Hydrogen Energy E-Book

Lalit Mohan Das

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 878

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

HYDROGEN ENERGY Comprehensive resource exploring integrated hydrogen technology with guidance for developing practical operating systems Hydrogen Energy presents all-inclusive knowledge on hydrogen production and storage to enable readers to design guidelines for its production, storage, and applications, addressing the recent renewed interest in hydrogen energy to manage the global energy crisis and discussing the electrochemical potential of hydrogen in transportation and fuel cells. Written by a highly qualified author, Hydrogen Energy explores sample topics such as: * Essentials of hydrogen energy, such as its occurrence, physico-chemical properties, production, transmission, delivery, storage, and utilization * Technology of hydrogen utilization in the land transport sector, such as automobiles, as well as other modes of transport, like marine and air * Combustion characteristics and environmental pollution features, internal combustion engines, and fuel cells * Guidelines to design prototype systems, covering their safety, hydrogen induced damages and life cycle analysis Providing in-depth coverage of the subject, Hydrogen Energy is an ideal resource for researchers and professionals working towards developing time-bound goal-oriented hydrogen-based programs in the chemical, automobile, power, and process engineering sectors.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgement

List of Figures

Author Biography

1 Overall Energy Perspective

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Energy Overview

1.3 Sun as the Source of All Energy

1.4 Energy Consumption in Transport, Agriculture and Domestic Sectors

1.5 Energy Crisis: Starvation of Fossil Fuels

1.6 Environmental Degradation Due to Fossil Fuel Combustion

1.7 Energy Transition Towards Sustainability

1.8 Role of Hydrogen in Present Energy‐environment Context

1.9 Demand for Hydrogen

1.10 Structure and Phases of Hydrogen

1.11 Discovery and Occurrence of Hydrogen

1.12 Uses of Hydrogen

Concluding Remarks

Abbreviations

References

2 Hydrogen Energy: Properties and Quality

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Properties of Hydrogen

2.3 Physical Properties

2.4 Chemical Properties

2.5 Electro‐conductivity and the Joule–Thomson Effect

2.6 Emissivity of Hydrogen Flame and Adiabatic Flame Temperature

2.7 Laminar Burning Velocity

2.8 Hydrogen–Oxygen Reaction Mechanism

2.9 Hydrogen Colours and Carbon Footprint

2.10 Grey, Blue and Green Hydrogen

2.11 Green Hydrogen

2.12 Benefits of Green Hydrogen

2.13 Obstacles and Challenges to Green Hydrogen

2.14 Cost of Green Hydrogen

Abbreviations

References

3 Production of Hydrogen

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Routes of Hydrogen Production

3.3 Steam Methane Reforming (SMR)

3.4 Partial Oxidation of POx

3.5 Partial Oxidation of Heavy Oils and Naphtha

3.6 Auto‐thermic Reaction (ATR)

3.7 Hydrogen from Coal Gasification

3.8 Underground Coal Gasification

3.9 Hydrogen Production from Biomass

3.10 Biological Production of Hydrogen

3.11 Hydrogen Production Based on Electrolysis

3.12 Hydrogen Production Using Solar Energy

3.13 Solid Oxide Electrolyser

3.14 Seawater Electrolyser

3.15 Hydrogen Generation Using Wind Energy

3.16 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion for Hydrogen Production

3.17 Geothermal Energy for Hydrogen Production

3.18 Hydrogen from H

2

S in Black Sea Waters

3.19 Hydrogen Production Using

Enterobacter cloacae

3.20 Hydrogen Production by Reforming Natural Gas and Bio‐derived Liquids Using a Dense Ceramic Membrane

3.21 Plasma Reforming

3.22 Hydrogen from Nuclear Energy

3.23 Ammonia Dissociation

3.24 Hydrogen from Methane Hydrate

3.25 Improvements in Catalysts for Hydrogen Production

3.26 An Assessment of GWP and AP in Various Hydrogen Production Processes

Abbreviations

References

4 Hydrogen Storage, Transportation, Delivery and Distribution

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Properties of Hydrogen Relevant to Storage

4.3 Hydrogen Storage Criteria for Specific Application

4.4 Storage of Hydrogen as Compressed Gas

4.5 Liquid Hydrogen Storage

4.6 Underground Storage of Hydrogen

4.7 Liquid Hydrogen Storage

4.8 Slush Hydrogen Storage

4.9 Hydrides

4.10 Hydrogen Storage in Zeolites

4.11 Chemical Hydrides

4.12 Nanomaterials for Hydrogen Storage

4.13 Hydrogen Storage in Hollow Microspheres

4.14 Hydrogen Transportation

4.15 Transport of Gaseous Hydrogen

4.16 Liquid Hydrogen

4.17 Hydrogen Dispensing

4.18 Distribution and Delivery

Abbreviations

References

5 Safety, Sensing and Detection of Hydrogen

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Infamous Disasters Related to Hydrogen Safety

