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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Sprache: Englisch
Discover one of the world's most popular belief systems
Hinduism is a fascinating and widespread religion with a diverse array of traditions, practices, scriptures, and deities. In Hinduism For Dummies, 2nd Edition, you'll get a clear view into this widely-practiced and ancient creed. The book contains an easy-to-follow introduction to Hinduism, including its four different sects—Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism—it's major rituals, and its most sacred teachings.
You'll understand how to recognize the different major gods and goddesses in the Hindu pantheon and the differences that give each of the four sects their distinct culture and theology. You'll also explore the history of what some consider to be the world's oldest religion that's still widely practiced today.
Inside, you'll:
- Understand core beliefs and values
- Discover Hindu wisdom and teachings (including life-cycle rites)
- Discover how to worship inside and outside of your home
- Know the Hindu concept of reality
An interesting and unbiased read, Hinduism For Dummies, 2nd Edition is the go-to guide for everyone who wants to learn more about Hinduism and its most fundamental tenets.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Hinduism For Dummies®
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Introduction
About This Book
Foolish Assumptions
Icons Used in This Book
Beyond This Book
Where to Go from Here
Part 1: Introducing Hinduism
Chapter 1: Overviewing Hinduism
Looking At the Hindu Worldview
Understanding Societal Structure
Chapter 2: From Past to Present: A Condensed History of Hinduism
Getting the Lay of the Land
From the Ancient to the Not-So-Ancient Past in India
Examining the New Hindu Wave
Chapter 3: Exploring the Core Beliefs and Values
Truth: The Foundation of Hindu Belief
Understanding Hinduism’s Three Core Beliefs
Believing in the Existence of an Immortal Soul
Examining Karma and Its Consequences
Understanding the Goal of Life: Moksha
Translating Beliefs into Core Values
Chapter 4: Reviewing Major Hindu Denominations
Identifying the Origin of Hindu Denominations
Following Vishnu: The Vaishnavas
Following Shiva: The Shaivas
Integrating Vaishnava and Shaiva Ideas: The Smartas
Worshipping Devi, the Female Power: Shaktas
Returning to the One
Chapter 5: Exploring Hindu Society Structure
Looking At the Caste System’s Origins
Defining the Main Castes and Subcastes
Addressing the Great Confusion about Castes
The Caste System Today: Alive and Well — and Changing
Part 2: The Hindu Pantheon and Its Religious Leaders
Chapter 6: Pantheism to Polytheism: From the One to the Very Many
Understanding Pantheism
Exploring Polytheism in Practice
Chapter 7: Identifying Hindu Gods and Goddesses
Starting with the One Supreme Soul
Naming Gods by Their Portrayals
Brahma, the Creator
Vishnu, the Preserver
Shiva, the Destroyer
The Feminine Divine
Addressing Gods and Goddesses of the Hindu Firmament
Discovering Where the Gods Reside
Chapter 8: The Avatars of Vishnu: The Divine Descent
Understanding the Role of an Avatar
Identifying the Ten Incarnations of Vishnu
Chapter 9: Revering the Role of Religious Leadership
Priests, Gurus, and Swamis: Spiritual Leaders of Hinduism
Becoming a Spiritual Leader: What It Takes
Identifying Mythological and Ancient Saints
Exploring More Recent Saints
Part 3: Studying the Sacred Texts
Chapter 10: The Vedas: Centuries of Accumulated Treasures
Getting Acquainted with the Vedas
Delving Deeper into the Four Vedas
Preserving the Vedas
Chapter 11: Gaining Higher Knowledge with the Upanishads
Becoming Familiar with the Upanishads
Studying Key Lessons in the Upanishads
Exploring a Few Parables and Great Utterances
Chapter 12: Living with the Epics and Puranas
Approaching the Epics
The
Ramayana
: A Clear Case of Good versus Evil
The Mahabharata: Good, Bad, Ugly, and Everything In-Between
Exploring the Epics Today
Meeting the Puranas
Chapter 13: The Song of the Lord: The Bhagavad Gita
Getting Familiar with the Bhagavad Gita
The Gita’s Story: An Overview
Exploring Key Lessons Woven through the Gita
Part 4: Practicing Hinduism
Chapter 14: Worshipping at Home
Components of Hindu Worship
Pray, Eat, and Pray! Mealtime Worship
Praying Morning, Noon, and Night
Formally Worshipping a Deity
Chapter 15: Worshipping at Temples
Studying Temple Architecture
Reviewing Temple Ceremonies
Chapter 16: Observing Holydays and Festivals
Exploring Festivals Celebrated throughout India
Identifying Regional Festivals
Chapter 17: Cradle to Cremation: The Life-Cycle Rites
Looking At the 16 Ceremonies
Observing Prenatal Rituals
Observing Childhood Rituals
Getting Ready for Adulthood
Becoming a Householder with the Marriage Ritual: Vivaha/Shadi
Getting Ready for Retirement: Vanaprastha
Upon Death: Anthyeshti
Chapter 18: Taking a Pilgrimage
Overviewing the Pilgrimage Experience
On the Road: Touring Important Pilgrimage Sites
Part 5: Delving Deeper into the Hindu Concept of Reality
Chapter 19: The Six Schools of Thought: The Darshanas
Grasping the Darshana Philosophies
Looking At the Six Different Ways to View Reality
Chapter 20: Vedanta: The End of Knowledge
Understanding the Basics of Vedanta
The Advaita Philosophy: Nondualism
Distinguishing between the Individual and the Supreme Soul: Dualism
Reaching a Compromise: Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Nondualism)
Chapter 21: Following the Yogic Path to Salvation
Defining Yoga
More Than a Series of Postures: Yoga as Spiritual Path
Part 6: The Part of Tens
Chapter 22: Ten Common Prayers
Forgive Me, Mother Earth
Looking at My Palms in the Morning
Please Remove All Obstacles
Let This Be a Great Day
Salutations to the Sun God
Let Us Meditate on the Radiance of That Divinity
Let There Be Harmony
Let Everything Be Surrendered to You
Lead Me from Darkness to Light
By Whose Grace the Mute May Become Eloquent…
Chapter 23: Ten (or So) Traditional Mandates
Worship Your Women
Be Strong in Mind and Body
Work Hard
Company Is Important When…
Work with Passion, but Don’t Concern Yourself with Results
Don’t Bother If You Don’t Have Faith
Protect Dharma, and It Will Protect You
Don’t Tell Pleasant Lies or Unpleasant Truths
Nonviolence Is the Supreme Dharma
Index
About the Author
Advertisement Page
Connect with Dummies
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 8
TABLE 8-1 The Ten Avatars of Vishnu
Chapter 13
TABLE 13-1 Lessons in the Bhagavad Gita
Chapter 16
TABLE 16-1 Timetable of Hindu Festivals
Chapter 17
TABLE 17-1 Sixteen Ancient Hindu Rites of Passage
Chapter 18
TABLE 18-1 Major Hindu Pilgrimage Centers
Chapter 19
TABLE 19-1 The Six Sutras of Darshana Philosophy
TABLE 19-2 The Cycle of Karmic Consequence: Four Brothers Go to War
Chapter 20
TABLE 20-1 The Three Vedanta Schools
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2-1: Regions of importance to the early history of Hinduism.
