Handbook on Material and Energy Balance Calculations in Material Processing E-Book

Arthur E. Morris

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1504

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Lately, there has been a renewed push to minimize the waste of materials and energy that accompany the production and processing of various materials. This third edition of this reference emphasizes the fundamental principles of the conservation of mass and energy, and their consequences as they relate to materials and energy. New to this edition are numerous worked examples, illustrating conventional and novel problem-solving techniques in applications such as semiconductor processing, environmental engineering, the production and processing of advanced and exotic materials for aerospace, electronic, and structural applications.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

List of Example

Preface to the First Edition

Preface to the Third Edition

Acknowledgements

About the Authors

Chapter 1: Dimensions, Units, and Conversion Factors

1.1 The SI System of Units

1.2 The American Engineering System (AES) of Units

1.3 Conversion of Units

1.4 Unit Conversions Using the U-Converter Program

1.5 Amount of Substance—the Mole Unit

1.6 Density and Concentration

1.7 Electrical Units

1.8 Calculation Guidelines

1.9 Summary

References and Further Reading

Exercises

Chapter 2: Thermophysical and Related Properties of Materials

2.1 State of a System and Properties of a Substance

2.2 The Gibbs Phase Rule

2.3 The Gas Phase

2.4 Condensed Phases

2.5 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium (VLE)

2.6 Effect of Pressure on Phase Transformation Temperatures

2.7 Steam and Air Property Calculators

2.8 Properties of Solutions

2.9 Summary

References and Further Reading

Exercises

Chapter 3: Statistical Concepts Applied to Measurement and Sampling

3.1 Basic Statistical Concepts and Descriptive Tools.

3.2 Distributions of Random Variables

3.3 Basic Applications of Inferential Statistics to Measurement

3.4 Curve Fitting

3.5 Experimental Design

3.6 Summary

References and Further Reading

Exercises

Chapter 4: Fundamentals of Material Balances with Applications to Non-Reacting Systems

