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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Serie: Blackwell Bible Commentaries
- Sprache: Englisch
Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah Through the Centuries The first book devoted solely to the reception history of Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah How have readers through the centuries understood the prophet Hosea's marriage to an unfaithful woman? Does the prophet Joel really speak about a locust invasion, or is he referring to invading armies? How should we understand the harsh rhetoric that Obadiah uses about Judah's neighbor Edom? In Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah Through the Centuries, Bradford A. Anderson provides historical context for these prophetic texts and traditions while offering original insights into their interpretation, use, and impact. Chapter-by-chapter commentary examines the use of these texts in different religious communities, surveys various commentaries and interpretive traditions, and addresses the social and cultural employment of these prophetic works in literature, music, the visual arts, and more. Each prophetic text is introduced by a chapter containing a brief history of interpretation and discussion of key historical, literary issues, theological, thematic, and rhetorical issues, as well as the religious, social, and cultural reception of the prophet and the book. Throughout the text, recurring "conversation partners" high-light important and interesting trajectories in the afterlives of the prophetic books. Encompassing Christian, Jewish, and modern critical reception, Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah Through the Centuries is an excellent textbook for advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students working on these prophetic works, and a must-have resource for scholars, clergy, and religious leaders interested in how the prophets have been employed over the millennia.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Figures
Series Editors’ Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah as Part of the Book of the Twelve
1. The Book of the Twelve
2. Textual Witnesses and Translations
3. Visual Reception of the Twelve
Hosea: Introduction and Overview
Hosea 1
1:1a
1:1b
1:2
1:3
1:4–5
1:6
1:7
1:8–9
1:10–11
Hosea 2
2:1
2:2
2:3
2:4
2:5
2:6–7
2:8–13
2:14
2:15–17
2:18–20
2:21–23
Hosea 3
3:1
3:2
3:3–4
3:5
Hosea 4
4:1–3
4:4–5
4:6–7
4:8–10
4:11–14
4:15–16
4:17–19
Hosea 5
5:1–2
5:3–6
5:7
5:8–11
5:12–15
Hosea 6
6:1
6:2
6:3
6:4–5
6:6
6:7
6:8–11
Hosea 7
7:1–3
7:4
7:5–8
7:9–10
7:11–12
7:13
7:14–16
Hosea 8
8:1
8:2–3
8:4
8:5–6
8:7
8:8–9
8:10
8:11
8:12
8:13–14
Hosea 9
9:1
9:2–4
9:5–6
9:7
9:8–9
9:10
9:11–14
9:15–17
Hosea 10
10:1–2
10:3–4
10:5–6
10:7–8
10:9–10
10:11–12
10:13–15
Hosea 11
11:1
11:2–3
11:4
11:5–7
11:8–9
11:10–11
11:12
Hosea 12
12:1
12:2
12:3–4
12:5–6
12:7–8
12:9–10
12:11–12
12:13–14
Hosea 13
13:1
13:2–3
13:4–6
13:7–8
13:10–11
13:12–13
13:14
13:15–16
Hosea 14
14:1
14:2
14:3
14:4–5
14:6
14:7
14:8
14:9
Joel: Introduction and Overview
Joel 1
1:1
1:2–3
1:4
1:5
1:6
1:7–8
1:9
1:10–12
1:13–14
1:15
1:16–18
1:19–20
Joel 2
2:1
2:2
2:3–4
2:5–6
2:7–9
2:10
2:11
2:12
2:13–14
2:15–16
2:17
2:18
2:19–20
2:21–22
2:23
2:24–25
2:26–27
2:28
2:29
2:30–31
2:32
Joel 3
3:1
3:2
3:3
3:4
3:5–6
3:7–8
3:9
3:10
3:11–12
3:13
3:14
3:15
3:16
3:17
3:18
3:19–20
3:21
Obadiah: Introduction and Overview
The Book of Obadiah: Commentary
Verse 1a
Verse 1b
Verse 2
Verse 3
Verse 4
Verses 5–6
Verse 7
Verse 8
Verse 9
Verse 10
Verse 11
Verse 12
Verse 13
Verse 14
Verse 15
Verse 16
Verse 17
Verse 18
Verse 19
Verse 20
Verse 21
Concluding Reflections
Glossary and Biographies
Abbreviations
Bibliography
(A) Versions, Translations, and Anthologies
(B) Commentaries and Other Frequently Cited Resources
(C) General Bibiography
Biblical and Ancient Texts Index
General Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Part 1
Figure 1 The Book of Joel from the Rabbinic Bible with Hebrew and Aramaic te...
Figure 2 The Twelve Minor Prophets, pointing to Holy Family. From Histoire d...
Figure 3 John Singer Sargent, Frieze of the Prophets, West Wall, Zephaniah, ...
Part 1_1
Figure 4 Raphael, The Prophets Hosea and Jonah (1510).
Figure 5 Hosea and Gomer, Amiens Cathedral, France.
Chapter 1_1
Figure 6 Initial V: Hosea with Gomer, Marquette Bible, ca. 1270.
Figure 7 Hosea and Gomer, detail from the Bible Historiale, Den Haag, NMW 10...
Figure 8 Hosea and family from German Bible by Johann Dietenberger (1475–153...
Figure 9 Hosea and family from Latin Bible printed by Friedrich Peypus (1485...
Chapter 1_2
Figure 10 Fragment of 4Q166, Hosea Commentary Scroll (Pesher Hosea), Dead Se...
Chapter 1_3
Figure 11 Hosea paying Gomer, Amiens Cathedral, France.
Figure 12 Hosea and Gomer.
Chapter 1_5
Figure 13 Prophet Hosea in Augsburg Cathedral, stained glass window (ca. 113...
Chapter 1_8
Figure 14 David Wilkerson, Set the Trumpet to Thy Mouth, front cover (1985)....
Chapter 1_9
Figure 15 Gustav Doré, The Wandering Jew (1856).
Chapter 1_11
Figure 16 Duccio di Buoninsegna, Hosea, part of the Maestà altarpiece (ca 13...
Figure 17 The Binding of the Heart with the Cords of Christ. Emblem from the...
Chapter 1_12
Figure 18 Rembrandt, Jacob wrestling with the angel (1659).
Chapter 1_13
Figure 19 Image Depicting Hos. 13:8 from ‘A New Hieroglyphical Bible for the...