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4-1: Hindu denominations.
FIGURE 4-2: The mark worn by orthodox Tengalai SriVaishnava men.
FIGURE 4-3: Three broad, horizontal marks made from ash mark Shaivite men.
FIGURE 4-4: Shiva in his dancing form, Nataraja.
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6-1: The sacred symbol, OM.
Chapter 7
FIGURE 7-1: Portrayals of Hindu deities are complex — and beautiful.
FIGURE 7-2: (a) The four-headed Brahma; (b) Saraswati, the goddess of learning.
FIGURE 7-3: (a) The Ram Parivar; (b) Krishna, the cowherd.
FIGURE 7-4: Lakshmi.
FIGURE 7-5: Shiva.
Chapter 8
FIGURE 8-1: The ten avatars of Vishnu.
FIGURE 8-2: Amritamanthana.
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9-1: Swami Satchidananda with the author in Connecticut, 1979.
FIGURE 9-2: Monks at the Hindu Monastery in Hawaii.
FIGURE 9-3: Ramakrishna (left) and Vivekananda (right).
Chapter 14
FIGURE 14-1: A typical home altar.
FIGURE 14-2: A rangoli pattern.
Chapter 15
FIGURE 15-1: The overall layout of a temple.
FIGURE 15-2: The Meenakshi temple at Madurai in South India.
FIGURE 15-3: Temple plan for the Hindu temple in Middletown, Connecticut.
FIGURE 15-4: Sculptures of Satyanarayana, Lakshmi, and Bhudevi.
Chapter 16
FIGURE 16-1: Ganesha, the elephant-headed god.
FIGURE 16-2: The effigies to be burned at the Vijayadashami festival in New Del...
FIGURE 16-3: Mehendi.
Chapter 18
FIGURE 18-1: A map of India showing major pilgrimage destinations.
Chapter 19
FIGURE 19-1: The cycle of karmic consequence according to the school of logic.
Chapter 21
FIGURE 21-1: Chakras.
FIGURE 21-2: Chin mudra.
FIGURE 21-3: Surya Namaskar (sun salutations).
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Begin Reading
Index
About the Authors
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Hinduism For Dummies®, 2nd Edition
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Introduction
There are a billion plus Hindus around the world today. In the United States alone, that number is estimated to be between 2.5 to 3 million. Perhaps your neighbor is a Hindu, or your child goes to school with Hindu children. Maybe your doctor or the guy at the gas station is Hindu. Still, Hinduism isn’t a household word in the Western world.
As I work on this second edition in 2024, some significant changes have happened since the publication of the first edition of this book. For example, in just about five decades, nearly 1,000 Hindu temples have sprung up in the United States alone. That number is most likely to increase. Furthermore, New York City officially declared Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights, to be a public school holiday in 2023. Similar steps have been taken in several school districts, including my own and several states across the country. This is clearly being driven by the increasingly large number of Hindu students enrolled in schools. Major universities have now added Hindu chaplaincy to their outreach programs. Diversity in America, the nation of immigrants, is alive and well. Hindu culture is one of the threads in its magnificent fabric.
Mainstream Hinduism doesn’t proselytize. Hindus have no interest in making you see their way because Hinduism’s fundamental belief is that God has many names. Hindus believe your way may be just as good and that you and they will meet at the end of the journey. Hinduism lets you be. With such a detached outlook, it’s no wonder the faith remains a mystery to most. My aim with this book is to unlock that mystery and help you develop an understanding of this ancient religion.
About This Book
What does one have to do to understand Hinduism? How does one convey that the principal teachings of Hinduism are universal, positive, dynamic — and practical? Hinduism is perhaps the only religion that encourages you to have faith in your own faith. The concepts inherent in such a broad outlook on life need to be shared, which is what this book aims to do.
Some books written about Hinduism are either too highbrow or too elementary. As alternatives, you could study Hinduism by going to India and staying in an ashram learning under a guru (which is the expensive option), or you can go to a center near you, for example, Ramakrishna Vedanta Society — if one exists. What you more likely need is a comprehensive text that gives you an overall picture of the religion and then elaborates on the principal concepts in an informative and enjoyable manner. Look no further. You have come to the right place.