4.1 System Characteristics

4.2 Process Classifications

4.3 Flowsheets

4.4 The General Balance Equation

4.5 Material Balances on Simple Non-Reactive Systems

4.6 Strategy for Making Material Balance Calculations

4.7 Degree-of-Freedom Analysis

4.8 Using Excel-based Calculational Tools to Solve Equations

4.9 Balances on Systems with Multiple Devices

4.10 Extension of Excel’s Calculational Tools for Repetitive Solving

4.12 Special Multiple-Device Configurations II — Counter-Current Flow

4.13 Using FlowBal for Material Balance Calculations

4.14 Continuous-Mixing Devices

4.15 Graphical Representation of Material Balances

4.16 Measures of Performance

4.17 Controllers

4.18 Summary

References and Further Reading

Exercises

Chapter 5: Stoichiometry and the Chemical Equation

5.1 Atomic and Molecular Mass

5.2 Composition of Compounds and the Gravimetric Factor

5.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

5.4 Calculations Involving Excess and Limiting Reactants

5.5 Progress of a Reaction

5.6 Practical Indicators of the Progress of Reactions and Processes

5.7 Parallel, Sequential, and Mixed Reactions

5.8 Independence of Chemical Reactions

5.9 Practical Examples of Reaction Writing and Stoichiometry

5.10 Use of Chemical Reactions in FlowBal

5.12 Summary

References and Further Reading

Exercises

Chapter 6: Reactive Material Balances

6.1 The General Material Balance Procedure for a Reactive System

6.2 The Use of Excel-based Computational Tools in Reactive System Balances

6.3 Combustion Material Balances

6.4 The Production of a Reducing Gas

6.5 Gas-Solid Oxidation-Reduction Processes

6.6 The Production of Gases with Controlled Oxygen and Carbon Potential

6.7 Processes Controlled by Chemical Reaction Kinetics

6.8 The Reconciliation of an Existing Materials Balance

6.9 The Use of Distribution Coefficients in Material Balance Calculations

6.10 Time-Varying Processes

6.11 Systems Containing Aqueous Electrolytes

6.12 Summary

References and Further Reading

Exercises

Chapter 7: Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

7.1 Principles and Definitions

7.2 General Statement of the First Law of Thermodynamics

7.3 First Law for an Open System

7.4 Enthalpy, Heat Capacity, and Heat Content

7.6 Enthalpy Change of Chemical Reactions

7.7 Thermodynamic Databases for Pure Substances

7.8 Effect of Temperature on Heat of Reaction

7.9 The Properties of Steam and Compressed Air

7.10 The Use of FREED in Making Heat Balances

7.11 Heat of Solution

7.12 Summary

References and Further Reading

Exercises

Chapter 8: Enthalpy Balances in Non-Reactive Systems

8.1 Combined Material and Heat (System) Balances

8.2 Heat Balance for Adiabatic Processes

8.3 Psychrometric Calculations

8.4 Energy Efficiency

8.5 Recovery and Recycling of Heat

8.6 Multiple-Device System Balances

8.7 Use of FlowBal for System Balances

8.8 Heat Balances Involving Solution Phases

8.9 Enthalpy Change During Dissolution of an Electrolyte

8.10 Graphical Representation of a Heat Balance

8.11 Summary

References and Further Reading

Exercises

Chapter 9: System Balances on Reactive Processes

9.1 Thermal Constraints on a Material Balance

9.2 Combustion of Fuels

9.3 Adiabatic Processes

9.4 System Balances Using FlowBal

9.5 Quality of Heat and Thermal Efficiency

9.6 System Balances with Heat Exchangers

9.7 Aqueous Processes

9.8 Electrolytic Processes

9.9 Summary

References and Further Reading

Exercises

Chapter 10: Case Studies

10.1 Material Balance for an H-Iron Reduction Process with Gas Tempering and Recycle

10.2 Mass and Heat Balance Simulation for the Use of DRI in EAF Steelmaking

10.3 Natural Gas Combustion Control and the Wobbe Index

10.4 Reduction of Hematite to Magnetite

10.5 Conversion of Quartz to Cristobalite in a Fluidized Bed

Exercise

Appendix

A.l U-Converter

A.2 Thermophysical Properties of Steam and Air

A.3 Stream Units Conversion Calculator (MMV-C)

A.4 Extension of Excel Tools for Repeat Calculation

A.5 Thermodynamic Database Programs

A.6 Flowsheet Simulation and System Balancing

General References

Index

HANDBOOK ON MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATIONS IN MATERIALS PROCESSING

Copyright © 2011 by The Minerals, Metals, & Materials Society. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Morris, Arthur E., 1935– Handbook on material and energy balance calculations in material processing / Arthur E. Morris, Gordon Geiger, H. Alan Fine. — 3rd ed. p. cm. Rev. ed. of: Handbook on material and energy balance calculations in metallurgical processes. 1979. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-118-06565-5 (hardback) 1. Chemical processes—Mathematical models—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Manufacturing processes—Mathematical models—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Chemical processes—Mathematical models—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Materials—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 5. Phase rule and equilibrium—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 6. Heat balance (Engineering)—Mathematics—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 7. Conservation laws (Physics)—Mathematics—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Fine, H. Alan. II. Geiger, Gordon Harold, 1937- III. Fine, H. Alan. Handbook on material and energy balance calculations in metallurgical processes. IV. Title. TP155.7.M66 2011 660’.28 — dc22 2011010947