5.3 Classification of Hazards

5.4 Physiological Hazards

5.5 Properties Relevant to Hydrogen Safety

5.6 Phenomena of Explosion

5.7 Deflagration and Detonation

5.8 Safety at Different Stages: Production, Transmission, Storage and Application

5.9 Safe Handling, Storage and Use of Hydrogen in Vehicles

5.10 Hydrogen Leak Detection Technique and Sensors

5.11 Hydrogen Embrittlement

Concluding Remarks

Abbreviations

References

6 Application of Hydrogen Energy

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Ammonia Production and Fertiliser Industry

6.3 Production of Methanol

6.4 Hydrogen in Refineries

6.5 Hydrogen Use in Steel Industries

6.6 Hydrogen in Agriculture, Healthcare, Food Industry and Several Other Sectors

6.7 Hydrogen in the Welding, Cement and Paper Industries

6.8 Hydrogen for Electricity Generation

6.9 Hydrogen in ICEs

6.10 ICEs

6.11 Choice of Engine Configuration for Hydrogen Fuelling

6.12 Performance of a Hydrogen‐Operated SI Engine

6.13 Exhaust Emission Characteristics of Hydrogen Engine and NOx Control

6.14 Exhaust Gas Recirculation

6.15 Spark Timing

6.16 Catalytic Methods

6.17 Operation at a High Equivalence Ratio

6.18 Development of Hydrogen Engine (Both SI and CI Engine) Gensets

6.19 Combustion in Hydrogen‐fuelled SI Engines

6.20 Significant Contribution of Laser Ignition to Engine Combustion

6.21 Hydrogen Use in CI Engines

6.22 Use of Hydrogen in the Rotary (Wankel Engine)

6.23 Use of Hydrogen in ICEs with Natural Gas

6.24 Hydrogen in Combination with Other Fuels for ICEs

6.25 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engine (HCCI)

6.26 Hydrogen‐fuelled Vehicles (ICE Based)

6.27 Hydrogen in Fuel Cells

Concluding Remarks

Abbreviations

References

7 Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment, Durability and Material Compatibility

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Life Cycle Analysis

7.3 Technical Review

7.4 Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen Production

7.5 LCA‐based Emissions

7.6 Comparative Assessment of the Hydrogen Production Process

7.7 Climate Target Criteria: Carbon Capture

7.8 Review of Hydrogen Transport Modes and Delivery Methods

7.9 LCA for the Hydrogen Power Generation and Transport Sector

7.10 Analysis of Hydrogen Storage

7.11 Durability Studies Related to Hydrogen Energy Utilisation

7.12 Material Compatibility with Hydrogen Application

7.13 Ductility

Concluding Remarks

Abbreviations

References

8 Hydrogen‐induced Damage (HTHA, Embrittlement and Blistering)

8.1 Introduction

8.2 HTHA, HA and HHA

8.3 High‐temperature Hydrogen Attack

8.4 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Attack

8.5 Hydrogen Embrittlement Phenomenon

8.6 Mechanisms of Embrittlement

8.7 Embrittlement Models

8.8 Sensitivity Criteria for Materials to HE

8.9 Susceptibility of Materials to Hydrogen Embrittlement

8.10 Evaluation and Measurement of HE

8.11 Embrittlement Prevention

8.12 Blistering

Concluding Remarks

Abbreviations

References

9 Path Forward

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Vapour density and liquid density of hydrogen.

Table 2.2 Thermodynamic properties of hydrogen methane and gasoline (general...

Table 2.3 Combustion properties of hydrogen, methane and gasoline (generally...

Table 2.4 HHV (higher heating value) and LHV (lower heating value).

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Hydrogen production: process and raw material.

Table 3.2 Comparison of hydrogen production process.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Types of storage cylinders.

Table 4.2 Density and the energy required by both gaseous and liquid hydroge...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Properties of hydrogen, methane and gasoline.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Mixture formation and modes of fuel induction.

Table 6.2 Properties of hydrogen, CNG and Hythane.

Table 6.3 Comparison of fuel cell technologies [111].

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 % Contribution to global warming potential (GWP).

Table 7.2 Primary and sub‐component analysis.

Table 7.3 Temperature with respect to permeation rate. Adapted from [43].

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Energy conversion chain.

Figure 1.2 Global energy demand by fuel share in two scenarios [2]/IEA/Licen...

Figure 1.3 Demand for energy for sustainable development scenarios 2019 and ...

Figure 1.4 Radiation from Sun and Earth.

Figure 1.5 Solar energy flux of Earth.

Figure 1.6 Energy flow from Earth.

Figure 1.7 Global energy consumption by sector [7]/with permission of Elsevi...