Hinduism For Dummies is organized to help open the door to an understanding of Hinduism. You need to know a few certain facts and concepts if you want to get a feel for this faith. Here are just a few examples that I discuss in greater detail in this book:
Concept of time and history:
Given that Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion and that even scholars can’t agree on precise dates for most milestones, dates are estimates. They can vary not just by a few years here or there, but by centuries! The oral tradition of communicating and maintaining sacred findings lasted long after the invention of writing. This means that few or no dated records exist about many aspects of Hinduism before the Common Era. Further, Hindus believe that time is a continuum; there are no absolute beginnings or endings. This cyclical concept allows for a period of 4.32 million years divided into four
yugas
(subperiods), with declining values from one yuga to another. We are now in what is known as the
Kali Yuga,
the last of the four, at the end of which a renewal takes place only to be repeated again — and again.
Geographical location:
The geographical location for thousands of years during which Hinduism developed was mostly the subcontinent of India. In the past couple of centuries, more Hindus have settled in distant lands, like the United States, where the community is thriving.
Creed:
Hinduism has evolved from its core belief in One Supreme Being to a belief in the many representations of the same, from worshipping nature to worshipping deities in temples, distinguishing the Supreme Soul from an individual soul in one approach, and maintaining no such distinction in another — all in parallel, all inclusive, all still flourishing, letting go of nothing. Even atheism is accepted.
The stories:
All of Hindu philosophy and theology is based in sacred scriptures called the Vedas and the Upanishads (which are technically part of the Vedas). But equally valuable lessons are learned through
Puranas
(God stories from the ancient past) and through Hindu epic stories from the
Ramayana
and the
Mahabharata.
Stories — thousands of them — within more stories have helped keep the faith vivid, challenging, and alive through many thousands of years.
In this handy guide, you can find out about all these points and more. Keep in mind that whenever I say “Hindus believe …” I don’t mean that every Hindu believes — but that most Hindus may believe.
The basic tenets and truths of Hinduism are mainly expressed in Sanskrit. Religious Sanskrit, sometimes referred to as Vedic Sanskrit, was used to write poetry (sometimes set to melody with precise rules for intonation) or to write aphorisms and chants (mantras). In this book, I have avoided using Sanskrit lettering. (I include it only in Chapters 22 and 23 so that you can see how beautiful it is.) Instead, I use transliteration, meaning that I use the English alphabet to “spell” the Sanskrit words. Spelling Sanskrit words in English is always tricky because Sanskrit has more sounds than English does, and it’s based on long and short syllables rather than stressed syllables.
Also, when a name has been spelled a certain way (anglicized) for centuries, I have used the anglicized spelling. For example, I use Ganges instead of Ganga, Benares instead of Varanasi, and so on. For historical dating, I use BCE (Before Common Era) or CE (Common Era) rather than B.C. and A.D.
Foolish Assumptions
As I wrote this book, I made a few assumptions about you:
If you aren’t a Hindu, you take an interest in faiths other than your own that may help provide a glimpse of light with regard to some of the hard questions of life.
You have friends, family, or colleagues who are Hindus, and you want a better understanding of their faith.
You’re traveling to India and want to know more about Indian culture, which is largely built around the Hindu religion.
If you’re a Hindu, you should be on familiar territory, with a variety of useful information under one cover that can serve as a good reference for further exploration.
Icons Used in This Book
In this book, I use icons to identify particular kinds of information:
This icon highlights traditional lessons or ideas and moral fables that Hindus learn from parents and elders, as well as familiar stories derived from the epics and puranas.
This icon highlights concepts, ideas, mandates, and more that come out of any of the Hindu sacred books.
There’s a lot to know about a religion as ancient and vast as Hinduism, but not all of it is vital. I use this icon to highlight interesting but nonessential topics, at least during your first reading.
This icon highlights suggestions or comparisons I’ve included to help you understand the current topic or an idea that may be unfamiliar to you.
Information that appears beside this icon is important for your understanding of Hinduism. Beside this icon, you’ll see key concepts, foundations of the faith, or other essential points that you’ll want to remember.
Beyond This Book
You can discover more information, including the book’s Cheat Sheet, at www.dummies.com. Just search for “Hinduism For Dummies Cheat Sheet” for details that you can refer to again and again.
Where to Go from Here
With all the objectivity I, as a Hindu and author of this book, can muster, I suggest you read Part 1 entirely to get a good overview of Hinduism. Then look at the Table of Contents and index to identify topics that pique your interest. Perhaps you like the idea of festivals; if so, go to Chapter 16. If you’re on your way to a Hindu temple, Chapter 15 is the one you’re looking for. Attending a Hindu wedding? Go to Chapter 17. Maybe you’re visiting a Hindu family; see Chapters 4 and 5. Or maybe you’re a serious type or a student and you want to go deeper or study Hindu philosophy; head to Chapters 19 and 20. There’s something here for everyone.
Upon reading this book either in part or as a whole, if you’re inclined to explore further, I suggest you read the epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, both of which cover every aspect of Hindu thought. Then I strongly recommend you read one speech: that of Swami Vivekananda delivered at the World’s Parliament of Religions in Chicago on September 11, 1893. If you’re in a hurry, just read the last four paragraphs of the speech. In order to do so, go to any search engine and type in “Vivekananda Chicago address.”
Wherever you choose to begin reading this book, I hope you find passages that make you smile, wonder, and laugh. If you are a person of faith, I hope your faith in your own faith is enhanced after reading this book. If you are not a person of faith, you’ll learn what makes people on the other side tick!
Part 1
Introducing Hinduism
IN THIS PART …
Find out the origin of the word Hindu and study the fundamentals of Hinduism.
Discover the basic Hindu beliefs and their value system.