Figure 20 George Frideric Handel, Messiah, Part 3. Duet: ‘O death, where is ...
Chapter 1_14
Figure 21 Bernardino di Betto (Pinturicchio), the Prophet Hosea and the Delp...
Part 1_2
Figure 22 Joel surrounded by locusts; woodcut by J. Sturt, in Samuel Wesley,...
Figure 23 Russian icon of the prophet Joel, eighteenth‐century iconostasis o...
Figure 24 Michaelangelo, prophet Joel. Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508–12)...
Chapter 2_1
Figure 25 Detail of Joel 1. Oxford, Bodleian Library MS. Canon. Bibl. Lat. 5...
Figure 26 James Tissot, Joel (1896–1902).
Figure 27 The vision of locusts. Admont Giant Bible, middle of the twelfth c...
Figure 28 Joel sees withered vine and fig tree; Amiens Cathedral, France....
Chapter 2_2
Figure 29 Johannes Leusden, image of Jewish objects and ritual uses, in Phil...
Figure 30 Joel with sun and moon; Amiens Cathedral, France.
Figure 31 The Prophet Joel, ivory; Louvre, Paris (seventh–eighth century CE)...
Figure 32 Ludwig Glötzle, Vision des Propheten Joel von der Ausgießung des H...
Figure 33 Hans Brosamer, Joel and Pentecost, woodcut from the Luther Bibel (...
Chapter 2_3
Figure 34 Plaque with text from Joel 3:1–2 (Heb. 4:1–2) at the Mount of Oliv...
Figure 35 Thomas Seddon, Jerusalem and valley of Jehoshaphat from the Hill o...
Part 1_3
Figure 36 Obadiah in Rabbinic Bible, with Hebrew text, Aramaic Targum, and c...
Figure 37 Obadiah and Elijah before King Ahab; Amiens Cathedral, France.
Figure 38 Amos and Obadiah; Russian icon, eighteenth century.
Figure 39 Prophet Obadiah with a bird, in the nave of the basilica of San Gi...
Figure 40 Obadiah feeding hidden prophets, Amiens Cathedral, France.
Figure 41 John Singer Sargent, study for the prophet Obadiah, Boston Public ...
Chapter 3
Figure 42 The Vision of Obadiah, from the Bible of Jean XXII (vellum); fifte...
Figure 43 Initial V with Obadiah feeding the prophets, Winchester Bible illu...
Figure 44 Obadiah overlooking city on a hill, from German Bible; Christoph F...
Figure 45 Detail of Obadiah from Luther’s Bibel (woodcut), Johann Melchior B...
Figure 46 Melozzo da Forlì, Obadiah, Sacristy of St. Mark Basilica of Santa ...
Figure 47 Casting lots for Jerusalem. Unattributed image.
Figure 48 Johann Christoph, Der Prophet Abdias (woodcut). From ‘Biblia ectyp...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Figures
Series Editors’ Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Concluding Reflections
Glossary and Biographies
Abbreviations
Bibliography
Biblical and Ancient Texts Index
General Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Wiley Blackwell Bible Commentaries
Series Editors: John Sawyer, Christopher Rowland, Judith Kovacs, David M. Gunn
Editorial Board: Ian Boxall, Andrew Mein, Lena‐Sofia Tiemeyer
John Through the CenturiesMark Edwards
Revelation Through the CenturiesJudith Kovacs and Christopher Rowlands
Judges Through the CenturiesDavid M. Gunn
Exodus Through the CenturiesScott M. Langston
Ecclesiastes Through the CenturiesEric S. Christianson
Esther Through the CenturiesJo Carruthers
Psalms Through the Centuries Volume ISusan Gillingham
Galatians Through the CenturiesJohn Riches
Pastoral Epistles Through the CenturiesJay Twomey
1 & 2 Thessalonians Through the CenturiesAnthony C. Thiselton
Six Minor Prophets Through the CenturiesRichard Coggins and Jin H. Han
Lamentations Through the CenturiesPaul M. Joyce and Diana Lipton
James Through the CenturiesDavid Gowler
The Acts of the Apostles Through the CenturiesHeidi J. Hornik and Mikael C. Parsons
Chronicals Through the CenturiesBlaire French
Isaiah Through the CenturiesJohn F.A Sawyer
Psalms Through the Centuries Volume IISusan Gillingham
Matthew Through the CenturiesIan Boxall
Jeremiah Through the CenturiesMary Chilton Callaway
1,2 Peter and Jude Through the CenturiesRebecca Skaggs
Jonah Through the CenturiesLena‐Sofia Tiemeyer
Psalms Through the Centuries Volume IIISusan Gillingham
Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah Through the CenturiesBradford A. Anderson
Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah Through the Centuries
Bradford A. Anderson
This edition first published 2024© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Bradford A. Anderson to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data applied forHardback ISBN: 9781394239672
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Life of William Blake (1880), Volume 2 Job illustrations by Cygnis insignis is licensed under CC BY‐SAA
For Georgie, Molly, Maeve, and Fionnuala Anderson
With thanks to Walter Moberly
In memory of John Sawyer and Molly Walsh
List of Figures
Figure 1
The Book of Joel from the Rabbinic Bible with Hebrew and Aramaic text and commentaries (Geneva, 1556)
.
Figure 2
The Twelve Minor Prophets, pointing to Holy Family. From Histoire de l'Ancien et Nouveau Testament, par Royamount (1724)
.
Figure 3
John Singer Sargent, Frieze of the Prophets, West Wall, Zephaniah, Joel, Obadiah, and Hosea; Boston Public Library (1890–1895)
.
Figure 4
Raphael, The Prophets Hosea and Jonah (1510)
.
Figure 5
Hosea and Gomer, Amiens Cathedral, France
.
Figure 6
Initial V: Hosea with Gomer, Marquette Bible, ca. 1270
.
Figure 7
Hosea and Gomer, detail from the Bible Historiale, Den Haag, NMW 10B 23 426r (1372)
.
Figure 8
Hosea and family from German Bible
by
Johann Dietenberger (1475–1537)
.
Figure 9
Hosea and family from Latin Bible printed by Friedrich Peypus (1485–1534)
.
Figure 10
Fragment of 4Q166, Hosea Commentary Scroll (Pesher Hosea), Dead Sea Scrolls
.