Figure 1.8 Global oil consumption [8]/US Energy Information Administration/P...

Figure 1.9 Phenomenon of global warming.

Figure 1.10 Greenhouse effect.

Figure 1.11 Historical record of CO

2

in concentration in atmosphere [10]/NAS...

Figure 1.12 Atmospheric concentration of CO

2

takes up an increasing trend [9...

Figure 1.13 Atmospheric CH

4

concentration level [9]/World Meteorological Org...

Figure 1.14 Atmospheric N

2

O concentration level [9]/World Meteorological Org...

Figure 1.15 Atmospheric global CFC‐11 emission [11].

Figure 1.16 Formation of photochemical smog.

Figure 1.17 Sulphuric acid and nitric acid formation.

Figure 1.18 Combustion process in an internal combustion engine.

Figure 1.19 Sustainable characteristics of hydrogen energy.

Figure 1.20 Possible widespread production and utilisation potential of hydr...

Figure 1.21 An integrated hydrogen energy system.

Figure 1.22 Methods of hydrogen production.

Figure 1.23 Demand for hydrogen [14]/IEA/Licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Figure 1.24 Transition to hydrogen economy.

Figure 1.25 Hydrogen isotopes.

Figure 1.26 Phase diagram of hydrogen.

Figure 1.27 Hydrogen in a wide spectrum of energy‐consuming sectors.

Figure 1.28 Hydrogen‐operated balloon.

Figure 1.29 Global use of hydrogen and hydrogen‐based fuel: net‐zero emissio...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Pathways to hydrogen economy from production to application.

Figure 2.2 Hydrogen element.

Figure 2.3 Hydrogen's energy on a mass and a volume basis compared to other ...

Figure 2.4 Volumetric energy density and gravimetric energy density of hydro...

Figure 2.5 Expansion ratio of hydrogen (liquid to gas).

Figure 2.6 Comparative depiction of utilisation efficiency of hydrogen and n...

Figure 2.7 Chemical structures of some common fuels.

Figure 2.8 Energy states illustrating a chemical reaction.

Figure 2.9 Flammability limit of hydrogen with other fuels.

Figure 2.10 Variation in temperature with the flammability limit of hydrogen...

Figure 2.11 Minimum ignition energy for hydrogen and methane, and propane an...

Figure 2.12 Flashpoint of hydrogen along with other fuels, such as methane, ...

Figure 2.13 Auto‐ignition temperature of hydrogen, methane, propane and gaso...

Figure 2.14 Adiabatic flame temperature of hydrogen and several other fuels....

Figure 2.15 Laminar burning velocity as a function of excess air.

Figure 2.16 Explosion limit of a hydrogen–oxygen system.

Figure 2.17 Hydrogen colour spectrum.

Figure 2.18 Hydrogen colour spectrum (source and route of production).

Figure 2.19 Different colours of hydrogen production with carbon capture and...

Figure 2.20 Greenhouse gas footprint for per unit of heat energy [6]/John Wi...

Figure 2.21 Pathways of green hydrogen production and utilisation(a) And...

Figure 2.22 Routes and areas of utilisation of hydrogen.

Source:

Bloomberg...

Figure 2.23 Carbon footprints of various hydrogen colours [13]/MDPI/CC BY 4....

Figure 2.24 Emission intensity of hydrogen production through various proces...

Figure 2.25 Growing trend of green hydrogen demand.

Figure 2.26 Cost of green hydrogen over a period of time.

Figure 2.27 Building up of green hydrogen market [18]/Hydrogen Council.

Figure 2.28 Situation leading to a lower hydrogen production cost by 80% [19...

Figure 2.29 Trade‐offs between efficiency, durability and cost of electrolys...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Hydrogen production from several sources through various routes....

Figure 3.2 Global hydrogen production.

Figure 3.3 Global annual demand for hydrogen by application [4]/IEA/Licensed...

Figure 3.4 Global hydrogen production for sustainable development.

Figure 3.5 Global hydrogen use for sustainable development [5]/IEA/Licensed ...

Figure 3.6 Global hydrogen production by different methods and processes.

Figure 3.7 Hydrogen production from natural gas [7]/US Department of Energy/...

Figure 3.8 Steam reforming in two‐step water shifts as reactors.

Figure 3.9 Methanol reforming for hydrogen production [15]/with permission o...

Figure 3.10 Partial oxidation process of hydrogen production.

Figure 3.11 Auto‐thermal reformer process for hydrogen production.

Figure 3.12 Range of operation for fuel processors for hydrogen production....

Figure 3.13 Schematic diagram of the gasification process. Adapted from [24]...

Figure 3.14 Underground gasification.

Figure 3.15 Thermochemical conversion of biomass for hydrogen production [15...

Figure 3.16 Hydrogen production by biomass gasification.

Figure 3.17 Stages of SWGB.