List of Examples

Chapter 1. Dimensions, Units, and Conversion Factors

1.1 Mass and Weight of Aluminum

1.2 Kinetic Energy

1.3 Energy of Lifting

1.4 Units of Energy

1.5 Dimensions for Flowrate

1.6 Conversion of Temperature

1.7 Conversion Formula

1.8 Conversion of Pressure - I

1.9 Conversion of Pressure - II

1.10 Pressure in a Liquid

1.11 The SI and AES Mole

1.12 The Density of a Slurry

1.13 Bulk Density of a Solid - I

1.14 Bulk Density of a Solid - II

1.15 Concentration Conversion

1.16 Composition of a Gas on a Wet and Dry Basis

1.17 Electrical Flow in a Wire

1.18 Electrical Energy for Metal Deposition

1.19 Number of Significant Figures

Chapter 2. Thermophysical and Related Properties of Material

2.1 Removal of Air by a Vacuum Pump

2.2 Gas Volume and Flowrate

2.3 Compressibility of Steam

2.4 Thermal Expansion of Titanium

2.5 Evaporation of Water in a Closed Vessel

2.6 Humidity and Dew Point

2.7 Moisture Content of Clay Dryer Streams

2.8 Effect of Pressure on the Freezing Point of Water.

2.9 Effect of Pressure on the Vapor Pressure of Water

2.10 Vapor and Liquid Phase Composition for the Cu - Ni System

2.11 Evaporation from Liquid Cd - Mg Alloys at 700 °C

2.12 Volumetric Solubility of CO2 in Water

2.13 The Solubility of CaF2 in Water

Chapter 3. Statistical Concepts Applied to Measurement and Sampling

3.1 A Histogram of Ceramic Strength Measurements

3.2 Percentiles of the %Cu Data using Excel

3.3 Uniformity of Vermiculite Particles

3.4 Evaluation of the Normal Distribution for Ceramic Strength Data

3.5 Finding a 90% Confidence Interval

3.6 Relationship Between Sample Size and Interval Width Using the Si2ON2 Example

3.7 Heat Capacity Systematic Error

3.8 Ore Assay

3.9 Improving Measurement Precision

3.10 The Professor Tries Again

3.11 Linear Random Error Propagation

3.12 Multiplicative Random Error Propagation

3.13 Other Random Error Propagation

3.14 The Difference Between Propagation of Random and Systematic Errors

3.15 Modeling the Heat Capacity of TiOx

3.16 Non-linear Models for the CpTiOx Data

3.17 An Asymptotic Model for the Heat Capacity of TiOx

3.18 Using the Regression Tool to Find Non-Linear Models

3.19 Removing the Thickness Variable from the Galvanized Corrosion Example

3.20 Hypothesis Testing for the Galvanized Steel Model with Three Independent Variables

3.21 Selecting a Model for the Hydrogen Reduction of NiO

3.22 Calculating the Pressure-Catalyst Interaction

3.23 Effect of a Fractional Factorial Design: How Much Information is Lost?

Chapter 4. Fundamentals of Material Balances with Applications to Non-Reacting Systems