Figure 11
Hosea paying Gomer, Amiens Cathedral, France
.
Figure 12
Hosea and Gomer
.
Figure 13
Prophet Hosea in Augsburg Cathedral, stained glass window (ca. 1135–40
).
Figure 14
David Wilkerson, Set the Trumpet to Thy Mouth, front cover (1985)
.
Figure 15
Gustav Doré, The Wandering Jew (1856)
.
Figure 16
Duccio di Buoninsegna, Hosea, part of the Maestà altarpiece (ca 1308–11)
.
Figure 17
The Binding of the Heart with the Cords of Christ. Emblem from the book, depicting an angel leading a woman with a cord. Accompanied by text of Hos. 11:4
.
Published anonymously and adapted from Benedictine writer Benedict van Haeften’s Schola Cordis (1629).
Figure 18
Rembrandt, Jacob wrestling with the angel (1659)
.
Figure 19
Image Depicting Hos. 13:8 from ‘A New Hieroglyphical Bible for the Amusement & Instruction of Children’ (1796)
.
Figure 20
George Frideric Handel, Messiah, Part 3. Duet: ‘O death, where is thy sting?’ Copyists manuscript, 1743–46, p. 28
.
Figure 21
Bernardino di Betto (Pinturicchio), the Prophet Hosea and the Delphic Sibyl Fresco, Borgia Apartments, Hall of the Sibyls, Vatican (1492–94
).
Figure 22
Joel surrounded by locusts; woodcut by J. Sturt, in Samuel Wesley, the History of the Old Testament in verse (1704)
.
Figure 23
Russian icon of prophet Joel, eighteenth‐century iconostasis of Kizhi Monastery, Russia
.
Figure 24
Michaelangelo, prophet Joel. Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508–12)
.
Figure 25
Detail of Joel 1. Oxford, Bodleian Library MS. Canon. Bibl. Lat. 57 (thirteenth century, Italy
).
Figure 26
James Tissot, Joel (1896–1902)
.
Figure 27
The vision of locusts. Admont Giant Bible, middle of twelfth century
.
Figure 28
Joel sees withered vine and fig tree; Amiens Cathedral, France
.
Figure 29
Johannes Leusden, Image of Jewish objects and ritual uses, in Philologus Hebraeo‐mixtu; seventeenth century
.
Figure 30
Joel with sun and moon; Amiens Cathedral, France
.
Figure 31
The Prophet Joel, ivory; Louvre, Paris (seventh–eighth century
CE
)
.
The scroll contains part of Joel 2:18 in Greek
.
Figure 32
Ludwig Glötzle,
Vision des Propheten Joel von der Ausgießung des Heiligen Geistes—Gesamtansicht; Salzburg, Dom Sankt Rupert und Virgil, Heilig‐Geist‐Kapelle (1888)
.
Figure 33
Hans Brosamer, Joel and Pentecost, woodcut from Luther Bibel (1562)
.
Figure 34
Plaque with text from Joel 3:1–2 (Heb. 4:1–2) at the Mount of Olives Jewish Cemetery, Jerusalem
.
Figure 35
Thomas Seddon, Jerusalem and valley of Jehoshaphat from the Hill of Evil Counsel (1854–55)
.
Figure 36
Obadiah in Rabbinic Bible, with Hebrew text, Aramaic Targum, and commentaries
.
Figure 37
Obadiah and Elijah before King Ahab; Amiens Cathedral, France
.
Figure 38
Amos and Obadiah; Russian icon, eighteenth century
.
Figure 39
Prophet Obadiah with a bird, in the nave of the basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano, Rome, Italy
.
Figure 40
Obadiah feeding hidden prophets, Amiens Cathedral, France
.
Figure 41
John Singer Sargent, study for the prophet Obadiah, Boston Public Library; charcoal sketch, 1890–95
.
Figure 42
The Vision of Obadiah, from the Bible of Jean XXII (vellum); fifteenth century
.
Figure 43
Initial V with Obadiah feeding the prophets, Winchester Bible illumination, twelfth century
.
Figure 44
Obadiah overlooking city on a hill, from German Bible, Christoph Froschauer, sixteenth century
.
Figure 45
Detail of Obadiah from Luther’s Bible (woodcut), Johann Melchior Bocksberger, illustrator. Sixteenth century
.
Figure 46
Melozzo da Forlì, Obadiah, Sacristy of St. Mark Basilica of Santa Casa, Loreto (ca 1477–82)
.
Figure 47
Casting lots for Jerusalem
.
Figure 48
Johann Christoph, Der Prophet Abdias (woodcut). From ‘Biblia ectypa: Bildnussen auss Heiliger Schrifft Alt und Neuen Testaments’, Christoph Weigel (author)
.
Series Editors’ Preface
The Blackwell Bible Commentaries series, the first to be devoted primarily to the reception history of the Bible, is based on the premise that how people have interpreted, and been influenced by, a sacred text like the Bible is often as interesting and historically important as what it originally meant. The series emphasizes the influence of the Bible on literature, art, music, and film, its role in the evolution of religious beliefs and practices, and its impact on social and political developments. Drawing on work in a variety of disciplines, it is designed to provide a convenient and scholarly means of access to material that until now was hard to find and a much‐needed resource for all those interested in the influence of the Bible on Western culture.
Until quite recently this whole dimension was for the most part neglected by biblical scholars. The goal of a commentary was primarily, if not exclusively, to get behind the centuries of accumulated Christian and Jewish tradition to one single meaning, normally identified with the author’s original intention.
The most important and distinctive feature of the Blackwell Bible Commentaries is that they will present readers with many different interpretations of each text in such a way as to heighten their awareness of what a text, especially a sacred text, can mean and what it can do, what it has meant and what it has done, in the many contexts in which it operates.
The Blackwell Bible Commentaries will consider patristic, rabbinic (where relevant), and medieval exegesis as well as insights from various types of modern criticism, acquainting readers with a wide variety of interpretative techniques. As part of the history of interpretation, questions of source, date, authorship, and other historical–critical and archaeological issues will be discussed, but since these are covered extensively in existing commentaries, such references will be brief, serving to point readers in the direction of readily accessible literature where they can be followed up.