Explore the variety of Hindu denominations and how they differ.
Understand why Hindus worship many gods, goddesses, and all of nature.
Examine what the caste system is and its grip on Hindu society even today.
Grasp the key concepts of dharma and karma.
Chapter 1
Overviewing Hinduism
IN THIS CHAPTER
Seeing the broad view of life in Hinduism
Reviewing the core beliefs
Finding out about Hindu gods, goddesses, saints, and sacred texts
Appreciating modes of worship and societal structure
Hinduism, the oldest and perhaps the most complex religion in the world, has its origin in India. It has survived as a faith for thousands of years despite many outside influences, including invasions and occupations of the land of its origin. Hinduism has always been interested in — and welcomed — ideas from anywhere. One of its earliest sacred scriptures, known as the Rig Veda, declares “Let noble thoughts come to us from all directions.”
While absorbing into its bosom almost all good ideas from outside, Hinduism has been successful at keeping its own good ideas intact. Its focus has always been (and continues to be) inward. It has little interest in convincing others to embrace its values. Therefore, Hindu religious leaders rarely try to convert others. Hinduism firmly believes in both a supreme being and the idea that other belief systems are as valid as its own. This flexibility may be one factor that has led to the religion’s survival over the millennia.
This chapter provides a very general overview of Hinduism, introducing you to the basic beliefs, ways to worship, and more.
Looking At the Hindu Worldview
Unlike Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism, Hinduism has no founder. It has no single religious book, such as the Bible or Koran, as its basis. Nor is it an organized religion. Hinduism has no founding date. It has no hierarchy of priests and no organizational structure that relies on a powerful leader (such as a pope) at its head. There are no standard sacraments or rites of initiation accepted and practiced by all those who profess to be Hindus. With no such anchors, or even expectation that followers believe the same things, you won’t be surprised to know that scholars have had a field day trying to assess Hinduism in a Western framework. Not only has that task been nearly impossible, but it has also led to hundreds of interpretations — some of which portray Hinduism as flexible, broad, and secular, and others that treat the religion with ridicule or doubt.
When it comes to ultimate values, Hindu thought has never recognized or accepted any boundaries, be they geographical, racial, or otherwise. According to the Hindu worldview, Truth is unquestionably valid universally. In fact, this belief leads to the universal outlook typical of Hindus.
Hinduism, arguably the oldest of all living religions, has a unique perspective on life. It excludes nothing! Hinduism has adherents from a broad spectrum of humanity who span from the extremely orthodox, immersed in elaborate ritual worship of the Almighty, to those who openly declare that they do not believe in any god. In fact, Hinduism’s view of the world is epitomized by this declaration from one of its sacred scriptures, the Mahopanishad (Chapter VI, Verse 72): Vasudhaiva kutumbakam, which means “The whole world is a family.” This fundamental belief helps Hindus feel connected with the world. The belief that there is but One Supreme Soul from which everything — all living entities and inanimate objects — emerged further strengthens the Hindu sense of connection with the entire universe.
Devout Hindus worship many gods and goddesses. They worship cows, monkeys, snakes, trees, plants, and even tools. They worship mountains, rivers, and oceans. In the life of a Hindu, every day of the week involves the worship of a minor or major god or goddess or the celebration of a festival. Religion is in the air for Hindus no matter where they are. The ideas and practices are at once complex and simple. But fear not. In this book, I help unravel some mysteries and still leave you with a sense of awe!
A broad set of key beliefs
Survey after survey reveals that more than 95 percent of Hindus believe in the existence of God. A broad set of beliefs stem from that most basic of beliefs, and they include the following (which I discuss further in Chapter 3):
Belief in the Supreme Soul:
This being is identified as Brahman, the universal spirit. Brahman is the One who reveals himself in the minds of the sages and seers as the Supreme Consciousness. Hindus understand Brahman to be the only thing real in the universe. All else is therefore unreal, false, or illusory, and untrue. Brahman sounds like an abstract entity but is entirely real in every sense — the one and only Reality. You can find out about Brahman and the other divine entities in
Part 2
.
Belief that Truth is the goal of life:
The goal of life, according to Hindus, is to reach back to Brahman, the one Reality, by realizing our true nature. That goal is defined as
moksha:
liberation from repeated cycles of births and deaths. The goal is to realize unity, or oneness, with Brahman. For that reason, the Hindu prays
Asato maa sadgamaya
, which means “Lead me from the unreal to the real.”
Belief in the authority of the Vedas:
The Vedas are Hindu sacred books of knowledge, written in Sanskrit, the ancient and liturgical language of India. There are four Vedas: the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda, and Sama Veda. Hindus believe that all four were revealed to Hindu sages. The Vedas contain hymns of praise to various gods, procedures for sacrificial rites and rituals, recommendations of cures for all ills, and musical chants appropriate for rituals. The Vedas are considered so sacred that the very definition of a Hindu is often stated as one who accepts or believes in the authority of the Vedas.
Part 3
is devoted to the Vedas and the other important Hindu sacred texts.
Belief in the idea that time is circular and not linear:
According to this concept of time, there are no beginnings and no endings; time is simply a continuum. Hindus define periods of time as cyclical in nature, with each cycle containing four subperiods known as
yugas:
Krita, Treta, Dwapara, and Kali. Added together, the four yugas total about 4.32 million years. At the end of each cycle, gradually declining time spans and human values lead to dissolution. Then another period starts, and the cycle repeats all over again. This view of time has helped in developing the ancient Hindu perspective on life — a perspective that allows for a tolerant view of events and people.
Belief in karma and karmic consequences:
Karma
is action that relates to service, specifically service to society. Hindus believe that what we are today is the result of our actions in the past. It stands to reason that what we will be in the future depends on what we do now, this moment, and onward for the rest of this life.