4.1 Distillation of a Cd-Zn Alloy

4.2 Charge Calculation for Feed to a Brass Melting Furnace

4.3 Vacuum De-Zincing of Lead

4.4 Leaching of Salt Cake from Aluminum Recycling

4.5 Refining Crude Boric Acid by a Two-Stage Aqueous Process

4.6 Recovery of KMnO4 by Evaporation

4.7 Removing Dust and SO2 from a Roaster Gas

4.8 Absorption of HCl

4.9 Preparation of a Pigment Precursor

4.10 Removal of CuSO4 from a Pollution Control Residue

4.11 Catalyst Reactivation

4.12 Dissolution of ZnCl2

4.13 Removal of Hydrogen from Steel

4.14 Vacuum Refining of a Cd-Zn Alloy

4.15 Control Strategy for Upgrading Spent Reducing Gas

Chapter 5. Stoichiometry and the Chemical Equation

5.1 Use of the Gravimetric Factor for Silicon

5.2 Mineralogical Constituents of a Concentrate

5.3 Reduction of Wustite by CO

5.4 Production of Molybdenum Carbide

5.5 Production of Titanium by the Kroll Process

5.6 The Reaction Between Oxygen and Carbon

5.7 Reduction of Molybdenum Oxide with Hydrogen

5.8 Carbothermic Reduction of Zinc Oxide

5.9 Steam Reforming of Methane

5.10 Controlled Oxidation of Pyrite

5.11 Dissolution of Gold in Cyanide Solution

Chapter 6. Reactive Material Balances

6.1 Production of Sulfur by Reduction of Sulfur Dioxide

6.2 Chlorination of Silicon

6.3 Application of FlowBal to Stack Gas Desulfurization

6.4 Combustion of Natural Gas with XSA

6.5 Effect of Oxygen Enrichment on the Oxidant Required for Complete Combustion

6.6 Stack Gas Composition and Dew Point for Coal Combustion with Dry Air

6.7 Calculation of % Excess Air from Stack Gas Analysis

6.8 Calculation of CO, H2 and NO content in Hot Stack Gas

6.9 Calculation of Reformer Gas Composition

6.10 Calculation of dpt from Gas Analysis

6.11 Calcination of Wet Pickling Cake

6.12 Simulation of a Pre-Reduction Fluidized Bed Process

6.13 Material Balance on Shaft Furnace Reduction of Hematite

6.14 Roasting a Zinc Sulfide Concentrate

6.15 Material Balance for BOF Steelmaking

6.16 Leaching of Scrubber Dust

6.17 The Optimum Precipitation of CaCO3 by CO2

Chapter 7. Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

7.1 Work and Heat During the Compression of an Ideal Gas

7.2 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy for a Flux

7.3 Heat of Fusion of Lead

7.4 Standard Heat of the Water-Gas Shift Reaction from 800 to 1500 K

7.5 Supercooling Liquid Tin

7.6 Combustion of CO with Preheated Air

7.7 Adiabatic Compression of Steam

7.8 Enthalpy Change During Reduction of NiO with C

7.9 Temperature Change of an Adiabatic Reaction

Chapter 8. Enthalpy Balances in Non-Reactive Systems

8.1 Heat Balance for Melting Aluminum

8.2 Heat Balance for Spray Cooling of Hot Air

8.3 Fog Cooling of Ceramic Parts

8.4 Atomization of a Molten Metal

8.5 Dehumidifying Spent Gas from an Iron Ore Reducing Furnace

8.6 Using Stack Gas to Dry Cadmium Powder

8.7 Heat Exchange in a Waste Heat Boiler

8.8 Preheating HC1 in a Pebble-Bed Vertical Shaft Heat Exchanger

8.9 Lowering the Water Temperature from a Crystallizer

8.10 Condensation of Zinc Vapor from a Gas

8.11 Production of Distilled Water

Chapter 9. System Balances on Reactive Processes

9.1 Heat of Combustion of a Spent Gas from a Reduction Process

9.2 Effect of Preheating Combustion Air on AFT

9.3 Production of a Reducing Gas

9.4 Adiabatic Reforming of Fuel Oil

9.5 Oxidation of SO2 to SO3 for Sulfuric Acid Production

9.6 Metallothermic Reduction of Uranium Tetrafluoride

9.7 Lime-Assisted Reduction of Magnetite

9.8 Calcination of Magnesium Carbonate

9.9 Formation of Nickel Ferrite by Spray Roasting

CD Contents

1 CD Content Descriptions

2 Air

3 Atmospheres

4 Charts

5 Combustion Documents

6 Copper Smelting

7 FlowBal and MMV-C

8 Material and Heat Balance Notes

9 NG Combust & Wobbe Index

10 Statistics

11 Steel

12 SuperGoalSeek

13 SuperSolver

14 Thermodynamic Database

15 Unit Conversions

Preface to the First Edition

We live in a day and age when realization of the “limits to growth” and the finite extent of all of our natural resources have finally hit home. Yet our economy and our livelihoods depend on successful operation of industries that require and consume raw materials and energy. This success depends, in turn, on efficient use of the available resources, which not only allows industry to conserve materials and energy, but also allows it to compete successfully in the world markets that exist today.

The duties of the metallurgical engineer include, among many other things, development of information concerning the efficiency of metallurgical processes, either through calculation from first principles, or by experimentation. The \theory of the construction of material and energy balances, from which such knowledge is derived, is not particularly complicated or difficult, but the \practice, particularly in pyrometallurgical operations, can be extremely difficult and expensive.