Original to this series is the consideration of the reception history of specific biblical books arranged in commentary format. The chapter‐by‐chapter arrangement ensures that the biblical text is always central to the discussion. Given the wide influence of the Bible and the richly varied appropriation of each biblical book, it is a difficult question to determine which interpretations to include. While each volume will have its own distinctive point of view, the guiding principle for the series as a whole is that readers should be given a representative sampling of material from different ages with an emphasis on interpretations that have been especially influential or historically significant. Although commentators will have their preferences among the different interpretations, the material will be presented in such a way that readers can make up their own minds on the value, morality, and validity of particular interpretations.
The series encourages readers to consider how the biblical text has been interpreted down the ages and seeks to open their eyes to different uses of the Bible in contemporary culture. The aim is to write a series of scholarly commentaries that draw on all the insights of modern research to illustrate the rich interpretative potential of each biblical book.
John Sawyer
Christopher Rowland
Judith Kovacs
David M. Gunn
Acknowledgments
This project has been long in the making, and I would like to thank the HB series editors: David Gunn and the late John Sawyer for their encouragement and guidance through the years, and Lena‐Sofia Tiemeyer and Andrew Mein for helping me bring it to completion. All of these colleagues gave invaluable feedback along the way. Research for this commentary was presented at several conferences, including the Irish Biblical Association and the Society of Biblical Literature, and I am grateful for the input and feedback from colleagues as this work progressed. The library team at Dublin City University is unfailingly helpful and resourceful, and I am immensely grateful for their help along the way, particularly Victoria Smyth for her help in tracking down some hard‐to‐find resources. Research for this volume was also undertaken at KU Leuven’s Maurits Sabbe Theology and Religious Studies Library, as well as the library of the École biblique et archéologique française de Jérusalem—I am grateful for the hospitality shown to me at both institutions and for being given access to their wonderful collections. Colleagues in the School of Theology, Philosophy, and Music at Dublin City University have been encouraging (and long‐suffering!) as I’ve worked on this project. Special thanks to Peter Admirand, Róisín Blunnie, Amanda Dillon, Patricia Flynn, Jonathan Kearney, Ethna Regan, and Joseph Rivera for their encouragement along the way. Funding was provided by the DCU Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences for several aspects of this project through the years, and I’m very grateful for the support of colleagues in the faculty.
I gratefully dedicate this volume to my wife Georgie and our three children, Molly, Maeve, and Fionnuala, who keep me grounded in the present when I get lost in the past; with thanks to Walter Moberly, who taught me the value of worthy conversation partners, both the quick and the dead; to the memory of John Sawyer, whose tremendous intellect was matched by his kindness and generosity; and to the memory of Molly Walsh, who made the world a better place because she was in it.
Elements from this volume have been published previously in the following articles, and the content is used here with permission:
Anderson, Bradford A. ‘The Reception of Obadiah: Some Historical, Ideological, and Visual Considerations.’
Proceedings of the Irish Biblical Association
36 (2013): 17–35.
Anderson, Bradford A. ‘Hosea’s Marriage: A Brief History of Interpretation.’
Proceedings of the Irish Biblical Association
43 (2021): 24–37.
Anderson, Bradford A. ‘Family Dynamics, Fertility Cults, and Feminist Critiques: The Reception of Hosea 1–3 Through the Centuries.’
Religions
12 (2021): 1–20.
Anderson, Bradford A. ‘Visualising the (Invisible) Prophets: Artistic Strategies for Representing Joel and Obadiah in Christian and Western Traditions.’
Die Bibel in der Kunst/Bible in the Arts
7 (2023).
Introduction
This commentary explores the reception history of three Hebrew prophets: Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah. Investigating the reception of the Bible is important for many reasons, not least because texts can (and often do) mean different things to different people. What was self‐evident about a text to a first‐century Jew is often very different from what a medieval monk or rabbi might have made of the same text, and the interpretation of a modern Western scholar will likely be different again. So a key element of reception history, and of this project in particular, is the exploration of how and why biblical texts have been used and understood through the years, as well as investigating the use and impact of these biblical books across the centuries.
Reception history is a broad designation that encompasses a wide range of approaches and source materials. For the present study, I understand reception history as the exploration of the interpretation, use, and impact of these prophetic texts and traditions down through the centuries, including commentaries and interpretive traditions, the use of these texts in religious communities, and the social and cultural mobilization of these prophetic works in areas ranging from literature to the visual arts. Within this broad understanding, there are several elements (and challenges) to consider.
First, using the understanding of reception history noted above, the possible forms of reception that one could engage with are seemingly endless. Indeed, the writing of this commentary has been a process of curation, which is itself a form of interpretation, and the voices that are highlighted in what follows are representations of my own location, interests, and biases as a reader and interpreter. The approach I have taken is to engage with a number of recurring ‘conversation partners’—voices ranging from antiquity to the contemporary world—which serve as guideposts through and indeed across the books under discussion. This is not an exhaustive and final word on the reception of these prophets. Rather, these voices give us snapshots of what I understand to be important and interesting trajectories in the afterlives of these prophetic books. A brief overview of these conversation partners can be found in the ‘Glossary and Biographies’ at the end of this volume.
Second, while the focus here is on the use and impact of the biblical texts in question, we should not assume a linear process of influence is always at work with the biblical texts serving as the sole inspiration or as the sole point of departure. In reality, the various uses of these prophetic texts are part of much larger matrices of texts and traditions that have been picked up and reused in various ways with manifold influences (for an illuminating discussion of this in relation to the second Temple period in particular, see Mroczek 2016). Thus, while we are focusing here on the use and reception of Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah, these are only soundings from what is a much larger and more intricate set of interrelationships of which these prophetic texts, their language, and their imagery are an important part.
Anyone undertaking a task such as this faces a number of ethical challenges. First, the history of recorded engagement with the Bible is dominated by men and male voices—although not necessarily the lived reality of how the Bible has actually been used, this is nonetheless what has been passed down to us. While I have attempted to incorporate women commentators, readers, and artists wherever possible, their voices remain a noticeable minority. The question is whether the approach taken contributes to the problem by reifying the patriarchal history that has shaped the use of these texts and the stories we now tell. I do not have a simple solution for this question, and it is an issue to which those of us involved in exploring the reception of the Bible will need to continue to be attentive.
