Handbook of Electronics Formulas and Calculations - Volume 2 E-Book

Newton C. Braga

• Herausgeber: Editora NCB
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Handbook of Electronics Formulas and Calculations
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 122

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Some years ago I had written a book directed to anyone who designs electronic and electric circuits. Engineers, technicians, teachers, students and hobbyists took a real benefit from that book. The original book is now out of print, being available only used issues. Since the book is very useful, the author decided to review the old edition, add new content and so create a new book for anyone who need a fast access to formulas, tables and calculations when designing his projects or solving a problem. The author, who has himself designed multitudes of projects and circuits during his life, publishing many books and hundreds of articles in electronics magazines and teaching electronics, has collected an assortment of all basic information necessary for calculations needed when designing new projects or solving a problem. More part of these formulas and calculations is now in the author´s site. The site also has versions in Portuguese and in Spanish. In the site the reader will also find practical examples in projects or articles where many of the formulas shown in this book are used. When starting a project or solving a problem the main difficulty the designer or student founds is how to locate the desired information. This information is normally spread over a large number of resources, such as books, handbooks, Internet, and magazine articles. Although many of us who are experienced in electronics have in mind the principal formulas, we sometimes have trouble with the forgotten constant, multiplication factor or exponent. Finding these values is sometimes difficult depending of the circumstances, such as where you are at the time, or the amount of resources at your disposal.

Leseprobe

Handbook of Electronics Formulas and Calculations - Volume 2

Electricity and Basic Electronics

Newton C. Braga

São Paulo - 2016

Institute NCB

www.newtoncbraga.com

[email protected]

HANDBOOK OF ELECTRONICS FORMULAS AND CALCULATIONS – vol.2Author: Newton C. BragaSão Paulo - Brazil – 2016

key-words: Electronic, formulas, calculations, electricity, mechatronics, engineering

Copyright by

INSTITUTO NEWTON C BRAGA

2ª edition

All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. No patent liability is assumed with taken in the preparation of this book, the author, the publisher or saller assume no responsibility for erros or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the use of information containes hereing.