Figure 3.18 Biological routes of hydrogen production.

Figure 3.19 Photobiological hydrogen production.

Figure 3.20 Photo‐fermentation process.

Figure 3.21 Energy chain efficiency of sources to hydrogen fuel [52]/Europea...

Figure 3.22 Electrolysis of water.

Figure 3.23 Schematic diagram of on‐site electrolysis.

Figure 3.24 Principle of photolysis.

Figure 3.25 Hydrogen production through solar panels.

Figure 3.26 Solar thermal paths for hydrogen production.

Figure 3.27 Process of photolysis.

Figure 3.28 Wind‐energy‐based hydrogen production unit.

Figure 3.29 Hydrogen production through geothermal energy [82]/with permissi...

Figure 3.30 Nuclear and renewable energy coupled to a smart grid [103]/with ...

Figure 3.31 Nuclear‐assisted hydrogen solar hydrogen generation [103]/with p...

Figure 3.32 Nuclear‐assisted wind–hydrogen generation.

Figure 3.33 Integrated hydro‐solar energy system for hydrogen production: Cu...

Figure 3.34 Nuclear‐assisted geothermal‐hydrogen production with the Cu–Cl c...

Figure 3.35 Nuclear‐assisted biomass‐hydrogen production with the Cu–Cl cycl...

Figure 3.36 Centralised NH

3

dissociation for H

2

production [104]/with permis...

Figure 3.37 Major components of the parts of the system showing hydrogen fro...

Figure 3.38 AP and GWP for hydrogen production processes from non‐renewable ...

Figure 3.39 AP and GWP of different hydrogen production processes from renew...

Figure 3.40 Overall comparability of GWP and AP of different hydrogen produc...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Hydrogen pathway system.

Figure 4.2 Mass‐based storage density of hydrogen and other fuels.

Figure 4.3 Volume‐based storage density of different fuels.

Figure 4.4 Hydrogen storage for stationary and mobile applications.

Figure 4.5 Energy density of hydrogen and other conventional and prospective...

Figure 4.6 Storage modes of compressed hydrogen gas.

Figure 4.7 A typical hydrogen cylinder

Figure 4.8 TPRD: thermal pressure relief device.

Figure 4.9 Transfer losses and boil‐off losses over the entire LH

2

pathway...

Figure 4.10 Features of a flat steel ribbon wound cylinder.

Figure 4.11 Underground coal gasification.

Figure 4.12 A liquefied hydrogen tank.

Figure 4.13 Variation of energy density of gaseous and liquid hydrogen [31]/...

Figure 4.14 Density and refrigerant heat capacity of slush hydrogen

Figure 4.15 Metal hydride formation during hydrogen absorption.

Figure 4.16 Hydrogen gas release during the dehydrogenation of metal hydride...

Figure 4.17 Charging and discharging.

Figure 4.18 Volume and weight comparison of hydrogen storage in vehicles in ...

Figure 4.19 Structure of a typical metal hydride.

Figure 4.20 Borophene and boron fullerene for hydrogen storage [59]/John Wil...

Figure 4.21 Hydrogen‐filled hollow gas microsphere.

Figure 4.22 Glass microsphere for hydrogen storage.

Figure 4.23 Tube trailer carrying hydrogen [63], US Department of Energy htt...

Figure 4.24 Hydrogen transfer from the production plant to the refuelling st...

Figure 4.25 Gaseous hydrogen and liquid hydrogen transportation modes from p...

Figure 4.26 Hydrogen gas dispensing (a) and liquid hydrogen dispensing (b)....

Figure 4.27 An integrated gaseous hydrogen refuelling station [64]/with perm...

Figure 4.28 Hydrogen dispensing facility overview [65]/US Department of Ener...

Figure 4.29 Gaseous delivery pathway [66]/US Department of Energy/Public Dom...

Figure 4.30 Liquid delivery pathways [66]/US Department of Energy/Public Dom...

Figure 4.31 Carrier delivery pathway [66]/US Department of Energy/Public Dom...

Figure 4.32 Tube trailer used for the gaseous fuel distribution [67]/MDPI/CC...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Hindenburg disaster.

Figure 5.2 Schematic explosions from a hydrogen bomb.

Figure 5.3 Density of hydrogen.

Figure 5.4 Diffusion coefficient.

Figure 5.5 Colourant added to have visible hydrogen flame (http://www.unit.a...

Figure 5.6 Quenching volumetric flow rate [28] Sunderland, PB (2010)/with pe...

Figure 5.7 Quenching mass flow rate limit [23]/with permission of Elsevier....

Figure 5.8 Minimum ignition energy of hydrogen and other fuels.

Figure 5.9 Effect of hydrogen concentration on the laminar burning velocity....

Figure 5.10 Flammability range of hydrogen and other fuels.

Figure 5.11 The boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) showing th...