Another ethical quandary revolves around Jewish‐Christian relations and, in particular, anti‐Jewish rhetoric that is found in the Christian reception of these prophetic texts. (Similar issues arise in relation to Protestant rhetoric concerning Roman Catholicism, and readers will note this usage, particularly in the centuries following the Reformation.) For this study, I have engaged with and included various examples of this rhetoric. While not approving of this, it remains an important part of the way in which these texts have been received and is part of the story, which is worth telling. When such cases appear, I have tried to note the potentially harmful use of language as well as the supersessionist implications of such comments in the relationship between Judaism and Christianity. However, for extensive engagement on these issues, other resources should be explored (e.g., Fredriksen and Irshai 2006; Siquans 2020).
This volume begins with a chapter situating Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah as part of the Book of the Twelve (or Minor Prophets) and the reception of these three prophetic works as part of this collection. We then move to commentaries on the three prophetic books in question. Within these, an introductory chapter offers a broad overview of the reception of each prophetic work, including (1) a brief history of interpretation; (2) key historical and literary issues in the book’s interpretation; (3) important theological, thematic, and rhetorical issues that have shaped the use and impact of the book; and (4) religious, social, and cultural reception of the prophet and the book. The main body of each commentary then moves through the three books sequentially, offering chapter‐by‐chapter reflections. Where possible, the commentary is offered chronologically, beginning with early Jewish and rabbinic interpretation and moving to Christian and then the later critical reception of these texts. Religious, social, and cultural uses of these prophets and the books bearing their names are interspersed throughout the volume, giving a sense of the broad‐ranging ways in which people and communities have engaged with these prophets.
A few notes on style and referencing will be helpful. Unless otherwise noted, translations are taken from the NRSV as a starting point. For the Hebrew text in the Masoretic tradition, I have followed BHQ (Gelston 2010). For the Septuagint, I have relied on Ziegler (1984) for the Greek and the New English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS 2009) for English translations. Similarly, for the Aramaic Targum, I have used Sperber (1962) for the Aramaic and Cathcart and Gordon (1989) for English translation. While I have avoided extensive use of Hebrew and other ancient languages, where important I have included Hebrew and Greek terms in transliteration, using the basic general‐purpose style (SBL) for ease of use.
With regard to referencing, for the recurring ‘conversation partners’ and major commentaries that are used throughout the volume, I use only the author’s surname; unless quoting verbatim, I have not included page numbers so as to keep the text free of unnecessary clutter. Other resources are cited by author name and year. While I have attempted to use stand‐alone works and commentaries where possible, a number of anthologies and reference works have proved invaluable in this project. For rabbinic literature, the works of Neusner (2007a, 2007b, 2007c) and Montefiore and Loewe (1938) have been indispensable. References and translations of Talmud are from the open‐access online collection at Sefaria (sefaria.org). Abbreviations for rabbinic and other ancient references are based on the SBL Handbook of Style. The references to Rashi, Radak, Ibn Ezra, Abarbanel, and a number of other important voices in Jewish tradition are usefully brought together in Miqra’ot Gedolot, and citations of these are drawn from Rosenberg’s edition of the Book of the Twelve (1986). Likewise, the volume on the Minor Prophets in the Ancient Christian Commentaries Series (Ferreiro 2003) is extremely helpful. Many of the references to early Christian engagement with these texts beyond the major commentaries cited can be found in Ferreiro’s anthology. Several reference works have also been very helpful in the course of this research, in particular The Bible in Music (Dowling Long and Sawyer 2015), and the Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception (de Gruyter 2009–).
Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah as Part of the Book of the Twelve
Before exploring the individual books of Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah, it is worth reflecting on an important aspect of their reception that relates to them collectively: their placement in the Book of the Twelve or the Minor Prophets.
1. The Book of the Twelve
Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah are part of a collection known as the Book of the Twelve or the Minor Prophets. Ben Sira 49:10 makes mention of ‘the bones of the Twelve prophets’, which suggests that by the second century BCE, a group of prophetic texts was known and identified as a collection (Goshen‐Gottstein 2002). The notion of Twelve prophets would be found or alluded to in various sources in the following centuries from Josephus (Against Apion 1.8.3) to Augustine (City of God 18), the latter perhaps the earliest example of the use of the term Minor Prophets, a reference to the brevity of their works (Glenny 2016). In the Babylonian Talmud, the Sages suggest that Hosea and other smaller texts were brought together to avoid any of them being lost (b. B. Bat. 14b, 15a).
Conclusive evidence for the ordering of this collection, however, is another matter. In the tradition of the Hebrew Masoretic Text, the first half of the Book of the Twelve is ordered as Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah, and it is this ordering that has generally been followed by the Jewish and Christian traditions. This ordering is also found in the Greek text from Nahal Hever known as 8HevXIIgr (ca. first century CE) and texts from Wadi Murabba’at (second century CE). However, there is a good deal of fluidity in the ordering of these books elsewhere in the ancient traditions. In the Greek tradition of the Septuagint (also found in 4 Ezra 1:39–40), the order of these initial books is Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, and Jonah, an order still followed by some Orthodox Christian traditions; the major Greek manuscripts follow this ordering, including Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and Alexandrinus. Still other orderings represented in antiquity include the Ascension of Isaiah (4:22; Amos, Hosea, Micah, Joel, Nahum, Jonah, Obadiah), and the Lives of the Prophets (Hosea, Micah, Amos, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah) (see Sweeney). The Coptic tradition also presents variant orderings, including the LXX order, and the otherwise unattested Hosea, Joel, Amos, Micah, Obadiah, and Jonah (Bosson 2016). There are, then, a number of different ways in which these Twelve prophetic books were ordered and presented in antiquity.
Authorship of the Twelve is generally dealt with on a case‐by‐case basis in the traditions, and this is covered in the commentaries that follow. However, the authorship and collecting of these prophetic books have been noted in relation to the collection as a whole. In the Babylonian Talmud (B. Bat. 15a), it is stated that the Men of the Great Assembly recorded the prophecies of the Twelve, which would mean that these prophecies were not committed to writing until the return from the Babylonian exile (Rosenberg 1986). Indeed, Rashi figures that these prophets did not write their own messages as they were (relatively) short. Instead, it was Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi—those prophets that are clearly later than the others—that wrote their own messages and combined these with the other shorter prophetic oracles.
