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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
Modern science is at a tipping point. A new page in the history of knowledge opens with the “information paradigm”, a notion which is gradually supplanting the old mechanistic vision inherited from Galileo and Newton.
The author presents an overview of the place of information and communications in our time, explaining some reasons for focusing on these two notions. All areas of knowledge are concerned: philosophy, social sciences, biology, medicine, as well as physics, the so-called “queen of sciences”, from quantum to cosmos.
This book is intended for scientific scholars as well as those with just a general interest who are anxious to understand the major evolutions that are taking shape in fields of knowledge in the 21st Century.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title
Copyright
Foreword
Introduction
1 A Presentation of the Paradigm of Information in the 21st Century
1.1. After technology, the philosophy of information
1.2. CRISPR-Cas9: from mechanism to information in biology
1.3. Toward a theory of the information act
2 Communication Influences the “Mechanisms” of the Living World and Society
2.1. Philosophical approach to cancer through information and immunity
2.2. Fanaticism and fantasies, a “pathology” of information and its interpretation
2.3. Scientific communication and modernism in contemporary societies
3 Form, Information and Content
3.1. Form and content, an old story that still affects our existences
3.2. Ontology of form and content
3.3. Brief remarks about a type of philosophical and scientific research
3.4. Ontology of form and Content, ending the issue of machines before machines end us
3.5. The ontological difference and the path toward Being
3.6. The three colors of Being and modernist perdition
3.7. Brief notes on the oblivion of Content as ontological difference revealed by decline
4 Mass, Charge, Gravity and Rays: Distinguishing Between the Two Kinds of Universal Physics
4.1. Masses, arrangement and mechanics
4.2. Electric charge, spin and dynamics of information
4.3. Light-like and time-like geodesics in relativistic cosmology
4.4. Overview of the dynamics of arrangement and information
4.5. Einstein and the question of the field in physics
4.6. The cosmological alternative in the 21st Century
5 From Objects to Fields, Reinterpreted Contemporary Physics and the Path Toward Quantum Gravity
5.1. Fields, arrangements, communications
5.2. Einstein’s treatment of the hole argument
5.3. Quantum gravity, the greatest scientific challenge of the 21st Century
5.4. Do gauges reveal the secrets of the universe?
5.5. The universe as stage and theater of animated objects
5.6. Rethinking matter: a summary first glance
5.7. A second summary view of a universal type of physics: mass, charge, spin, photon
6 Physics in the 21st Century in Relation to Information and Arrangements
6.1. Action and information, digressions about philosophy and contemporary physics
6.2. Seeing, perceiving, receiving: Leibniz and Newton
6.3. Postmodern philosophy of nature and the meaning of existence
6.4. A universal outline, from quanta to the cosmos, information and arrangement
6.5. Time and stage: from quanta to the universe
6.6. Information, memory and order
6.7. Some connections between science and the metaphysics of philosophers
6.8. A new paradigm, information in communication, arrangement and transformation
6.9. Overview: from quanta to the gravity-quantum apparatus and the universal stage
Conclusion: Logos, Communication, and Communion
Postface: A Step Towards Understanding Emergences and Morphogenetic Processes
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
6 Physics in the 21st Century in Relation to Information and Arrangements
Figure 6.1. A universal outline
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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Engineering, Energy and Architecture Set
coordinated by
Lazaros E. Mavromatidis
Volume 1
Information and the World Stage
From Philosophy to Science, the World of Forms and Communications
Bernard Dugué
First published 2017 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd
27-37 St George’s Road
London SW19 4EU
UK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030
USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2017
The rights of Bernard Dugué to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017942276
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-138-3
Introduction
Prolegomena for a future science
This modest essay, conceived as prolegomena, prefigures the development of new knowledge emerging in this crisis-torn period, the 21st Century. A new dawn seems to be around the corner, or at least we hope so, if we can still keep this hope alive. We are in the middle of a transition, and we are certain that an era is coming to an end. It is the modern era, after four centuries, that has reached its final stage, with its last material achievements, technological fiction and stalemates.
This essay aims to intervene transversally in order to find a way out of the dead end of knowledge by outlining some of the features of a future paradigm. The target is a break with modernity, similar to how modernity represented a break after the medieval period with its accomplished scholasticism. The new paradigm revolves around information. It involves both the understanding of societies and of the living world, as well as physical sciences. Modernity began with Galileo and Newton. Postmodernity is slowly approaching and will see the emergence of a new scientific way of conceiving things, implying a reinterpretation of current physics, with its dazzling successes as well as its stalemates.