In this Handbook, we have tried to review the basic principles of physical chemistry, linear algebra, and statistics, which are required to enable the practicing engineer to determine material and energy balances. We have also tried to include enough worked examples and suggestions for additional reading that a novice to this field will be able to obtain the necessary skills for making material and energy balances. Some of the mathematical techniques, which can be used when a digital computer is available, are also presented. The user is cautioned, however, that the old computing adage “garbage in, garbage out” is particularly true in this business, and that great attention must still be paid to setting up the proper equations and obtaining accurate data. Nevertheless, the computer is a powerful ally and gives the engineer the tool to achieve more accurate solutions than was possible just twenty-five years ago.

It is hoped that readers, particularly those who are out of practice at these kinds of calculations will ultimately be able to perform energy balances in processes for which they are responsible, and as a result be able to improve process efficiencies. A bibliography of past work on this subject is presented in an appendix to provide reference material against which results of studies can be checked. Hopefully, results reported in the future will reflect increases in efficiency.

H. Alan Fine University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky

Gordon H. Geiger University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona

December, 1979

Preface to the Third Edition

Because the fundamental bases on which the laws of conservation of mass and energy depend remain the same, users of this edition will find an essential similarity between this edition and the slightly revised (second) edition of 1993. Two noteworthy changes in the professional engineer’s practice have occurred since 1993, however. First, in the last 25 years, a dramatic shift has occurred away from metallurgical engineering and the extractive industry towards materials engineering. A large and growing number of recent graduates are employed in such fields as semiconductor processing, environmental engineering and the production and processing of advanced and exotic materials for aerospace, electronic and structural applications. Second, in the same time frame the advance in computing power and software for the desktop computer has significantly changed the way engineers make computations.

This edition of the text reflects these changes. The text now includes examples that involve environmental aspects, processing and refining of semiconductor materials, and energy-saving techniques for the extraction of metals from low-grade ores. However, the biggest change comes from the computational approach to problems. The spreadsheet program Excel is used extensively throughout the text as the main computational “engine” for solving material and energy balance equations, and for statistical analysis of data. A large thermodynamic database (FREED) replaces the thermodynamic tables in the back of the previous Handbook. A number of specialized add-in Excel programs were developed specifically to enhance Excel’s problem-solving capability. Finally, on-line versions of two commercial programs for steam table and psychrometric calculations were identified and incorporated in the text examples. These programs simplify the rather difficult calculations commonly required in making material and heat balances. The use of Excel and the introduction of the add-in programs have made it possible to study the effect of a range of variables on critical process parameters. More emphasis is now placed on multi-device flowsheets with recycle, bypass and purge streams whose material and heat balance equations were previously too complicated to solve by the normally-used hand calculator. The Appendix has a brief description of these programs.

The Excel-based program FlowBal is the most important addition to this Edition. FlowBal helps the user set up material and heat balance equations for processes with multiple streams and units. FlowBal uses the thermodynamic database program FREED for molecular mass and enthalpy data. FlowBal’s purpose is to introduce the increasingly important subject of flowsheet simulation. FlowBal and all other software and supplementary reference material is on a CD included with the Handbook. A text file on the CD describes its contents (CD Content Descriptions.doc).

Many changes have been made throughout the text. There are now ten chapters instead of six, which reflects a desire to organize the material in non-reactive vs. reactive material and energy balance sections. The concept of degree-of-freedom analysis has been introduced to provide a basis for analyzing the adequacy of information presented in a flowsheet. The concepts of extent-of-reaction and the equilibrium constant are presented as ways to designate how far a given chemical reaction will (or can) proceed. The introduction of the equilibrium constant requires the Handbook user to have completed a course in chemistry that covers the main principles of thermochemistry, or at least to have available a chemistry textbook typical of those used in the first year of a materials engineering program.

Chapter 3 has been completely revised to emphasize the statistical analysis of experimental data, while de-emphasizing the descriptive material on chemical analysis and techniques for sampling process streams. A final chapter has been added on case studies, showing the application of computational techniques and software to more complex processes.