Although definitive answers concerning the authorship and collection of these books remain elusive, there are nonetheless significant interpretive issues that emerge from the various ways in which the Twelve are presented, issues that have been noted at various points throughout history. While Hosea stands at the beginning of the collection in almost all known traditions, Joel and Obadiah are found in various positions, and their relationships with one another and other books in the Twelve have led to various reconstructions. In the MT, Joel is followed by Amos, which is then followed by Obadiah and Jonah. There are thematic resonances in this ordering, including the castigation of Edom in Joel 3 and Amos 9, which is then picked up as the main theme in Obadiah. These and other connections between the various books have been noted at various points throughout history (e.g., the fifteenth‐century rabbi Abarbanel in Miqra’ot Gedolot). However, there is no clear chronological logic to this ordering. In the Greek tradition, meanwhile, Hosea is followed by Amos and Micah, and the next three books are Joel, Obadiah, and Jonah. In this case, the Book of the Twelve opens with three books that have clear historical markers in the eighth century BCE, while the next three are more difficult to situate historically. Reconstructions of the formation of the Twelve interpret these placements as intentional, positing that those who brought together and edited the collection wished to make thematic and theological connections or to highlight chronological factors in the example of the LXX ordering (see Wolff 1974a; Nogalski 1993). Indeed, recent research on the Twelve has suggested more complex redactional histories for this collection to account for thematic and linguistic connections across these books (Albertz, Nogalski, and Wöhrle 2012; Werse 2019). Whatever the case, it is clear that there are already interpretive moves being made as these Twelve prophets were brought together, and the ordering of this collection is one of the first aspects of the reception of these prophetic works (Dines 2012).
2. Textual Witnesses and Translations
The oldest Hebrew texts that witness to the Book of the Twelve are those which were found at Qumran (see Brooke 2006; Fuller 1997, 2017). There are up to ten possible scrolls containing texts from the Twelve prophets at Qumran, though these vary in size and some are fragmentary, and it is unclear as to whether all of these rolls would have contained all Twelve works (Guillaume 2007). Included in this are 4QXIIa and 4QXIIb, which, dated to the middle of the second century BCE, seem to be the oldest extant textual witnesses to the Minor Prophets. Brooke notes that these textual witnesses point to the fact that diverse forms of the Twelve were circulating during this period: ‘for what may be deemed to be the scriptural texts of the Twelve, there is as much variety as exists for several other scriptural compositions, such as Exodus, Jeremiah and the Psalms. Overall a strong case can be made on the basis of variant order alone that there was more than one literary edition of the Twelve’ (Brooke 2006: 34). Even so, it seems that the textual traditions solidified relatively quickly: the second‐century CE manuscript MurXII found at Wadi Murabba’at is close to the Masoretic traditions. The major witnesses to the Masoretic text followed by the critical editions of the HB include the important medieval manuscripts the Leningrad Codex, the Aleppo Codex, and the Cairo Codex (Fresch 2017).
The Greek translation of the Twelve, dated to the middle of the second century BCE, generally follows closely to the Hebrew, and ‘many of the differences from the Hebrew text can be readily explained as translational adaptations or stylistic modifications’ (Gelston 2010: 7). An important witness to this tradition is a text already noted above, 8HevXIIgr, a first‐century CE Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Naḥal Ḥever, which aligns quite closely with the Hebrew traditions (Tov 2003). Interestingly, in several Greek versions of the entire Old Testament, the Minor Prophets come before the Major Prophets (Vaticanus and Alexandrinus; see Glenny 2016). The Latin traditions, including the Old Latin and the Vulgate, tend to follow the Hebrew tradition of the MT rather than the Greek. The same is true of the Syriac Peshitta and the Aramaic Targum, though the Targum is not always a literal translation but is often idiomatic and at times expansively interpretive in ways that will be explored in the commentaries below. Indeed, the Aramaic Targum has played a significant role in Jewish tradition as both translation and exegesis as can be seen in its inclusion in the Miqra’ot Gedelot or Rabbinic Bible (see Figure 1), as well as its frequent use by major Jewish commentators, including the influential medieval interpreter Rashi.
3. Visual Reception of the Twelve
Throughout history, the Twelve prophets have been grouped together not just literarily but visually as well. Depictions of the Twelve pointing to Christ are common in Christian tradition, as the Hebrew prophets were understood as foretelling the coming of Jesus and the new dispensation which he would usher in (see Figure 2).
John Singer Sargent’s late nineteenth‐century portrayal of the Twelve prophets in the Boston Public Library again brings these prophetic figures together visually and offers a more modern take, envisioning the emotional turmoil of these prophets and the challenge of their prophetic vocation (Figure 3).
This collective portrayal can also be seen in several famous Christian churches. The Cathédrale Notre‐Dame d’Amiens (hereafter Amiens Cathedral) has individual relief sculptures which depict the Twelve prophets in various ways on different sides of the building, and some of the Twelve are also represented in a well‐known set of sculptures by the artist Aleijadinho on the Santuário do Bom Jesus de Matosinhos in Congonhas do Campo, Brazil (including Hosea, Joel, and Obadiah). While examples in the commentary will for the most part focus on individual representations of these prophets, their collective portrayal in various art forms is also a significant aspect of their reception as part of the Book of the Twelve.
Figure 1The Book of Joel from the Rabbinic Bible with Hebrew and Aramaic text and commentaries (Geneva, 1556).
By permission of the Governors and Guardians of Marsh’s Library © Marsh’s Library.
Figure 2The Twelve Minor Prophets, pointing to Holy Family. From Histoire de l'Ancien et Nouveau Testament, par Royamount (1724).
Used with permission from Mary Evans Picture Library.
Figure 3John Singer Sargent, Frieze of the Prophets, West Wall, Zephaniah, Joel, Obadiah, and Hosea; Boston Public Library (1890–1895).
Used with permission from Sheryl Lanzel/Boston Public Library.
Hosea: Introduction and Overview
Because of its position at the beginning of the Book of the Twelve, and the command given to the prophet to take an unfaithful wife, Hosea is probably the most well known of the Minor Prophets. This introduction offers a broad overview of the reception of Hosea, including (1) a brief history of the interpretation of the book, including key trajectories in how it has been read and understood; (2) significant historical and literary issues in the book’s interpretation; (3) important theological, thematic, and rhetorical issues that have shaped the use and impact of the book; and (4) religious, social, and cultural reception of the prophet and the book. These issues are explored further throughout the commentary.