Figure 5.12 Detonability range.

Figure 5.13 Hydrogen square (HydS): four‐corner model [45] / With permission...

Figure 5.14 Effect of hydrogen fire and gasoline fire [13], Swain, 2001/US D...

Figure 5.15 Test gas generation system contamination levels for HCD validati...

Figure 5.16 Optical‐based hydrogen sensors: (a) interferometric‐based sensor...

Figure 5.17 Basic circuit of a catalytic sensor: D, detector element; C, com...

Figure 5.18 Interdigital transducer.

Figure 5.19 Work‐function‐based sensor.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Production routes of hydrogen and its areas of demand [1]/KeAi.

Figure 6.2 Global hydrogen demand by sectors.

Figure 6.3 Hydrocracking process.

Figure 6.4 Final transport energy demand [13]/MDPI/CC BY 4.0.

Figure 6.5 Global CO

2

emissions from transport by subsector, 2000–2030 [14]/...

Figure 6.6 Pre‐ignition in a hydrogen engine.

Figure 6.7 Backfire in hydrogen engines.

Figure 6.8 Optimum injection strategy for a hydrogen engine.

Figure 6.9 Minimum ignition energy of hydrogen and methane.

Figure 6.10 Flammability range of hydrogen compared to other fuels.

Figure 6.11 Range of equivalence ratio for stable combustion in engines.

Figure 6.12 Hydraulically operated injection system.

Figure 6.13 Cam‐actuated injection system.

Figure 6.14 Electronically controlled solenoid‐actuated injection system.

Figure 6.15 Hydrogen engine experimental setup in the laboratory.

Figure 6.16 Brake thermal efficiency at various compression ratios.

Figure 6.17 Variation of BMEP with equivalence ratio at different compressio...

Figure 6.18 Brake mean effective pressure at various compression ratios.

Figure 6.19 Power developed in an engine with hydrogen and gasoline.

Figure 6.20 HC emission from an engine with hydrogen and gasoline operation....

Figure 6.21 NOx emission from hydrogen engines.

Figure 6.22 NOx emission with respect to equivalence ratio.

Figure 6.23 Effect of EGR on NOx emissions with varying spark timing (engine...

Figure 6.24 Variation of brake torque and NOx emissions with engine speed at...

Figure 6.25 Variation of NOx emissions with engine speed under the influence...

Figure 6.26 Variation of exhaust gas composition (unburnt H

2

, O

2

and N

2

) wit...

Figure 6.27 Variation in NOx emissions using EGR and aftertreatment (AT) cat...

Figure 6.28 Variation of engine‐out and tailpipe NOx emissions with equivale...

Figure 6.29 Variation in NOx conversion efficiency of the aftertreatment dev...

Figure 6.30 Comparison of brake torque generated under optimised and lean co...

Figure 6.31 Comparison of NOx emissions under lean and optimised conditions ...

Figure 6.32 Hydrogen‐operated spark ignition engine genset.

Figure 6.33 Hydrogen‐fuelled CI engine genset.

Figure 6.34 Pressure–crank‐angle diagram of a hydrogen engine obtained from ...

Figure 6.35 Technological assembly concerning key challenges [56], Onorati e...

Figure 6.36 Timescales of processes involved in laser‐induced ignition (box ...

Figure 6.37 Laser spark plug [62], Agarwal et al. (2017)/with permission fro...

Figure 6.38 Schematic of a hydrogen‐fuelled laser‐ignited single‐cylinder en...

Figure 6.39 Variations in

P

and HRR with crank angle position for laser igni...

Figure 6.40 Variations in BTE and

λ

with BMEP for laser ignition of hyd...

Figure 6.41 Variations in (a) mass emissions (g kwh

−1

) and (b) raw emi...

Figure 6.42 Test rig with diluents for hydrogen–diesel engine operation.

Figure 6.43 Hydrogen‐supplemented diesel engine operating at 1500 rpm.

Figure 6.44 Effect of diluents on optimum performance parameters.

Figure 6.45 Thermal efficiency and power with and without diluents.

Figure 6.46 Schematic diagram of a Hythane‐operating system.

Figure 6.47 HCNG engine test bed.

Figure 6.48 Evaluation of the fuel consumption rate.

Figure 6.49 HC, CO and NOx emissions from the HCNG‐fuelled engine.

Figure 6.50 Cylinder head deposits [85], Reji, 2012/Indian Institute of Tech...

Figure 6.51 Deposits on the spark plugs [85], Reji, 2012/Indian Institute of...

Figure 6.52 Effect on cylinder bore by CNG and HCNG fuelling [85], Reji, 201...

Figure 6.53 Hydrogen and ethanol supplied to the engine.

Figure 6.54 Test rig with LPG and hydrogen along with diesel [94]/Yildiz Tec...