Officer responsible: Newton C. Braga

Design and Coordination: Renato Paiotti

INSTITUTE NEWTON C. BRAGA

http://www.newtoncbraga.com

Índice

Preface

BRIDGES

128. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

129. WIEN BRIDGE

130. RESONANCE BRIDGE

131. MAXWELL BRIDGE

132. SCHERING BRIDGE

133. OWEN BRIDGE

134. HAY BRIDGE

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

135. NON-INVERTING OP. AMP.

136. INVERTING OP. AMP.

137. VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

138. SUMMING OP. AMP.

139. SUBTRACTION OP. AMP.

140. DIFFERENTIATION USING OP. AMP.

141. INTEGRATION USING OP. AMP.

142. LOGARITHMIC OP. AMP.

143. VOLTAGE SOURCE

144. CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE - Op. Amp

145. CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE - Op. Amp.

146. ABSOLUTE VALUE AMPLIFIER - Op. Amp.

147. VOLTIMETER USING Op. Amp.

148. SQUARE WAVE OSCILLATOR - Op. Amp.

149. WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR USING Op. Amp.

150. BANDPASS AMPLIFIER USING Op. Amp.

151. NOTCH FILTER - Op. Amp.

152. LOW-PASS FILTER - Op. Amp.

153. HIGH-PASS FILTER - Op. Amp.

154. BUTTERWORTH FILTER - Op. Amp.

155. SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR (one transistor)

156. PARALLEL VOLTAGE REGULADOR

INTEGRATED VOLTAGE REGULATORS

157. VOLTAGE REGULATORS

158. CURRENT REGULATOR

159. Calculating a voltage regulator

Digital Circuits

160. Binary to Decimal Conversion

161. BYTE TO DECIMAL CONVERSION

162. BCD to Decimal Conversion

163. HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL CONVERSION

164. Decimal-to-Binary Conversion

165. DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL

Logic Functions

166. AND Gate

167. NAND Gate

168. OR Gate

169. NOR Gate

170. Exclusive-OR

171. Inverter

172. Binary Addition

173. Binary Subtraction

174. Binary Multiplication

175. Binary Division

The Postulates of Boolean Algebra

176. Laws of Tautology

177. Laws of Commutation

178. The Laws of Association 

179. Laws of Distribution

180. Laws of Absorption

181. Laws of Universe Class

182. The Laws of Null Class

183. Laws of Complementation

184. Laws of Contraposition

185. Law of Double Negation

186. Laws of Expansion

187. Laws of Duality

Boolean Relationships

188. Idempoint

189. Commutative

190. Associative

191. Boolean Relationship - Distributive

192. Absortion

193. Demorgan Theorem

Miscelaneous

194. Instantaneous Values of Sine Waves

195. Inches to Millimeters

196. Millimeters to Decimal Inches

Temperature Conversions

197. Degrees Celsius (C), Degrees Fahrenheit (F), Degrees Kelvin (K) and Degrees Reamur

Sound and Acoustics

198. Sound Wavelength

199. Velocity of Longitudinal Sound Waves

200. Sound Interval

201. Sound Pressure

202. Sound Pressure Level

203. Sound Intensity

204. Interference (Beat)

205. Doppler Effect

Loudspeaker Crossover Networks

206. Simple Crossover Network for Tweeter (6dB/octave)

207. 6 dB Octave Crossover Network II

208. Two-Channel 12 dB/Octave Loudspeaker Crossover

209. Two-Channel 18 dB/octave PI-Crossover Network 

210. Crossover and Design Frequencies for 3-way Networks

211. Three-Channel 6 dB/Octave Crossover (Series)

212. Three-Chanell 6dB/Octave Crossover (Parallel)

213. Three-Channel 12 dB/Octave Crossover (Series)

214. Three- Channel 12 dB/Octave Crossover (Parallel)

215. Weeler’s Formula

Optoelectronics

216. Wavelength and Frequency for Light Radiation

217. Luminous Intensity and Flux

218. Luminous Density

219. Refraction

220.LEDs

221. Photocell

222. LDR or Photoresistor

223. Photodiode

224. Phototransistor

225. Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law

Mathematics

226. Differentiation Formulas

227. Integration Formulas

228. Tolerances

229. Fourier Transforms

Preface

Some years ago I had written a book directed to anyone who designs electronic and electric circuits. Engineers, technicians, teachers, students and hobbyists took a real benefit from that book. The original book is now out of print, being available only used issues. Since the book is very useful, the author decided to review the old edition, add new content and so create a new book for anyone who need a fast access to formulas, tables and calculations when designing his projects or solving a problem.

The author, who has himself designed multitudes of projects and circuits during his life, publishing many books and hundreds of articles in electronics magazines and teaching electronics, has collected an assortment of all basic information necessary for calculations needed when designing new projects or solving a problem.

More part of these formulas and calculations is now in the author´s site at www.newtoncbraga.com. The site also has versions in Portuguese (www.newtoncbraga.com.br) and in Spanish (www.incb.com.mx).

In the site the reader will also find practical examples in projects or articles where many of the formulas shown in this book are used.

When starting a project or solving a problem the main difficulty the designer or student founds is how to locate the desired information. This information is normally spread over a large number of resources, such as books, handbooks, Internet, and magazine articles.

Although many of us who are experienced in electronics have in mind the principal formulas, we sometimes have trouble with the forgotten constant, multiplication factor or exponent. Finding these values is sometimes difficult depending of the circumstances, such as where you are at the time or the amount of resources at your disposal.

By putting the principal formulas and tables in a unique place, a designer can find the desired information easier, and, more importantly, can take this information wherever he goes.

And with the aid of the new technologies, the information can be accessed by a tablet, Smartphone or a laptop, if you have the virtual version. This is the aim of this book.

But formulas and tables are not useful only when designing a new configuration. They are necessary when we need to know what happen when a specific working circuit is altered, for the electronic student doing homework or the researchers in other fields who work with electronic equipment.

The tables contain a large amount of important information, such as particular values of constants, physical properties of circuits and materials, and even calculated values that can´t be found without using complex or hard-to-do procedures.

Finally, we have laws and theorems describing the properties of circuits and devices, and procedures to be used in calculations, which are very important when doing practical works.

Most of the formulas and tables are accompanied by application examples. They are very important to show the reader how the calculations are made when using the given information. To avoid problems with incorrect results, in all formulas and applications the units to be used are indicated.

The formulas range from the simplest, where elementary arithmetic operations such as sum, subtraction, multiplication and division, are used, to the more complex that require some good working knowledge of algebraic and trigonometric functions, or even differential and integral calculus.

Although mathematics is an exact science, when some calculations are applied to other sciences and in “real-life” electronics, the results can be different from the expected. When making calculations involving electronic circuits, it is often said that “When working with electronics, practice and theory often disagree.”

This means that in many cases the results found in calculations will need some “adjustments” when applied to an actual application.

This fact is applicable even to the tolerances of the electronic components used in practical applications, plus the fact that many formulas are not exact, but empirical.

But why use an exact formula, including complex logarithms, trigonometric functions or differential equations, if we can get results good enough to make a circuit work by using a reduced formula?

In many stages of the design process, the results will depend on the tolerance of the components used.

This explains why in many cases we´ll not give the exact formula but an empirical formula, where the “complex part” of the calculations will be reduced to a constant, or even eliminated.

This means that this book is not an advanced resource for engineers or researches that need a very accurate result in their calculation. We can consider that in many cases the formulas are empiric, i.e. giving approximate results, but good enough to put a project to work.

About the units – the preference is the use of the decimal system or International Units System (SI - Système International d´Unités). Only in the cases where conversion formulas and tables are given will other units appear. The notations will be that recommended by NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology), but in some cases, to make easier the use by reader less experienced with calculations, some “non-conventional” notations can be found.

Although the preferred symbol to indicate multiplication operations is the “x”, in some cases we also use the bullet (*) or even the point (.).

The tables were obtained from different sources – physics handbooks, engineering books, manufacturers and technical documentation were consulted. As for composition of materials, the calculation procedures can change from one manufacturer to another, so small differences in the tabulated values will be found if comparing to other resources.

Many tables were calculated by the author using software created to the task.

Using the book is very easy. The formulas are distributed in groups according to subject, and all the reader needs is a calculator (in your cellular or computer) and a piece of paper to work. A scientific calculator or math software in your computer, tablet or even Smartphone is recommended if trigonometric functions or logarithms are used.

The most important point of this introduction is that this Handbook can become an important tool for everyone who works with electricity and electronics – from students and hobbyists for researchers, teachers and engineers. Anyone in need of practical information or formulas and calculations as applied to electricity and electronics will find this book indispensable.

Newton C. Braga (2016)

P.S. The original version for this book is out of print and had another tittle. The version has new formulas and new examples consisting in a new book.

In this volume:

Bridges

Operational Amplifiers

Digital Electronics and logic

Voltage and Current Regulation

Thermometry and thermology

Sound and Acoustics

Optoelectronics

Light and Colour

Mathematics