This edition frequently uses web citations and Wikipedia as references and suggestions for further reading. Wikipedia has well-written articles on many Handbook topics, and more are being added. Wikipedia is a work in progress, so readers are encouraged to search it for additional information even if a Wikipedia reference is not listed in the text. You are also encouraged to improve any of its articles that are in your area of expertise. The web pages cited in the General References section and as Chapter references may disappear or change after publication, and other sites may appear.

A number of useful and interesting public domain articles were found during revision of the Handbook. These articles have been collected to the Handbook CD in various folders. Many of these articles give background information on processes that were used as Handbook examples. Some of the documents contain articles on processes described in the FlowBal User’s Guide.

Finally, a web page has been created where changes and additions to the Handbook are posted. The web page contains updates to the Handbook software, error corrections, references to new software, and links to other sites having useful information on material/energy balances and process simulation. We encourage Handbook users to alert the authors to useful information and to submit material for posting on the page.

http://thermart.net/

Arthur E. Morris Thermart Software San Diego, California

Gordon H. Geiger University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona

December, 2010

Acknowledgements

This Handbook was prepared under Subcontract 00014529, with Bechtel BWXT Idaho, LLC. We are grateful for the assistance of Simon Friedrich of OIT-DOE in obtaining the contract. Professor Geiger organized this effort with DOE, and made many valuable suggestions during the preparation of the manuscript. In particular, he prepared an outline for a greatly revised chapter on statistics, and contributed advice on the treatment of psychrometry and controllers.

Several people made substantial contributions to the Handbook. First, Chapter 3 is largely the work of two graduate students from Texas A and M University, Mr. Blair Sterba-Boatwright and Mr. Peng-lin Huang. Both made their contributions while they were candidates for a PhD. in statistics, and made what was a very rough draft into a polished product. Second, Mr. Knut Lindqvist wrote the code for Super Goal Seek and Super Solver, and Robert Baron wrote U-Converter. These three programs are on the Handbook CD.

Dr. Semih Perdahcioglu was a prime contributor to the Handbook by his development of FlowBal and MMV-C. FlowBal, in particular, became a mainstay of the computational tools used throughout the Handbook. As a result of his dedicated work, both students and process engineers now have a flowsheet simulation tool capable of dealing with complex multi-device flowsheets. Semih also revised FREED to include a reaction tool. He is now a post-doc research assistant at University of Twente, Netherlands.

We are obligated to three faculty members for miscellaneous advice with various topics. Professor Eric Grimsey (WASM Kalgoorlie) was an inspiration from the beginning, and provided valuable suggestions, encouragement, and help throughout, especially with the application of the degree-of freedom concept. Professor Grimsey also contributed a set of his course notes (“Basic Material and Heat Balances for Steady State Flowsheets”) for inclusion on the Handbook CD. These notes provide a shorter (and somewhat different) approach to the construction of system balances, and are recommended without reservation as an adjunct to the Handbook approach.

Professor David Robertson (Missouri University of Science and Technology) cleared up a number of points regarding the material on continuously mixed and unsteady-state processes, and pointed out a number of text errors in Chapter 3. Some of his graduate course examples were adapted for use in FlowBal, and he provided suggestions for FlowBal changes to help the user. Professor Mark Schlesinger (Missouri University of Science and Technology) permitted use of several of his examples and exercises.

Finally, no text is generated in isolation. Items from the General References Section (page 605, just before the Index) provided background information and material data that was used for working out examples and exercises. This Section also cites texts that influenced the structure of this edition of the Handbook. Some of the problem-solving strategies of those texts were modified to fit the more computationally intensive approach adopted in this text.

One of us (AEM) also wishes to express his appreciation for the steadfast support of his wife Helen throughout the revision project.

