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- Herausgeber: Science & Technology Publishing
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Hosiery Manufacture is a comprehensive and authoritative guide that delves into the intricate processes and technicalities of producing hosiery, offering an in-depth exploration of the industry as it stood in the early 20th century. The book meticulously covers every aspect of hosiery production, from the selection and preparation of raw materials such as cotton, wool, silk, and artificial fibers, to the detailed workings of machinery used in knitting, seaming, and finishing hosiery products. It provides clear explanations of the various types of knitting machines, including flat and circular machines, and discusses the principles behind their operation, maintenance, and adjustment. The text is richly illustrated with diagrams and photographs, making complex concepts accessible to both novices and experienced professionals. It addresses the design and patterning of hosiery, the dyeing and finishing processes, and the quality control measures necessary to produce durable and attractive products. Special attention is given to the evolution of hosiery styles, the development of new fibers and blends, and the impact of technological advancements on manufacturing efficiency and product variety. In addition to the technical content, Hosiery Manufacture offers valuable insights into the organization and management of hosiery factories, labor considerations, and the economic factors influencing the trade. The book serves as both a practical manual for those directly involved in hosiery production and a historical document reflecting the state of the industry during a period of significant innovation and growth. Whether used as a reference for industry professionals, a textbook for students of textile engineering, or a resource for historians of technology and fashion, Hosiery Manufacture remains an essential work for understanding the complexities and craftsmanship behind one of the most ubiquitous garments in modern wardrobes.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Transcriber's Note:
The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.
HOSIERY MANUFACTURE
PREFACE
This work is being issued at a period of unparalleled development in the industry of knitted fabrics, when our British manufacturers are straining every nerve towards attaining a dominating position in this vital branch of the production of textile goods. It is highly gratifying and full of promise to note the spirit of enterprise which animates our younger generation of manufacturers, and the keenness and alertness which permeate the industry at the present time. Increased concentration by our machine builders on the numerous mechanical improvements being brought out in rapid succession from time to time is certain to have a great influence on the further expansion of the industry, and has the effect of considerably extending the horizon to the maker of knitted goods. With so many new firms springing up in different parts of the country, there has arisen an increased demand for books dealing with the knitting industry, and this work is presented in the hope that it will do something towards satisfying this widespread desire. The study of looped fabric structure is wide in scope, and none the less difficult because, on a first view, it appears simple and elementary. The prospect of the maker of knitted goods of all kinds, is further enhanced by the enormous production possible on the present-day knitting machinery and on the fact that the garments are made ready-to-wear. In this work an effort is made to outline the principles underlying the technology of the industry, and endeavours have been made to clarify certain problems of fabric structure which require still greater attention from the students of technology before they can be regarded as solved. Emphasis has also been laid on the fundamentals of the knitting process as performed on various mechanisms, for, if these basic principles are clearly comprehended, the foundation is securely laid for a further grasp of the industry and its technology.
Special attention is given to the structure and properties of knitting yarns, for in this texture it can be said with truth that the yarn is the fabric, seeing that the bulk of the productions are made from the single thread looped upon itself. Several problems relating to the weight of knitted fabric and similar questions are fully demonstrated, and the formulae explained from fundamental principles. A contribution is also made to the difficult subject of the setting of looped textures, generally so imperfectly understood in its theoretical significance.