There is diversity regarding the way in which the text of Hosea is divided in the manuscripts and traditions (see Gruber). For modern readers, this is most evident in the versification as reflected in English translations and Hebrew traditions. The table below outlines these differences—the present work follows the versification of English translations.
English versification
Hebrew versification
1:10–11
2:1–2
2:1–23
2:3–25
11:12
12:1
12:1–14
12:2–15
13:16
14:1
14:1–9
14:2–10
A Brief History of Interpretation
The earliest textual witnesses to Hosea are found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, though these tend to be smaller sections and fragments of the book (Pajunen 2021). More insight into the early reception of Hosea can be found in the ancient versions and translations (Glenny 2021). The Greek LXX offers a translation that is relatively close to the Hebrew found in the MT even if it does have to account for the complexity of the Hebrew, which leads to some variation. Other versions—the Syriac Peshitta and Latin Vulgate in particular—also offer translations that suggest access to a Hebrew text which is quite close to the MT (see Macintosh). The Aramaic Targum, meanwhile, is an outlier. It offers a much more loose and expansive ‘translation’; this is seen from the very beginning of the book, where the wife and children are removed from the text. Instead, a reading is offered which focuses solely on the issues of national infidelity that underpin Hosea’s message, without any mention of the biographical aspects that are present in the Hebrew traditions.
In early and medieval rabbinic interpretation, Hosea is most often taken up in relation to halakhic matters, theological concerns, or as a proof text (see b. Pesaḥ.; Rashi; cf. Macintosh 2001). The most extended discussion of Hosea in early rabbinic literature is found in the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Pesaḥim (b. Pesaḥ). Here, and in other rabbinic texts, Hosea is discussed in relation to thematic and theological concerns, including questions of repentance and return, idolatry, and divine love (cf. PesK). In these cases, the special place of Israel and its elect status often take precedence in interpretive endeavors. Elsewhere in rabbinic literature, much is made of Hosea’s references to other parts of the story of Israel (Jacob, the exodus, the wilderness), and so intertextual associations are common (Gen. Rab.). With the turn toward peshat and the plain sense of the text, medieval Jewish commentators such as Rashi, Ibn Ezra, and Radak began to focus on linguistic and historical issues, alongside engagement with rabbinic tradition. Within this, there is considerable diversity in how Jewish interpreters would understand Hosea’s marriage with both literal and figurative approaches put forward (see commentary at Hos. 1:2).
Hosea was very influential in early Christianity, in part because the book is quoted by several New Testament writers. In the Gospels, Matt. 2:15 draws on Hos. 11:1 (‘out of Egypt I have called my son’), Matt. 9:13 uses Hos. 6:7 (‘I desire mercy and not sacrifice’), and Luke 23:30 picks up Hos. 10:8. In Rom. 9:25–26, Paul brings together two citations from Hosea—2:23 and 1:10—in his programmatic statement on Israel and the identity of the chosen people. Meanwhile, 1 Cor. 15:55, drawing on the LXX, employs Hosea’s iconic statement from 13:14 regarding the sting of death and the victory of the grave.
A number of church fathers offered extensive commentaries on Hosea with notable contributions from Jerome, Cyril of Alexandria, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Julian of Eclanum, among others. In line with much commentary from this era, the material on Hosea is a mixture of historical and figurative readings. For example, some saw reflected in Hosea’s actions the sanctifying work of Christ (Irenaeus) or in Gomer a prefiguring of the woman who anointed Jesus’s feet (Augustine). Nevertheless, there are cases where the plain sense is given consideration (Theodore of Mopsuestia), and a good deal of attention is given to the relationship of Hosea and Gomer and how this might be understood, both spiritually and morally. In the medieval era, Aquinas’s engagement with Hosea in the Summa Theologica tends to focus primarily on moral matters such as what the book says about marriage and infidelity, though he, too, discusses the relationship of Hosea and Gomer, concluding that Gomer is a concubine rather than a wife. The medieval collection found in the Glossa Ordinaria traces various other approaches to this question common in this era, many of which draw on and extend readings put forward by the church fathers.
Moving to the Reformation period in the Christian tradition, we find extensive engagement with Hosea in the work of both Martin Luther and John Calvin. As is notable in his other commentaries, Luther does address the plain sense of Hosea, contextualizing the prophet and his message in the northern kingdom of Israel. However, Luther’s reading of this text is also heavily Christological, laden with references to the contemporary Catholic Church, and indicates that he also struggled with the implications of God calling Hosea to marry an unfaithful woman; in the end, he argues that it must be understood figuratively. Calvin offers sustained reflection on the historical context of Hosea, along with close readings and philological comments. He, too, wrestles with the moral implications of Hosea’s call, particularly the disrepute it would bring on one who was a teacher. Calvin concludes that Hosea is playing a part, taking on a character, for the benefit of Israel. Nevertheless, both Luther and Calvin draw out the tension of judgment and divine love that runs throughout the book—though, not surprisingly, their sympathies lie with God and the prophet, rather than the woman and children. In the end, both of these interpreters—and indeed most from this era—understand the book as pointing to God’s gracious love and the need for humanity to respond to this love with repentance and sincerity.
The historical and philological issues highlighted by Jewish interpreters such as Radak and Christian exegetes including Calvin would take root in the modern period. Historical‐critical work on Hosea would focus on a number of issues, including possible redactional layers in the book, Hosea’s relationship to other traditions in the HB (e.g., Jacob and the wilderness traditions), the geographical and cultural setting of the book in the northern kingdom, and the influence of other religious traditions in this context, notably Canaanite religion and fertility cults (Rudolph 1966; Wolff; Andersen and Freedman; see discussions in Kelle 2009). More recently, theoretical and ideological reflection on the book has focused on questions of gender representation and the book’s portrayal of its characters, as well as its use of metaphor (Weems 1989; Yee 1996; Baumann 2003; Moughtin‐Mumby 2008). Indeed, Hosea has been front and center in the discourse questioning the ideologies of the prophetic material (Sherwood 1996; O’Brien 2008).