Belief in the concept of dharma: The root word for dharma is dhr, which means “to hold” or “to sustain,” specifically within the context of maintaining harmony and balance in nature. Dharma or right conduct is so central to Hindu life that it encompasses everyone, irrespective of age, station in life, or caste. Each being has its own dharma consistent with its nature. A tiger’s dharma, for example, is to kill and eat its prey. Yielding milk to sustain the life of the young is a cow’s dharma. The dharma of humans is to serve.
The word dharma appears quite frequently in this book, much like the word Veda. That’s because, in some ways, understanding the concepts inherent in these two words is vital to understanding the Hindu faith.
Belief in tolerance as the core value:
Ancient universities and religious centers in India attracted students and visitors from many parts of the settled world. They invited debate and inquiry into religious ideas. With this same spirit, modern Hindus accept all religions to be true and self-contained. A Hindu hymn asserts this view by comparing the various paths to God with hundreds of rivers and streams all mingling finally with the ocean.
These fundamental beliefs have paved the way for Hindus to develop a philosophical outlook on life. This outlook is based firmly on the belief in an intimate connection between the individual soul, called atman (or Jivatman), and the Supreme Soul, called Paramatman. Broadly speaking, these fundamentals comprise a code of behavior that continues to form the contemporary Hindu view of life.
A brief look at Hindu gods and goddesses
Early Hindu thought had a clear focus on the One Supreme Being. The Chandogya Upanishad — one of the sacred texts of Hindus — contains an eloquent phrase: Ekam eva adwiteeyam. It means, “There is but One without a second.” Yet Hinduism ended up embracing a large number of gods and goddesses. This one-size-doesn’t-fit-all realization provided an extraordinary variety of choices for individuals to worship. The One without a second doctrine, however, which holds that God and the universe are one and the same, remains fundamental and is still preserved. The simple prayer offered by Hindus at the conclusion of any worship, irrespective of the god or goddess being worshipped, sums it all up:
You alone are our mother and father.
You alone are our sibling and friend.
You alone are our knowledge and prosperity.
You alone are everything to us.
My Lord, my Lord.
Hindu mythology identifies three gods at the head of a hierarchy of gods. These three are
Brahma, whose main function is to create
Vishnu, who sustains the created universe
Shiva, who is in charge of dissolution prior to the next time cycle of creation in an endless cycle
In simplistic terms, these three are sometimes referred to as Creator, Sustainer, and Destroyer, respectively. Each of these major gods has a female consort also playing a major role:
Saraswati, consort of Brahma, is the goddess of learning.
Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, is the goddess of wealth and well-being.
Parvati, Shiva’s consort, represents the creative power known as Shakti.
Below these primary gods are a variety of forms of gods including the avatars of Vishnu (which I explain in Chapter 8). Many temples exist and continue to be built for Shiva, his sons (Ganapati and Murugan), the previous goddesses named, and the various forms of Vishnu. The concept and presence of Brahma are enshrined in the heart of every sanctified Hindu temple (see Chapter 15).
During the early Vedic period, nature gods such as sun, wind, fire, and dawn were objects of Hindu worship. (When was the early Vedic period? Different scholars offer widely differing dates, but probably between 1500 and 1000 BCE.) These Vedic gods are invoked and worshipped in household rituals, weddings, and temple rituals to this day. Except for the sun god, no temples exist for other Vedic gods. However, hymns of praise for these gods fill the revealed sacred scriptures.
The Vedic gods fall into several general categories:
Nature gods, especially gods connected with weather and climate
Planetary gods who feature in destiny and the composition of horoscopes
Gods who rule over household health and wealth and community values
In addition, other gods and goddesses, who are regional and local, preside over small villages and towns; their patronage is sought during natural disasters such as floods, epidemics, and the like. You can read much more on the subject of gods and goddesses in Chapter 7.
Hindu religious leaders
Hinduism is a more than 5,000-year-old culture, philosophy, and faith, so you can imagine how many religious leaders have contributed to it. The number is very large — perhaps thousands — and covers a broad spectrum of people. Chapter 9 provides details on Hindu religious leaders. For now, I briefly describe what the various Hindu religious titles mean:
Sages: In Hindu parlance, a sage (or rishi in Sanskrit) is an extraordinary spiritual person who is devoted to seeking Reality and practicing austerities in remote environments such as caves and deep forests. Sages first “heard” the revelations that formed the basis of Hinduism (see Chapter 2).
A long list of such sages exists, and all Hindus who belong to the first three castes (see the upcoming section “Societal Structure”) trace their origins to one of these sages of the ancient past. While performing rituals, Hindus cite their lineage (called gotra) by referring to a set of sages (generally three, but sometimes five or seven) from whom they claim spiritual descent. You occasionally read about the Seven Sages called Saptarshis who are represented in the seven stars in the constellation Ursa Major.
Some names of ancient sages often cited in the scriptures are Vasishta, Vishwamitra, Atri, Jamadagni, Bharadwaja, Narada, Agastya, Markandeya, Garga, Kanva, Bhrigu, and Kaushika.
Gurus: The word guru means teacher. Hinduism accords a special place for teachers in general but in particular for religious teachers. Each family has a revered teacher, and more often than not that teacher is also the founder of a particular Hindu sect and referred to as an acharya. For example, in the SriVaishnava denomination (more on denominations in Chapter 4), the most revered teacher is Ramanujacharya. Families belonging to this denomination would cite this guru in reverence at the conclusion of rituals and offer their allegiance to him.
A very well-known prayer is addressed to such gurus during daily prayers:
I salute that guru who is Brahma, Vishnu and
Shiva, and who is verily the Brahman.
