of flexors of the carpus and digits. The flexor retinaculum is incised.
Figure 5.20 Left bovine limb: palmar view. The Figure shows distal tendons of the interosseus III and IV muscles, and bifurcation of the flexor tendons (SDF and DDF) to insert on each digit. Note the attachments of four of the interosseous branches to proximal axial and abaxial sesamoid bones.
Figure 5.21 Left bovine distal metacarpal region: close-up palmar view. The SDF and DDF flexor tendons are reflected down.
Figure 5.22 Bovine fetlock joints (left limb): palmar view. The Figure shows left and right metacarpophalangeal (fetlock) joints (opened). Note the axial extensor branch from the fused interosseus muscle coursing distally between the medial and lateral distal condyles of the large metacarpal bone.
Figure 5.23 Digits of left bovine forelimb: palmar view. (a) and (b) show the proximal and distal interdigital ligaments. The proximal interdigital ligament connects the proximal parts of the proximal phalanges (P1) of digits III and IV in cattle and goats (absent in sheep). It is difficult to identify (no need to dissect it). Note that the distal interdigital ligament forms a cross (X) in the distal part of the interdigital space. Each limb of the cross courses between the distal part of the middle phalanx (P2) and the distal sesamoid (navicular bone) of the opposite digit. In sheep, the distal interdigital ligament connects the two digits transversely.
Figure 5.24 Ground surface of the bovine hoofs: palmar view. Left bovine forelimb.
Figure 5.25 Schematic illustration for naming the branches of the
median artery
in the distal forelimb of ruminants (goat and cattle): palmar view. Identify the branches in red. The remaining arteries (shown by dotted lines) are minor in size and difficult to dissect.
Figure 5.26 Overview of the arteries of the ruminant forelimb from proximal to distal. Identify the large proximal arterial channels (axillary, subscapular, brachial, and median arteries) (Figure 5.27). The main blood supply to the distal forelimb is derived from the
median artery
that passes distally through the carpal canal in close association with median nerve. The
palmar common digital artery III
is the largest of the distal branches of the median artery to the foot. The palmar common digital artery III enters the interdigital space between the dewclaws to provide the
axial palmar proper digital arteries to digits III and IV
(Figure 5.28).
The abaxial palmar proper digital arteries III and IV
are small and should be ignored. Dorsal common (superficial) and dorsal and palmar metacarpal (deep) arteries are also minor vessels that run on the dorsal and palmar sides of the large metacarpal bone. The deep metacarpal vessels run on the dorsal and palmar longitudinal grooves and form connections (perforating branches) between the dorsal and palmar metacarpal vessels through the proximal and distal metacarpal canals (review bones). Do not look for the dorsal common or the metacarpal vessels. Identify arteries in
red
on an embalmed cow forelimb.
Figure 5.27 (a) Arteries of the brachium region. The Figure shows the right bovine forelimb: medial view. Identify the main channels (axillary, brachial, and subscapular arteries). 1 and 2, location of shoulder and elbow joints, respectively. (b) Arteries of the antebrachium region. In the antebrachium, the brachial artery becomes the median artery. Study the distal branches of the median artery to the claws (Figure 5.28). * Flexor carpi radialis muscle transected in the middle and reflected to uncover the median artery and nerve.
Figure 5.28 Distal branches of the median arteries and nerves to the foot. The Figure shows the right bovine forelimb: palmar view. Note that the
palmar common digital III
entering the interdigital space and courses distally between the dewclaws to give axial branches (
axial palmar proper digital arteries III and IV
) to digits III and IV. There is no need to identify the small arteries to the abaxial sides of the digits.
Figure 5.29 (a) Nerves of the brachial plexus (bovine). The Figure shows the right shoulder and brachial regions: medial view. (b) Nerves of the brachial plexus (goat). The Figure shows the right shoulder and brachial regions: medial view.
Figure 5.30 Branches of the radial and ulnar nerves to the dorsal surface of the front digits. Identify the branches of the radial nerve to the dorsal foot (Figure 5.32). In the brachial region, the ulnar nerve gives rise to a cutaneous branch, the caudal cutaneous antebrachial nerve, before it gives muscular branches to the flexor muscles of the carpus and digits (not depicted). The ulnar nerve contributes to the innervation of the dorsal and palmar sides of the lateral digit (digit IV) by the dorsal and palmar branches, respectively. The palmar and dorsal branches are depicted in Figure 5.35.
Figure 5.31 Superficial and deep branches of the radial nerve, right caprine forelimb: lateral view. * The lateral head of the triceps brachii muscle is transected at the middle and both ends are reflected to uncover the radial nerve and its deep and superficial branches.
Figure 5.32 (a) The right bovine forelimb showing the course of the superficial branch of the radial nerve and median nerve: dorsomedial view. Note that the superficial branch of the radial nerve coursing distally on the dorsal surface of the large metacarpal bone. It gives the dorsal common digital nerves II and III (not visible). Identify the dorsal common digital nerve III coursing to the interdigital space on Figure 5.33. (b) The right bovine forelimb: dorsal view. The dorsal common digital nerve III arises from the superficial branch of the radial nerve proximally. The radial nerve passes distally to give the large
dorsal common digital nerve III
and a small dorsal common digital nerve II to lateral digit (not shown). In the interdigital space, the dorsal common digital nerve III divides into
axial dorsal proper digital nerves III and IV
. The
dorsal common digital vein III
seen on the image feeds into accessory cephalic vein proximally.
Figure 5.35 Overview of the nerves on the palmar distal forelimb of ruminants. Identify the nerves in blue font. The
median nerve
gives muscular branches to the flexors of the carpus and digits in the proximal antebrachium. Distally, it passes through the carpal canal in the company of the median artery. In the mid metacarpal region, the median nerve gives
medial
and
lateral branches
(variations may occur). The medial and lateral branches of the median nerve and the palmar branch of the ulnar nerve divide variably into
palmar common digital nerves II, III, and IV
. Typically, the
medial branch of the median nerve
gives the
axial palmar proper digital nerve III
and
abaxial palmar proper digital nerve III
to the medial digit. The lateral branch of the median nerve gives
axial palmar proper digital nerve IV
to the lateral digit. The
abaxial palmar proper digital nerve IV