That this volume may contribute towards a fuller knowledge of the technology of the knitting industry is the earnest wish of the Author,
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE
v
CHAPTER I
DEVELOPMENT OF THE KNITTED FABRIC
1
-8
Peculiarities of Knitted Structure-Knitting Trade Definitions-Hand Knitting and Crochet
CHAPTER II
KNITTING AND WEAVING COMPARED
9
-15
Hand Knitting-The Knitting Process-The Cut-up Trade-The Full-fashioned Trade-The Seamless Branch
CHAPTER III
LATCH NEEDLE KNITTING
16
-26
Loop Formation with the Latch Needle-The Flat Knitter-Working of Cam Boxes to Give the Various Stitches-Patterns Produced
CHAPTER IV
TYPES OF KNITTING YARNS
27
-36
Lamb's Wool, Shetland, Natural, and Fingering Knitting Yarns-Worsted Spun Underwear Yarns
CHAPTER V
SYSTEMS OF NUMBERING HOSIERY YARNS
37
-45
Yarn Testing for Counts-Conversion from one Count into Another-Formulae for Calculating the Weight of Knitted Fabric, allowing for varying Take-up of Yarn-Calculations for Width, Counts, and Courses per inch
CHAPTER VI
CALCULATIONS FOR FOLDED KNITTING YARNS
46
-56
Explanation of Formulae-Estimations for Plated Goods and Weight Percentages for Mixed Garments
CHAPTER VII
BEARDED NEEDLE KNITTING
57
-66
Stages of Loop Formation with the Bearded Needle-Hand-frame Knitting Process, and the System of Knitting on Cotton's Patent Machine
CHAPTER VIII
SETTING OF KNITTED FABRICS
67
-75
Texture Variation on individual Frames-Variation of Yarn and Effect of Yarn Quality-Variation in the Length of Loop-Comparison of Courses and Wales
CHAPTER IX
VARIOUS KNITTING YARNS
76
-89
Cotton, Mercerised, and Various Silk Yarns-Silk-and-Wool and Cotton-and-Wool Mixture Yarns-Cashmere, Angora Rabbit, Camel Hair, and Alpaca-Nettle Fibre Yarn
CHAPTER X
WINDING OF HOSIERY YARNS
90
-98
Description of a Modern Winding Machine, Bobbin Building and the Differential-Damping and Methods Adopted
CHAPTER XI
CIRCULAR KNITTING
99
-106
Stocking Knitting Machine-Making of a Ribbed Sock-Full-fashioned Hosiery-English and French Foot
CHAPTER XII
COLOUR IN KNITTED GOODS
107
-116
Naturals, Horizontal Stripes, Vertical Stripes, Tuck Work on Flat and Circular Frames-Check Designs and Spot Effects
CHAPTER XIII
COLOUR HARMONY AND CONTRAST
117
-126
Attributes of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colours-Application of Colour Principles to the Hosiery Trade
CHAPTER XIV
DEFECTS IN FABRICS
127
-134
Sinker and Needle Lines-Slurgalling and Pinholes-Stitches of Variable Symmetry
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.
PAGE
1.
RIGHT SIDE KNITTED FABRIC
3
2.
WRONG SIDE KNITTED FABRIC
3
3.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF THE PLAIN KNITTED LOOP
4
4 & 5.
KNITTING ON THE HAND PINS
7
6 & 7.
WORKING OF CROCHET STITCH
7
8.
THE LATCH NEEDLE
17
9.
STITCH FORMATION ON THE LATCH NEEDLE
17
10.
THE DOUBLE-HEADED NEEDLE
17
11.
SIDE ELEVATION OF THE LAMB FLAT KNITTER
20
12.
VIEW OF THE CAM BOX
20
13, 14, 15.
DIFFERENT NEEDLE ARRANGEMENTS ON THE FLAT KNITTER
20
16.
TWO-AND-TWO RIB FABRIC
20
17-20.
ARRANGEMENT OF CAMS TO PRODUCE RIB, CIRCULAR, AND CARDIGAN STITCHES
24
21.
MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY WHEELING KNITTING YARN
28
22.
MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY WOOLLEN SPUN KNITTING THREAD
29
23.
MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF HOSIERY LAMB'S WOOL YARN
30
24.
MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY NATURAL SHETLAND YARN
31
25.
MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY FINGERING YARN FOR HOSIERY
33
26 & 27.
MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY UNDERWEAR YARNS, CONTINENTAL SPUN
33
-
35
28.
MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY UNDERWEAR YARN
35
29.
THE BEARDED NEEDLE
58
30-33.
LOOP FORMATION ON THE BEARDED NEEDLE
58
34.
STITCH FORMING PARTS OF THE OLD HAND-FRAME
63
35.
STITCH FORMING PARTS OF THE COTTON'S PATENT FRAME
63
36.
SHOWING EFFECT OF INCREASE OF YARN DIAMETER IN THE BEARDED NEEDLE FRAME
69
37.
SHOWING EFFECT OF INCREASE IN LOOP LENGTH IN THE BEARDED NEEDLE FRAME
71
38.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SINGLE COTTON HOSIERY YARN
77
39.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SINGLE LOOSE TWISTED COTTON YARN FOR BACKING
77
40.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF MERCERISED COTTON KNITTING YARN
79
41.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF ARTIFICIAL SILK KNITTING YARN
79
42.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SPUN SILK KNITTING YARN
81
43.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SPUN SILK KNITTING YARN (GASSED)
81
44.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SILK AND WOOL KNITTING YARN
82
45.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SILK AND COTTON-AND-WOOL MERINO FOLDED YARN
84
46.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-PLY PURE CASHMERE KNITTING YARN
85
47.
PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF YARN SPUN FROM THE NETTLE FIBRE
88
48.
THE MODERN HOSIERY WINDING MACHINE
93
49.
THREAD CLEARING APPARATUS
93
50.
THE GRISWOLD CIRCULAR STOCKING KNITTER
101
51.
ACTION OF THE CAMS IN STITCH FORMATION
101
52.
STANDARD RIBBED SOCK
101
53.
ONE-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR FLAT FRAMES
112
54.
TWO-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR FLAT FRAMES
112
55.
ONE-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR CIRCULAR BEARDED NEEDLE FRAME
113
56.
TWO-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR CIRCULAR BEARDED NEEDLE FRAME
113
57.
ENLARGEMENT OF THE ONE-AND-ONE TUCK FABRIC
114
58.
ENLARGEMENT OF A SINKER LINE IN KNITTED FABRIC
128
59.
ENLARGEMENT OF "JACOB'S LADDER" IN KNITTED FABRIC
130
60.
ENLARGEMENT OF SLUR GALLING IN KNITTED FABRIC
131
61.
ENLARGEMENT OF "PINHOLES" IN KNITTED FABRIC
132
CHAPTER IDevelopment of the Knitted Fabric
There has been in recent years an extraordinary development in the scope and application of the knitted fabric which may be traced to a variety of causes. The chief explanation of this growth is to be found in the structure of the knitted fabric itself, the qualities of which have made it pre-eminently suitable for special departments of textiles. In its most elementary form the knitted texture is composed of a series of loops hung in rows one upon the other and constructed from the curvings of a single thread which runs continuously through the fabric. One set of loops is formed on the preceding row and any particular stitch is dependent for its support on neighbouring stitches above, below, and on either side of it; if the thread becomes severed at any point the loops lose contact all round and a considerable opening is incurred. This is its chief defect, but also its outstanding advantage as a texture; it is a defect to have the structure destroyed with the severance of the single ground thread, but it is the mutual interdependence of loops which accounts for its valuable stretch and elasticity. By virtue of this elasticity it becomes eminently suitable for articles of underclothing which have to be worn in close proximity to the cuticle; the fabric is enabled to yield to the slightest movement of any part and thus prevents the wearer becoming uncomfortably conscious of the garment. An inherent yielding quality of the loops causes the article to stretch and adapt itself to minor irregularities of size and shape; if a garment is not exactly to dimensions, it contracts to a smaller or expands to a larger form. This property of stretch must not be unduly taken advantage of to cover up indifferent systems of manufacturing, but within certain limits the property is of great value for certain discrepancies. The knitted fabric is essentially a weft fabric, the thread being inserted crosswise into the texture after the manner of filling so that the entire structure presents a horizontal appearance which is most evident with ground-coloured stripes when the different colours show themselves crosswise. This proves a serious limitation to the scope of the plain knitted texture, for the clothing trades have small use for horizontal effects as compared with vertical coloured stripes. The knitted structure is quite different in property to woven cloth where one has two series of separate threads, one being termed the warp and running longitudinally in the fabric, whilst the other series is named the weft and is intersected with the warp in the process of weaving. The warp threads are pre-arranged to the correct length and in order of pattern on the warp beam whilst the threads of weft are inserted consecutively during the operation of weaving in the loom. This mode of intersecting separate series of yarns at right angles to each other causes the threads to exert a much firmer grip on each other and the resulting fabric is remarkable for its strength and rigidity. It is firm and durable in structure, and possessing comparatively little stretch, it does not yield to the ordinary strains to which it is subjected. It is pre-eminently the fabric to be used for garments of outer wear which have to stand the rough service of every-day life, where a combination of friction, bending and abrasion subject the fabric to a severe test of endurance. In the case of a knitted texture there is a right and a wrong side, or face and back, the face comprising the straight portions of the loops whilst on the back the curved loop portions predominate. Fig. 1 gives a view of a plain knitted fabric showing the right side or the face of the texture where the loops may be distinguished by a characteristic V-shape, these Vs fitting into each other in a vertical direction. This side of the fabric is always worn outermost, as it presents the most even surface whilst it is also the most perfect as all imperfections such as knots, etc., are drawn on to the back of the cloth. Fig. 2 shows the same fabric on the wrong side where it will be noted that the chief feature is a series of interlocking semi-circles which have a distinctly crosswise determination given to them. The appearance on the back is decidedly raw and uninteresting, the straightened V-shaped portions of the loops presenting a much more attractive aspect. On the other hand, most rotary frames work their fabrics with the back in full view of the worker, and in case of analysis it is the wrong side of the fabric which will yield the most definite results to the analyst, for by examination of the curved loops one can discern more easily the character of the pattern and the nature of the ornamentation.