Swamis:
Swamis
are religious leaders who belong to an order, such as the Ramakrishna Order. When such a leader is ordained, a new name is given to the individual by the guru and it’s prefixed with the title
Swami
and ends with
ananda
(meaning “bliss”). The ordained name replaces the given and family names; an indication of abandoning the old life and entering a new one. Swami Vivekananda and Swami Satchidananda are examples. Swamis set up missions and accept, train, and ordain disciples in order to continue their particular tradition. I say more about swamis in
Chapter 2
.
Monks and preachers:
To this general category may belong any and all persons who have a religious interest, talent, and perhaps some following. Monks and preachers may travel around, offer advice, preach, tell stories from the great epics, sing, chant, bless, and be a part of a community in general. Monks may also belong to an ashram as a celibate community, or they may live alone.
Priests:
Priests (also known as
purohits
) conduct worship regularly at temples and when devotees visit. They also go to private homes, upon request, to help families perform rituals and ceremonies. Hindu priests may marry.
Reformers:
Hinduism has had important reformers who have introduced various approaches to salvation over the past several thousand years. The most famous reformers are Shankaracharya (who introduced a philosophy of Nondualism known as
Advaita
), Ramanujacharya (who introduced the philosophy of qualified Nondualism known as
Vishishtadvaita
), and Madhvacharya (who introduced Dualism, known as
Dvaita
). I introduce you to all three — and their philosophies — in
Chapter 20
.
Hinduism’s sacred texts
Hinduism isn’t a faith that’s based on one book. Very many sacred texts serve as the basis for the philosophy, rituals, and practices of Hinduism. These texts are mainly written in Sanskrit, but several major contributions are also to be found in other vernacular languages. The following sections provide a brief overview of these texts, and I provide much more detailed information in Part 3.
Revealed texts: The Vedas
A basic Hindu belief is that the Vedas are shruti, meaning they were directly revealed by God and heard by sages performing intense penance. Accumulated over millennia, the Vedas form the basis of the Hindu faith. The Sanskrit word Veda has its root in vid (to know), so the Vedas are the sacred knowledge of the ancient Hindus. They’re recognized as apaurusheya, meaning that their origin isn’t traced to any individual and is, therefore, divine.
There are four Vedas, or Vedic traditions: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. Each Veda is divided into three or four major sections, referred to as Samhitas, Brahmanas, and Upanishads. The word Upanishad literally means “something below the surface;” the Upanishads comprise the intellectual content of the Vedas and serve as the very foundation of Hindu philosophy.
WHY DATES AND OTHER DETAILS IN HINDU HISTORY MAY NOT BE SPECIFIC
The history of the Hindu religion can get a bit hazy simply because it’s so very old. Here are some factors that make it difficult to pin down exact dates and other details about the religion’s history:
The oral tradition: The Hindu religion began with revelations “heard” by several sages over several centuries and then preserved through oral tradition — that is, a system of memorization. Much later, again at unknown dates, these revelations were compiled and put in writing. Does it surprise you that controversy exists about who did what and when?Uncertain dates: Scholars can’t agree about the period in which certain significant events in Hindu history took place — especially when the focus is events occurring more than several thousand years ago. For example, there’s no agreement when the Vedas were compiled.Lack of hard evidence: Some scholars have made extraordinary efforts to carefully note events recorded in Hindu epic histories and correlate them with the corresponding astronomical events mentioned, such as the position and phase of the moon, alignment of planets, and the like. But some of these astronomical events recur each century or two, so the scholars’ conclusions may still be in some doubt.Identical names and alternate names: I’m not talking about identity theft here, but sometimes the name of a sage is taken by another sage centuries later. When that happens, it raises the question of which sage is being referred to. In addition, some sages are referred to by alternate names. For example, a well-recognized sage known as Veda Vyasa (whom I call “the Homer of India”) is claimed, by some scholars, to be the same as sage Badarayana. Other scholars deny that identity entirely.Remembered texts: The Shastras, the epics, and the puranas
An equally voluminous literature known as smrti, which means “remembered” (as opposed to revealed), emerged, undoubtedly inspired by the rich shruti literature. The dates of these scriptures are equally uncertain. The remembered texts include Dharma Shastras (rules of right conduct), the two major Hindu epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata), and puranas (stories of gods); they consist of thousands of exciting tales to drive home the basic principles and values of Hindu thought. Their influence on the psyche of Hindus remains intact to this day.
The Hindu value system is embedded in the epics, puranas, and many other stories. In these texts, you find emperors, empresses, kings, queens, gods, goddesses, demons, festivities, holy rivers and mountains, prayers, devotional songs, weddings, births and deaths, successes and failures, the heights to which humans can rise, and the depths to which they could sink — all summed up in one word: life!
The Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (“Song of the Lord”), or simply the Gita, is considered very sacred by almost all Hindus and many Western scholars and devotees of Hinduism. The Gita is, in some sense, a Hindu manual for a spiritual life. Its story occurs just before the great Mahabharata War is about to commence, when the hero Arjuna decides to quit the battlefield. He suddenly realizes that a battle that pits brothers against brothers, students against teachers, and the young against the old makes no sense. He throws down his powerful bow and becomes silent and dejected. In a timeless moment, the Lord teaches Arjuna the meaning of duty and charges him that he has no choice but to fulfill his duty as a warrior to restore dharma.
The 18 chapters of the Gita have inspired millions of Hindus over the centuries. Not a day goes by in India when some aspect of the Gita isn’t evoked among the Hindu populace in the form of recitation, discussions, or enactment. See Chapter 13.
The language
All Hindu scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit. Hindus refer to Sanskrit as Deva Bhasha (God’s language), perhaps due to the belief that the Shruti (revealed, heard knowledge) must have been in Sanskrit. Regardless, the language is highly regarded in the field of modern linguistics and coding.