Figure 6.55 Brake thermal efficiency with various fuel blends [94]/Yildiz Te...

Figure 6.56 NOx emission with various ranges of blended fuel operation [94]/...

Figure 6.57 Smoke emission from the engine blended with LPG and hydrogen [94...

Figure 6.58 Comparison of diesel (CI) and hydrogen HCCI modes: brake thermal...

Figure 6.59 BMW cars fuelled with hydrogen. (a)(b)

Figure 6.60 Hydrogen‐fuel‐dispensing station.

Figure 6.61 Bank of hydrogen gas cylinders.

Figure 6.62 NOx emissions from gasoline‐ and hydrogen‐operated vehicles.

Figure 6.63 Hydrogen‐powered three‐wheeler for passengers.

Figure 6.64 Hydrogen‐operated three‐wheelers for cargo.

Figure 6.65 Hydrogen‐fuelled mini bus.

Figure 6.66 Schematic of a typical acid electrolyte fuel cell.

Figure 6.67 Membranes for middle‐ and high‐temperature polymer electrolyte m...

Figure 6.68 Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) with mobile electrolyte and supported...

Figure 6.69 Schematic of a phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) unit.

Figure 6.70 Schematic of an MCFC illustrating its operational principle.

Figure 6.71 PEM fuel cell.

Figure 6.72 DFMC fuel cell.

Figure 6.73 Solid oxide fuel cell.

Figure 6.74 Number of fuel cell vehicles (worldwide).

Figure 6.75 Increasing number of worldwide hydrogen refuelling stations.

Figure 6.76 Block diagram of a fuel cell vehicle.

Figure 6.77 Schematic of the SWOT analysis.

Figure 6.78 Factors relevant to the SWOT analysis of hydrogen and fuel cell ...

Figure 6.79 Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) adopted for the gas turbine [125...

Figure 6.80 Electricity generation system from seawater [131]/with permissio...

Figure 6.81 Hydrogen‐powered submarines.

Figure 6.82 Hydrogen‐powered boats.

Figure 6.83 Catalytic burner.

Figure 6.84 Catalytic hydrogen as a diffusion burner.

Figure 6.85 A typical hydrogen stove.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 An overview of life cycle analysis with different phases [1]/HyTe...

Figure 7.2 Stages of a life cycle process.

Figure 7.3 Main steps and applications of life cycle assessment.

Figure 7.4 Flows of information needed for a life cycle inventory [7]/UNEP....

Figure 7.5 Elements of the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase, Intern...

Figure 7.6 Framework of midpoint and endpoint indicators for LCA.

Figure 7.7 Schematic diagram of a harmonised hydrogen energy system [14]/wit...

Figure 7.8 Harmonised studies on production routes for hydrogen [15]/with pe...

Figure 7.9 Life cycle global warming potential [18]/US Department of Energy/...

Figure 7.10 Global warming potential of various methods of hydrogen producti...

Figure 7.11 Share of GWP in wind electrolysis [19]/with permission of Elsevi...

Figure 7.12 Values of GWP in various hydrogen production technologies.

Figure 7.13 Wind electrolysis for liquid and gaseous hydrogen pathways.

Figure 7.14 Average AP values in various hydrogen production technologies [1...

Figure 7.15 Relationship between GWP and acidification potential [14]/with p...

Figure 7.16 Process of eutrophication.

Figure 7.17 Three major routes of hydrogen production.

Figure 7.18 Sequence of hydrogen production by steam methane reforming [24]/...

Figure 7.19 Hydrogen production from electrolysis [24]/International Council...

Figure 7.20 Stages of gasification of coal or biomass for hydrogen productio...

Figure 7.21 System–boundary diagram with the truck pathway and the pipeline ...

Figure 7.22 LCA‐based emission (CO

2e

) across different hydrogen production a...

Figure 7.23 LCA‐based VOC and NOx across different hydrogen production and d...

Figure 7.24 LCA‐based PM2.5 across different hydrogen production and deliver...

Figure 7.25 Stages for the fuel cycle and the vehicle cycle in sequence.

Figure 7.26 On‐board H

2

storage contribution to vehicle manufacturing cycle ...

Figure 7.27 Total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the production and com...

Figure 7.28 Emissions of PM less than 2.5 μm in...

Figure 7.29 Emissions of PM between 2.5 and 10 μm...

Figure 7.30 Emissions of non‐methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) from...

Figure 7.31 Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from the production and combu...

Figure 7.32 Emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO

2

) from the production and combu...

Figure 7.33 Life cycle GHG emissions from an FC vehicle using hydrogen from ...

Figure 7.34 Hydrogen‐fuelled racing car [47].

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Migration of hydrogen to the tip of the crack.

Figure 8.2 Embrittlement index with different parameters.

Figure 8.3 HEDE mechanism in gaseous hydrogen.