About the Authors

Arthur E. Morris joined the University of Missouri - Rolla (now the Missouri University of Science and Technology) in 1965 after receiving his PhD from the Pennsylvania State University in 1965. During his tenure on the faculty of the Department of Metallurgical Engineering, he taught courses in extractive metallurgy, thermodynamics, and process simulation, and also carried out research that resulted in theses for several MS and PhD students. Dr. Morris was a consultant to several industrial corporations in their research laboratories, and was asked by the U.S. Bureau of Mines to organize a new research group at UMR called the Center for Pyrometallurgy. He was a Principal Investigator at the Center until his retirement in 1996. While at UMR, Professor Morris published nearly 70 papers on various aspects of extractive metallurgy and materials processing, and conducted short courses and symposia on the applications of computer modeling to metallurgical processes. He presently develops educational software and prepares CDs for materials-related textbooks.

Gordon H. Geiger earned his Bachelor of Engineering degree in Metallurgy at Yale University and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Metallurgy and Materials Science at Northwestern University. He worked in the research departments of Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co. and Jones and Laughlin Steel Company before teaching process metallurgy at the University of Wisconsin, the University of Illinois at Chicago, and the University of Arizona. In addition to his teaching career, Dr. Geiger worked in industry as a technical officer for a major international bank, a multi-plant steel company and founded a new steel company. He is now retired and lives in Arizona, where he consults and where as Academic Director, he assisted the University of Arizona in establishing an Engineering Management degree program.

H. Alan Fine graduated with a PhD degree in Metallurgy from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1974. He then joined the faculty of the University of Arizona’s Metallurgical Engineering Department as an Assistant Professor. Dr. Fine remained on the faculty until 1981, when he joined the University of Kentucky as Associate Professor in the Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science. During his time at Kentucky, he also worked with the Environmental Protection Agency. Dr. Fine co-authored the first two editions of this handbook with Dr. Geiger, and he is now retired and living with his family in Florida.

CHAPTER 1

Dimensions, Units, and Conversion Factors

Most science and engineering calculations are performed using quantities whose magnitudes are expressed in terms of standard units of measure or dimensions. A dimension is a property that can be measured, such as length, time, mass or temperature, or obtained by manipulating other dimensions, such as length/time (velocity), length3 (volume), or electric current/area (current density). Dimensions are specified by giving the value relative to some arbitrary standard called a unit. Therefore, the complete specification of a dimension must consist of a number and a unit. Convention, custom, or law can specify which units are used, such that the volume of a substance may be expressed in cubic feet, liters, or gallons.

There are two common systems of units used in engineering calculations. One is the American engineering system (AES) based on the foot (ft) for length, the pound-mass (lbm) for mass, degrees Fahrenheit (°F) for temperature, and the second (s) for time. The two main drawbacks of this system are the occurrence of conversion factors which are not multiples of 10, and the unit of force, which will be discussed later. The other is Le Systèm Internationale d’Unités or SI for short, which has gained widespread acceptance for all scientific and much engineering work. In 1991, the US Department of Commerce promulgated regulations for the required use of the SI system for all Federal agencies. Despite the nearly worldwide acceptance of the SI system, the AES system is still in use in many U.S. industries, and the last vestiges of its use may take decades to obliterate.

This text emphasizes the use of SI units with some exceptions. The calorie and atmosphere are used when dealing with thermodynamic data based on these units. Some non-SI units will be used in selected cases. Converting between units is made easier with a units conversion program (U-Converter, on the Handbook CD). Some of the Chapter examples require thermophysical data, which can be obtained from one of the General References (page 605).

1.1 The SI System of Units

In 1960, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM, Conférence Général des Poids et Mesures) established conventions to be used for a set of basic and derived units. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is the Federal agency assigned responsibility for publishing guides for SI use. Revisions were made since the first guide was issued in 1960, culminating in the publication of three important NIST documents (Butcher 2006; Taylor 2008; Thompson 2008). These documents are described on the NIST web site. Another useful document is available from the U.S. Metric Association (Antoine 2001).

There are three classes of SI units:

—base units—derived units—supplementary units

which together form what is called “the coherent system of SI units”. Table 1.1 gives the seven base quantities on which the SI is founded, and the names and symbols of their respective units, called “SI base units”. One of the SI base units — the candela for luminous intensity — is not used in this Handbook.