Historical and Literary Issues in Reading Hosea
Because of the various historical markers that are present in Hosea—including the mention of several kings and various geographical references—Hosea has long been understood to have been a prophet in the eighth century BCE and situated in the northern kingdom of Israel. These historical markers have been observed from antiquity, as readers have commented on Hosea’s historical context and setting (b. Pesaḥ.; Theodore of Mopsuestia). Commentators from the church father Jerome, to the medieval Jewish interpreter Radak, to the Reformer John Calvin would offer extensive reflections on historical matters in the text—and while they disagree on many details and historical referents, they nevertheless agree on the prophet and his message fitting within the historical milieu of the eighth century BCE in Israel. Indeed, the eighth century was a turbulent one in the northern kingdom—politically and religiously (Davies 1992). Thus, palace intrigue, political alliances with foreign neighbors, and Israel’s relationship with Canaanite religious traditions have all played a central role in historical reflections and reconstructions.
Historical concerns would take on further significance in the early modern period as questions concerning the unity of the book as well as the implications of its northern provenance would take center stage. Several centuries of such critical examination have led to broad agreement that the book of Hosea had a lengthy redactional history with Judean, southern influence (see, e.g., Wellhausen; Buss 1969; Jeremias 1983; Emmerson 1984). A common suggestion is that Hosea’s prophecies initially took shape in the northern kingdom and were taken south to Judah after the fall of the northern kingdom in 721 BCE, where editing began to take place (Willi‐Plein 1971). Some have recently argued that the book as a whole should be understood as a later (Judean or Persian‐era) creation (Trotter 2001; Rudnig‐Zelt 2006; Bos 2013). Ben Zvi offers one such reading, suggesting that the book was composed in the post‐exilic period for a Persian‐era literati, and the prophet is a ‘literary and ideological character that lives within the world of the book’ (2005: 6). However, many modern commentators still hold that the book is related in some way to a historical prophetic figure based in the eighth century BCE even if some assign more (Andersen and Freedman; Macintosh) or less (Yee 1996) of the book to the historical prophet. It is also worth noting the frequent references in the book to other parts of Israel’s story (Jacob, exodus, wilderness). This feature has not only played a role in the understanding of how the book itself took shape but has also ensured that Hosea has been an important element in reconstructions of the formation of other parts of the Hebrew Bible, including the Torah.
Along with the issue of authorship and redaction, other literary issues relevant to Hosea include the structure of the book, its poetry, and the nature of the Hebrew that is found in the text. In terms of structure, readers have long noted chapters 1–3 as distinct from chapters 4–14 (see Jerome), in part because of the biographical material in the early chapters. While diverse suggestions abound, one common approach is to see the structure of the book as consisting of three main sections: chapters 1–3, 4–11, and 12–14 (Ben Zvi 2005; Yee 1996). In spite of the many points of disjuncture that readers find in Hosea, there are also cross‐references that stitch the book together and give it a sense of coherence as a whole in its final form (Landy).
The poetry that permeates the book has also received attention in recent years. While consisting primarily of prophetic oracles, the poetic form of the material means that issues such as wordplay and rhetoric are important to consider (see, e.g., Lundbom 1979; Morris 1996). The fact that much of the book is addressed to Israel, its kings, and princes has led some to suggest that the poetry has a performance‐like quality to it—almost bardic in nature (Landy). Beyond the form that it takes, the Hebrew of Hosea is notoriously difficult, a point that has been noted throughout history (Jerome; Radak; Luther). With the rise of critical biblical studies, it came to be assumed that the text was corrupt and in need of emendation (Wellhausen; Harper). In the twentieth century, scholars began to suggest that the book might reflect a northern dialect of Hebrew as opposed to being hopelessly corrupt (Mays 1969; Macintosh; Yoo 1999).
Theological, Thematic, and Rhetorical Issues in Interpreting Hosea
A number of themes and issues have been noted as central to the book of Hosea down through the centuries. Many of these stem from the marriage imagery found in chapters 1–3.
From antiquity, readers have struggled with how to understand the call for Hosea to take an unfaithful wife with both literal and figurative approaches common in Jewish and Christian traditions (Bitter 1975). The Talmud (b. Pesaḥ.) and Targum exemplify distinct approaches—the Talmud suggesting that the command given to Hosea should be taken at face value and the Targum understanding it as figurative and removing the woman (and children) from the text altogether. These same interpretive trajectories are also found in the Christian tradition and indeed have been represented throughout history. (For a fuller discussion of how the marriage has been interpreted, see the commentary on Hos. 1:2 and 3:1.)
How, though, should the figurative elements of the book be understood? What is the significance of Hosea’s marriage, and how does this relate to the rest of the book? A common understanding in antiquity was that Hosea’s message was broadly concerned with idolatry and religious infidelity on the part of the Israelites. Within the traditions of Judaism and Christianity, the book and its figurative elements have been understood as a reflection on repentance and return, as well as divine love and fidelity. As such, the call to return to YHWH is an invitation to return to a commitment to God and his ways, including following Torah (Targum). Over time, this religious framing has been refined and revisited. One such interpretation—which became influential in the twentieth century—is that Hosea’s polemic is directed at Canaanite religious traditions and the Baal fertility cult in particular (Wolff; Mays). In this reading, Gomer’s promiscuity not only reflects religious infidelity but also points to actual sexual practices that were part of Canaanite fertility rites. While the sexual dimensions of this interpretation have fallen out of favor, the assumption that Hosea is critiquing Israelite engagement in Canaanite traditions, or syncretistic practices that combine Baal and YHWH worship, has remained popular (Andersen and Freedman; Macintosh). However, in recent decades, commentators have given increased attention to the metaphorical language and imagery in the book. In doing so, the dominant ‘religious’ and cultic framing of Hosea’s critique has been challenged. Thus, readers have suggested that socioeconomic (Keefe 2001) or political (Kelle 2005) issues should be given more consideration as being at the heart of Hosea’s message even if religious apostasy may also have been in view.
In spite of these varied interpretations of the figurative aspects of the book, the use of the marriage as a means of communicating Israel’s infidelity was not seen as problematic for much of history. Feminist scholars have brought fresh perspective to this question in recent decades, interrogating Hosea in relation to issues of gender and sexuality (Weems 1989; Yee 1992; Sherwood 1996; Adler 1998; Wacker 2012). Feminist scholarship has been an important development in biblical interpretation and one of the most impactful aspects