Figure 8.4 AIDE mechanism showing crack growth.

Figure 8.5 Hydride‐induced embrittlement.

Figure 8.6 Effects of embrittlement on a hydrogen transport vessel in 1980 [...

Figure 8.7 Hydrogen cylinder bursts: intergranular crack [60]...

Figure 8.8 Devastating effect of embrittlement on a welded steel pressure ve...

Figure 8.9 Hydrogen blistering and embrittlement.

Figure 8.10 Blistering effect showing the feature of the blister [85] Elsevi...

Figure 8.11 Blister morphology of recrystallised and cold deformed ultra‐low...

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

List of Figures

Author Biography

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Hydrogen Energy

Production, Safety, Storage and Applications

L. M. Das

This edition first published 2024

© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

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This book is dedicated to my dear wife Bithika Das – my eternal life partner, my love and the fount of my unstinted inspiration—whose unwavering belief in my abilities and incessant words of encouragement spurred me to write this book. Though no longer with me, her words remain forever indelibly etched in my memory steering me through every step of my life.

Preface

First, a disclosure and a confession. It may even sound ironic, stemming from my childhood. Mutually conflicting images of hydrogen had, somehow or other, been treasured in my mind since childhood – for decades. As a child, when I heard about the hydrogen bomb (without an iota of knowledge of the thermonuclear reaction), I conceived a very devastating image of hydrogen in my mind. The horrifying image stayed in my head for years until I learned in high school that hydrogen could be obtained from water. That was a relief; it soothed my mind. I convinced myself that something derived from as common a substance as water cannot be that malicious and destructive. This self‐conviction triggered my enthusiasm to study further. On and on it has continued, pulling me into a world that far from threatening seemed a distinct boon for mankind and the Planet Earth. At a later stage when I read more and more and started working on hydrogen energy, I learned through my progressive research that many of its unique distinctive characteristics could immensely benefit mankind if only the lab knowledge/experiments could be translated into everyday life reality and practice. It is my privilege to share with readers my thoughts and experience from the little I have learnt from my academic pursuits and research on hydrogen energy.

Hydrogen is currently viewed from two perspectives: the proponents emphasising its ability to solve energy–environment challenges and the opponents emphasising its explosive properties, backfires, hydrogen bombs and Hindenburg. Safety‐related issues have been more prominent in common minds. As the cliché suggests: ‘A known devil is better than an unknown angel’. In fact, enormous benefits emerge from hydrogen in terms of efficiency and low emission features, if some of its temperamental combustion characteristics are properly handled. However, mishandling of the same properties can result in disasters if they are not handled correctly. Chapters 2 and 5 attempt to discuss these aspects.

Rapid shift to energy transition and strategies for its implementation with an integrated hydrogen technology have been formulated in several countries. Hydrogen has accelerated its penetration worldwide. Thirty‐two countries and the European Union, at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (Conference of Parties [COP26]) were unanimous in their view to work together for the development of clean hydrogen to ensure that ‘affordable renewable and low‐carbon hydrogen is globally available by 2030’ (UNFCCC, 2021). At the 27th annual United Nations Conference on Climate Change (COP27) in 2022, green hydrogen was a massive push. There was plenty of discussion about ‘how communities can benefit from local green hydrogen value chain’. Now greater focus is on green hydrogen as that can help achieve zero emissions. Global concern for energy security coupled with climate change has been the major driver towards focusing on renewable hydrogen energy and its role towards decarbonisation of so‐called hard‐to‐abate sectors. Several stringent measures are being taken to prevent global warming, greenhouse gas emissions and achieve net‐zero emissions by 2050. Research and development activities in many parts of the world have initiated efforts and programmes for hydrogen’s rapid penetration into numerous energy sectors including power distribution, road, water and air transportation as well as for domestic applications. Economic viability of an adequate amount of green hydrogen is a concern.

It is likely that some feasible solutions will come out soon since several countries have initiated projects with time‐bound goals. Material for use in hydrogen applications, safe storage and delivery at the point of use are improving. IC‐engine‐based hydrogen‐fuelled cars, buses and three‐wheelers have already been designed and tested for road transport. A number of hydrogen‐powered trains have been operating on railway tracks. Hydrogen‐fuelling stations have been built in many countries. Boeing and Airbus are developing passenger planes that are hydrogen fuel compliant. An array of fuel cells has been designed and is being used in the transport and power sectors across various countries. Hydrogen is also used for heating homes. Sets for distributed power generation, irrigation pump sets, lawn mowers and stoves for domestic use, too, have been developed.

This book aims at providing information on a relatively wide range of topics on hydrogen energy technology, aimed at the needs of a broad spectrum of readers. Special attention has been paid to defining the overall energy transition to total hydrogen energy. An integrated hydrogen energy system consists of a wide range of topics such as production, transfer, storage and delivery, safety, combustion, emissions, life cycle analysis and application in a variety of energy sectors. Separate independent books with more elaborate descriptions can be written on each of these aspects.