Sometime around 500 B.C., the ancient scholar Panini analyzed the Sanskrit language at a level of complexity that has never been matched, for any language. His grammar, the Ashtadhyayi, comprises 4,000 rules meant to generate all the possible sentences of Sanskrit from roots of sound and meaning — phonemes and morphemes. The rules include definitions; headings; operational rules, including “replacement, affixation, augmentation and compounding;” and “metarules,” which call other rules recursively.
I learned, to my utter surprise, that students at a British school (St. James Junior School, in London) learn Sanskrit as a compulsory language; here’s a video showing British girls chanting a shloka from the Upanishads: www.youtube.com/watch?v=AsY3NVrviiw. The teacher and a student then explain how much the students are benefiting from this study.
A very small number of people speak Sanskrit even in India. A little fewer than 2.4 million people in India reported to speak Sanskrit as of 2011, according to the Wikimedia Foundation.
Key components of Hindu worship
Hindus worship in myriad ways, from simply closing their eyes and offering a short prayer to conducting elaborate ceremonies at home or in temples that last the whole day. I touch upon components of worship briefly here, and you can find the details in Chapters 14 and 15.
Devotions
For most Hindus, prayer is a daily event. Home altars are common in devout Hindu households. The orthodox may pray at least three times a day, first in the morning after ablutions (ritual washings), at midday before a meal, and in the late evening around sunset before supper. These prayers are known as sandhya vandanam and are a prescribed daily routine for young men who have been initiated into brahmacharya (meaning they are students of the Vedas) and their elders. I offer more details about devotions in Chapters 14, 15, and 22.
Festivals: 365 days of Thanksgiving!
Festivals for Hindus are like a 365-day Thanksgiving! Look at a Hindu calendar and pick a day, any day — you’re bound to find a reason for a celebration somewhere in the Hindu world. Some festivals are celebrated at home, and some are out in the community. Some may be low-key and serious, and some may be grand and lively. But most involve community gatherings in the open or at temples, and all involve prayers, special foods, excitement, and fun.
The festivals are seasonal. Tied in with a lunar calendar, they land on different days but in essentially the same month of the common calendar each year. In the month of January, Hindus celebrate Makara Sankranti, which is devoted to the sun god. In February is a night of Shiva called Shivaratri. Spring festivals include Rama Navami: celebrations over a nine-day period of Lord Rama’s birth and life. Krishna Janmashtami is a worldwide celebration of the birthday of Lord Krishna in August. Ganesha Chaturthi honors Lord Ganapati in September. In the fall, Hindus worship goddesses Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Durga with festivals including grand processions, musical performances, and feasting. The well-known festival of lights (Diwali) celebrated all over India and the rest of the Hindu world in late fall is a celebration of the triumph of good over evil.
In addition, colorful festivals are conducted regionally that exploit regional legends and flora and fauna. I cover a wide variety of festivals in Chapter 16.
Worship in temples and shrines
Any excuse will do for Hindus to show up at a temple to have darshan, which is “seeing” God. A new baby, a new job, a promotion, an approaching examination at school or college, or visiting family … you name it. Hindu families offer a plate of fruits and a coconut and light incense sticks, and the priest goes through some rituals. Then the family prostrates in front of the deity, the priest blesses the family, and all is well.
In addition to the millions of such visits that take place every day, devout Hindus also observe the days and nights of special worship when the family must find its way to a nearby temple. The intent is the same (to “see” God), the routine is the same, and the effect is the same: a feeling of satisfaction and gratitude. The experience is at once complex and simple. I sort out this experience for you in Chapter 15.
Rituals to mark the stages of life
Hindu scriptures have prescribed rituals and ceremonies to mark 16 defined stages of life. These 16 cradle-to-cremation rituals are known as samskaras. They begin with conception and continue with rituals performed before the baby is born. After the birth, the childhood rituals continue, marking the naming of the child, the first feeding, the first haircut, and the piercing of the ears. The childhood rituals are followed by ceremonies that initiate the young into adulthood, followed by householder-related rituals that include the wedding. The final stages of life bring rituals that prepare the individual for retirement, followed by the rituals to bury or cremate the dead. You can find information about these ceremonies in Chapter 17.
Understanding Societal Structure
Hindu society of the distant past was organized on the basis of societal functions that included
Providing for the society’s intellectual and spiritual interests
Protecting the land against domestic and foreign enemies
Conducting trade and commerce
Tilling the land and performing manual labor
Creating a systematic way to provide for all these needs and functions — at both the individual and community level — makes logical sense. The fact that this system went awry with the stigma of caste and hereditary ownership is an unfortunate matter of history that Hinduism is stuck with.
Following are the four major castes as they are understood and practiced. Note the word “major” carefully. Many, many minor castes and subcastes exist
Brahmin:
Spiritual and intellectual services
Kshatriya:
Defense-related services
Vaishya:
Trade and commerce-related services
Shudra:
Manual labor services
Go to Chapter 5 to study details of Hindu Societal Structure.
A lower caste, known as untouchables, also exists and includes people who undertake to do society’s dirty work, such as cleaning latrines, tanning leather, and so on. The existence of this lowest caste — the poverty, ill-treatment, and prejudice against it — infuriated Mahatma Gandhi (the political and social leader who led the Indian independence movement and is considered the father of the nation) to the extent that he named the very lowest level Harijans, or “God’s people.”
With few exceptions, the sharp divisions among castes no longer exist in practice in India and the rest of the Hindu world. Except that sometimes they do still exist, especially in respecting family traditions!