Figs. l and 2
Peculiarities of Knitted Structure.—An examination of the photo-micrograph of the plain knitted fabric (back view) shown in Fig. 3 will demonstrate that the loops are intimately dependent on each other and that the slightest dislocation at any part will at once affect the adjacent area. The knitted fabric is extremely difficult to make absolutely perfect, because each stitch is worked on its own needle distinct from its neighbour, and the slightest irregularity of yarn delivery affects the whole stitch area concerned. If a loop is drawn tighter than the normal at any point, then it is curtailed in size and the adjacent loops have to enlarge themselves to fill out the allotted space. In the woven fabric a missing thread usually influences that portion of the fabric only, but if the main thread of a knitted structure be broken, the entire cloth may be disintegrated with the slightest pull. The interspaces between the loops shown in Fig. 3 are intimately connected with the elastic property, because if the spaces are closed up by tight knitting, the elasticity is considerably reduced, if, on the other hand, the spaces are too large, the fabric loses its equilibrium and a slight pull will cause it to lose its form. An exception to this may be found in the light-weight fabrics so much in demand in recent seasons for wearing in an intermediate position in winter whilst in summer they are worn outermost for lightness. These are purposely knitted flimsy in texture so as to economize material and for summer they are quite elegant and serviceable when manufactured in attractive colourings. For winter use they are possessed of a heat-retaining property which would not be expected from their bulk, but to attain the best results they must be worn under a fabric of stronger and more durable construction. The theory of these surprising results is that free interspaces act as so many air chambers which contribute to non-conductivity of heat by the garment. Face veils are usually very flimsy structures, but on account of the "still layer" of air retained in the vicinity of the face the heat is effectively retained just as if a fabric of much heavier construction were employed.
Fig. 3
This property should be fully investigated in a scientific manner in the light of increased cost of raw materials which has now become vital to the manufacturer and his public. In many circles weight of cloth is synonymous with warmth, but experience has shown that this is not the case and that the warmest garments are not always the heaviest. The latest converts to the light-weight article are the clothing departments of the services where, as a result of war experience they have altered many specifications to include fabrics much lighter in weight; formerly no gauge or sett could be too coarse and thick for their requirements, but now the products of all gauges in the equipment of the hosiery manufacturer are utilized. Now the matter is being brought more fully to the notice of the manufacturer on account of the great rise in the price of raw materials when it is essential to extract the utmost farthing of utility from every ounce of material. If we can more fully requisition the services of the "still layer of air" in this regard it will prove an inexpensive medium of clothing.
Knitting Trade Definition.—The meaning of the term hosiery has undergone a great expansion during the past decade and its present meaning is an eloquent testimony to the enormous growth which the trade has recently experienced. Originally the term had reference chiefly to articles of footwear, it was in this regard that the utility of the knitted stitch was first recognized. The feet form a delicately susceptible part of our anatomy and require special care in fabric selection. In walking the muscles and tendons of the foot are in constant action and it is of vital importance to the comfort of the individual that the footwear should be worked in the most suitable fabric. To have footwear in the woven texture is unthinkable if from no other reason than the seams which would be necessary, and to have one of these located at the heel or along the sole of the foot would render the wearer unable to walk in a very short period. There is further the matter of perspiration which occurs so profusely at the pedal extremities, and the knitted texture above all others is adapted to that intimate sort of interaction between skin and fabric which is required for the absorption of perspiration. It laps it up and gives it back again gradually in the form of vapour. In a fabric of less absorbent qualities the article would soon fill with moisture and giving rise to wetness cause considerable discomfort to the wearer. The term hosiery has greatly outgrown its original significance as applied to footwear only and now embraces underwear, articles used for intermediate garments and an increasing range of garments suited for outer wear. There are now very few departments of clothing into which the knitted texture has not penetrated. For outer garments it is not always advisable to employ the knitted texture in its entirety because it obviously does not possess all the properties needed, but great progress has been made in the direction of giving greater stability by a judicious use of the more rigid woven texture at given points. For example, in the knitted vest trade the garment edges are often bound with tapes of woven stuff, whilst the linings are invariably made from these materials. Incidentally the colour of these reinforcing materials is so chosen as to harmonize with the ground so that the whole garment is enhanced in general appearance. Similarly it is found that the plain knitted loop is neither heavy nor close enough to give adequate comfort for an outer garment, which deficiency has been attended to by the hosiery machine builders who have made such improvements on the machines as will enable much more yarn to be inserted in a given space. This increases the sett of the loops and the weight and rigidity of texture, so that fabrics may now be obtained which are almost equal to the woven fabric in resistant properties. Such modifications of fabric structure usually result in a pattern with a prevailing one-sided effect, the wrong side being deficient in appearance and style. The ordinary plain knitted stitch per se has little scope for ornamentation unless special machines are employed and where embellishment is required on a plain garment it often takes the form of added pieces of crochet.
Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7
Crochet Work.—This is particularly useful in the trade for children's garments where many factories employ crochet workers who ornament the edges by crochet patterns worked in the same yarn. For the very tiny articles of this class it is often found uneconomical to employ machines, and in certain districts large numbers of such garments are produced by the hand crochet workers where the greatest freedom of loop selection is possible. The operation of hand crochet is illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7 where the hook is marked H; in Fig. 6 the hook with loop A upon it is about to grip a portion of the new yarn B, and in Fig. 7 this has been drawn through the old loop to add a new one to the chain. In this way one can have on a garment effects which could only be produced by changing to several types of machines, and when articles are small this changing is not economically sound. There are still a considerable number of these crochet workers in various parts of the United Kingdom notably in rural districts of Ireland and in various districts of Scotland and England. Many large firms have a number of such hands attached as an outside staff and they are useful for scrutinizing fashion publications and producing stitches with hand pins which may with good results be adapted to machine-made goods. They have subsidiary departments where customers are supplied with articles of distinctly novel character and for which they are prepared to pay enhanced prices. The freest of all mediums of ornamentation in this class is undoubtedly the crochet, and articles are often ornamented with distinctly elegant results by the use of the crochet hook. By this means yarn same as the ground is employed so as to render it homogeneous and elegance of pattern is due to the fact that the worker can select any point of the fabric for a new move of the pattern. We may have one style being worked at this point and an inch farther up a distinctly different pattern can be evolved. In many rural districts the workers have attained remarkable skill in pattern origination due to their life-long devotion to the handicraft; from the art view-point it is hoped that they will continue to secure such an outlet for their work as will reward their skill and devotion. It is admitted that such products may not hold their own in fierce competition of the open market, but "Man does not live by bread alone," and it is hoped that public taste for such artistic productions may be maintained and developed in contrast to the strictly utilitarian; the aesthetic sense is one which the British as a nation sadly lack.
CHAPTER IIKnitting and Weaving
Compared with the weaving branch of textiles the knitting industry has several outstanding advantages which are now being widely recognized. In weaving it is necessary to have a considerable amount of tackle and supplementary attachments if the fancy pattern trade is to be conducted. The knitted texture is essentially a one-sided composition, but when effects such as lace work, tuck stitches, or coloured styles are introduced these are notable on account of their effectiveness. For any of the machines used in the fancy departments of the knitting trade such as the Jacquard flat knitter, the lace or pearl machines, designs are in every case extremely effective, for minor alterations of the patterning devices produce a result which is at once distinctive and fancy elements show almost their full quota on the face. In the case of woven fabrics the loom and a complicated set of cards and shafts are needed to produce a figure of the most moderate dimensions. Colours in the ordinary twills only show about 50 per cent. of their effectiveness and the surface of the texture remains for the most part uniform. The producer of woven goods has an advantage in that he can make most forms of texture on one loom which he can alter in setting and tackle so as to give any degree of fineness or variety of design. The maker of knitted goods requires a series of entirely different machines in order to produce a full range of patterns and individual machines show but small variation in texture and weight. For any particular type of machine he requires to instal a series varying in the sett or gauge of the needles if a representative range of textures suitable for the changing seasons has to be devised. The average maker of knitted goods has to produce garments ready for the wearer, which renders his task more complicated, for he has to produce garments in full ranges of size and shape, thus combining the functions of fabric and garment producer. This has the advantage of enabling him to establish a more direct relationship with the wearer of his garments and most firms are adopting the policy of going direct to the retail, one which has had a most stimulating effect on the trade. This personal contact with the shopkeeper who places the goods in the hands of the wearer brings the manufacturer into close contact with the trend of public demand.
Hand Knitting.