Mine is a modest effort to provide information to students, researchers and professionals in academia and industry (updated and referenced, up until early‐2023), in a manner such that students of different disciplines with an interest in hydrogen energy would get basic information to read further. For an advanced reader, it is aimed at providing background knowledge of the subject and triggering ideas for further study and research in their own narrow specialised and niche areas of interest. Recently, several chemical industries, automobile companies, oil companies and power corporations around the world have developed hydrogen‐based programs. I hope this book will also be useful for professionals in these industries. A caveat though would be in order: in a rapidly changing field of hydrogen energy where advancements are being made literally daily, technical information needs to be updated regularly by both researchers and stakeholders alike to bring them up to speed and help leverage the advancements made by all interested parties.

Windsor, Ontario,Canada

Dr. L. M. DasFormer Professor and Emeritus Professor

Centre for Energy Studies

Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi,

New Delhi, India

Acknowledgement

It would be unfair to limit my gratitude to only those who have had a significant impact on me during the writing of this book. My four‐decade journey to unravel hydrogen energy potential has been steered by countless individuals—in the classroom, research laboratories and industries or stages of national and international conferences. I have derived immense benefits from these invaluable interactions.

I take pleasure in extending my gratitude to Professor T N Veziroglu, the Founding President of the International Association of Hydrogen Energy, who also serves as the Founding Editor‐in‐Chief of the International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. My first meeting with him in 1982 followed by a series of subsequent personal meetings and discussions has significantly influenced and inspired me to strengthen my research pursuits in the area hydrogen energy. Furthermore, I am indebted to my doctoral thesis advisor, Prof. H. B. Mathur at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi, for his guidance and encouragement. His unwavering support ignited my zeal to delve into the study of hydrogen energy. Mr G P Singh and Mr Attar Singh, both from IIT, Delhi, offered invaluable expertise and assistance in effectively managing the complexities of hydrogen in laboratory setting.

Over the course of the ensuing four decades, continuous learning and progress have marked my journey. This journey has not only advanced my understanding but also has helped me in erasing from my mind the undeserved stigma attached to hydrogen as an unsafe fuel. I wish to express my sincere thanks to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) of Government of India and the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO). Their sponsorship on projects centred on hydrogen utilisation in engines and vehicles has been instrumental in driving this research forward.

My interactions, either in personal meetings or through correspondence with some of the esteemed international researchers on hydrogen energy like Prof Wm. D. Van Vorst, Prof P. C. T. De Boer, Dr. W. J. McLean, Prof M. R. Swain, Prof G. A. Karim, Mr. Frank Lynch, Mr. C. A. Mac Carley, Prof Roger Sierens, Dr. Giuseppe Spazzafumo, Prof K. S. Varde, Prof C. J. Winter, Mr. J. J. Fagelson, Prof Makato Ikegami, Prof S. Furuhama at different phases of my professional career have proven invaluable. They have kept alive in me the passion for continued research on this emerging area of technology.

My list of inspirational people would be incomplete without acknowledging the contribution of some individuals whose combined efforts has smoothened out the wrinkles and bumps and brought the book to its present shape. These include Sudhansu Mohanty‐my wife Bithika's younger brother, my son‐in‐law Himanshu Bhankar and my daughter Ishani Das.Sudhansu meticulously edited and rephrased text throughout all chapters of the book to enhance its readability. Both Himanshu and Ishani provided invaluable technical reference materials and data. They precisely refined the graphs and upgraded the resolution of several figures, visibly enhancing the quality of the book's contents. The credit for the front cover, which depicts hydrogen energy's versatility, goes to both Himanshu and Ishani, not me. Special thanks to Dr. Divesh Bhatia, Dr. Pradeepta Sahoo, Dr. M. R. Nouni, Dr. Avinash Agarwal, and Dr. Saket Verma for their invaluable and diverse input in refining the text materials.

I want to extend my heartfelt appreciation to all the Wiley executives who I have had the privilege of interacting with on numerous occasions. From the moment I submitted the initial book proposal to its evolution into the present form, I have been genuinely thankful for their consistent courtesy, patience and prompt responsiveness to all inquiries.

If unintentionally I have missed the names of some who inspired me throughout this journey – either with their words of encouragement, technical guidance or emotional support, I want to convey my profound gratitude – more than that can be expressed within the confines of this acknowledgement page.

Now to the ultimate people for whom this book was written —you, my dear readers—for your time and interest in this book. You are the ultimate judge and I must confess I greatly value your input. I shall feel gratified if my humble endeavour has helped you appreciate the theme and character of discussion in the book. I will consider it a source of genuine satisfaction if the book has been as beneficial to you as it has been a delight for me writing it.