Is the caste system still alive? The proper answer is a resounding yes — and no! Today, the system exists from one extreme (where the idea and practice are condemned with obvious disgust) to the other (strict observation, within reason — that is, not violating state and federal laws) and a whole lot in between. Hindus of all castes now sit together side by side in classrooms, buses, restaurants, and workplaces, and they can live in the same neighborhoods thanks largely to modern education and the laws of the land.
The caste situation gets complex when simultaneous loyalties are observed. For example, a person who is single may, in some situations, openly proclaim freedom from the caste requirements and in other situations (such as mate selection and marriage) declare obvious preferences. Internet sites that advertise available grooms and brides stating their preferences run the whole gamut. You can see a full treatment of this subject in Chapter 5.
Chapter 2
From Past to Present: A Condensed History of Hinduism
IN THIS CHAPTER
Getting familiar with events important to Hinduism’s history
Discovering the origin of Hinduism (and the debate surrounding it)
Studying the spread of Hindu thought to Europe and America
Hindu. Not a household word, is it? At least not in the Western world. And Hinduism is much less so. But why? How did the history of an ancient people, who have lived, developed, and sustained the same civilized way of life in the same geographical location for millennia, slide out of view? Two or three thousand years ago, many visitors traveled from afar to study Hindus and their lifestyle. Some were scholars — notably Greek, Chinese, and Arab — who traveled the ancient land to write about Hindus in their own languages. Some were invaders who came with armies, occupied the land, stayed, and shared or imposed their own ideas about life. These historic developments took place long, long before Columbus set sail for India seeking silk, spices, and gold.
Christianity is named after Christ and Buddhism after the Buddha. What about Hinduism? Who is it named after? Who gave Hindus that name anyway?
First of all, what name can possibly describe an outlook so broad that it’s all-encompassing, all-embracing, all-inclusive, and respectful of every living creature and all of nature? Hindus think of their philosophies and practices as eternal and universal. The closest description of this lifestyle is contained in two Sanskrit words: Sanatana Dharma:
Sanatana
in Sanskrit means a concept that has neither a beginning nor an end.
Dharma
in Sanskrit is based on the root
dhr,
meaning that which holds a thing together leading to a set of spiritual laws or principles.
Thus, Sanatana Dharma means “eternal law.” And Sanatana Dharma is the name many modern Hindus prefer to substitute for the word Hinduism.
The word Hindu (and therefore the word Hinduism) didn’t originate with the ancient Indian communities flourishing on the banks of the river Indus in ancient northwestern India. Those ancients didn’t identify themselves with a specific name. As it happened, the origin of the word Hindu is attributed to their neighbors, the Persians.
How far back do you have to go to find any trace of Hinduism? Are those traces likely to be in India itself, or could the origin of this tradition have been outside India? The answers to these crucial questions are shrouded in doubt, debate, and controversy. Some scholars (generally of Indian origin) date the origin of Hinduism to be anywhere from 25,000 to 6000 BCE, while other scholars (generally Western) typically put the date between 4500 and 1200 BCE. But no matter the dates, no matter the controversies, Hinduism is, without doubt, the oldest continuing faith to retain so many elements of its original beliefs and practices to modern times. In this chapter, I discuss the beginning and the growth of the religion, from the Indus Valley to Indiana and beyond!
Getting the Lay of the Land
The land I’m referring to here isn’t the modern Republic of India, but ancient India whose history is essentially the history of Hinduism, which today includes not only modern India, but neighboring countries, such as Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. Before you jump into that early history of India, it may help to get a few basic facts about the area. Figure 2-1 is a map of India showing the areas and geographical features that I mention in this chapter.
Covering nearly a million and a half square miles, modern India is populated by about 1.2 billion people; Indians speak 18 major languages with about 1,600 dialects. The climate varies considerably with cool winters and hot to very hot summers, but the real weather story in India is the monsoon season when rain dominates. A wet, hot, and humid climate doesn’t lend itself to preserving ancient artifacts. This fact has been one of the roadblocks in terms of finding and preserving archeological treasures that could help unravel mysteries of the ancient past.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FIGURE 2-1: Regions of importance to the early history of Hinduism.
And just where did the name India come from? The answer to that question connects to the origins of the word Hindu. Sanskrit was the ancient language of the Hindus, and the Sanskrit name for the Indus River is Sindhu. The Ancient Persian language (the closest linguistic relative to Sanskrit) tended to change the initial S to H when it transposed Sanskrit names. So Sindhu became Hindu; thus the people who lived across the Indus River from Persia were called Hindus. The Greeks (who fought their way into the country in the fourth century BCE) took the Persian word, dropped the initial H, and added their typical “–ia” ending for the name of a country or abstract noun; hence: India. There you have it!
From the Ancient to the Not-So-Ancient Past in India
The history of Hinduism begins with the Vedas, considered to be the most sacred of the scriptures of Hindus (see Chapters 1 and 10). Beginning as part of a dynamic oral tradition, the Vedas were composed over an unknown number of centuries and finally written down. The authors called themselves Aryans. The Sanskrit word Veda has its root in vid (“to know”). The Vedas are the sacred knowledge of the ancient Aryans.
You likely define the word Aryan differently from how I use it in this chapter. In Sanskrit, the word Arya means “noble,” and the whole of northern India where the Aryans lived was once called Aryavarta. The word Arya was also used in a religious context in addressing respected persons: acharya (meaning “revered teacher”) is an example. In subsequent chapters, I refer to the Aryan people as Vedic or simply as Hindus.
In this section, I address a contemporary controversy regarding the Aryans: Were they, or were they not, indigenous to the ancient land of India? I present the elements of an intense debate about the beginnings of Hinduism between two groups of scholars:
On one side are scholars who date Hinduism from 1500 BCE, linking it with an event called the
Aryan invasion.
(See the section “
The Aryan invasion theory
” later in this chapter.) According to this theory, the earliest known
extant