No one understands quantum physics. Quantum gravity has reached an impasse while the arrow of time remains an enigma. However, physics is revealing things about the universe, matter and extension. It is this revelation that I intend to look for in the last chapters, starting by considering mass and charge. This line of thinking will lead us to interpret quantum physics and relativities by bringing about the theory of two kinds of physics, one focusing on arrangements and the other on communication. A physical corpus including at least six branches, rather than the usual three, is taking shape, as each type of physics resulting from modernity is split into two complementary parts, with a mechanics-arrangement component and an information-communication aspect.
First, we will define the philosophical issues that concern us by questioning technology, action, the age of machines, and then the transition towards a civilization of “inopportune communication”. A foray into biology will make us aware of a “slight shift” in the issue of information with discoveries about the “mechanics” of immunity and information at play between bacteria and viruses. Information can also be found in history, as is shown by an essay on the image act, which will be analyzed to confirm the key role of communication and “influential information”. In the following chapter, we will mention two “pathological” processes related to communication: cancer in the body and fanaticism in societies. Communication also determines a type of society, as we can remark based on some works by Habermas, a philosopher. Therefore, the central axis of a future philosophy, with the ontological difference between form and content as one of its defining principles, is gradually taking shape. This vast program will be presented in Chapter 3.
In summary, this essay, presented as prolegomena, sets out three central themes whose goal is not to give answers but to open new avenues of thought and research. The first part emphasizes the historical transition that leads from the era of machines, mechanics and technologies to the age of information, calculation and communication. Every type of knowledge is concerned with the “philosophy of information”. The second part focuses on the “shortcomings” of communication (men in society or cancer cells), which lead us to conceive the world in a post-Heideggerian way, where the ontological difference between form and content is the central theory. This universal theory will be applied to physics. Then, three chapters are dedicated to the description of some key developments in a science that is distancing itself from mechanics, while also emphasizing communication and “natural” information, from quanta to cosmos. The third part is the most important: it clearly distinguishes between two types of physics, one focused on the arrangements of “Matter” and the other on the communication processes of this “Matter” itself. These two kinds of physics allow us to introduce the notion of universal stage. The issue of time is structured on the understanding of the stage. This new interpretation of physics is coupled with an original philosophy of nature.
Classical physics has been organized around “particles” and “fields”. Postmodern and post-relativity physics will pivot around the notions of the actor’s stage and communication. A new union with nature and the cosmos will represent our target. Information organized with its echoes allows beings to communicate.
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank Lazaros Mavromatidis for the interest he has shown in my works and for giving me the opportunity to publish this essay.
1A Presentation of the Paradigm of Information in the 21st Century
Ever since the birth of philosophy, scholars have been working out fundamental problems and attempting to provide insight into things, man and their relationships. Science has not changed. Although some aspects of science (mainly specialized) drive us away from philosophy, a substantial part of it draws us closer to it. The accumulation of contemporary scientific results requires us to think about the scheme of things in our existence, all the more so as the emerging vision of nature is quite clearly facing a turning point. Information is becoming more and more central in relation to all kinds of knowledge. This is what this first chapter, which will lead us from technology and philosophy to biology and sociology on the basis of the notion of information as well as communication, aims to make clear.
1.1. After technology, the philosophy of information
1.1.1.Information, issues and paradigms of the 21st Century
Every age adopts a certain worldview, to use Heidegger’s language, or a set of paradigms. In this case, we are in line with an epistemological perspective delineated by Kuhn. Some paradigms cover several fields. This was the case for the mechanistic paradigm, which brought together physical and biological sciences in the modern age. The 1970s saw an even broader paradigm, covering physics, biology, sociology and politics take shape. These were the years of the systems theory. The thinkers of “globality” became quite well known. Prigogine and his new alliance, Edgar Morin and his method, or Varela and autopoiesis are only some examples. These scientists gathered for a famous symposium held in Cerisy in 1981, namely a kind of scientific council supposed to provide a universal doctrine based on self-organization, which, however, failed [DUP 83].
Since 1980, scientific subjects have made progress, with some notable developments in the 1990s, but overall the key issues have remained unsolved and scientific debates are still stuck on the same concepts that have determined the traditional controversies of the last decades. However, a new paradigm has been taking shape over the last few years. It bases reflections on Information and this time with universal Information in mind, as Information is not only the social issue of the 21st Century but also the central scientific and philosophical question that brings together quantum physics, statistical physics, cosmology, chemistry, biology and all the humanities. This paradigm revolves around some notions: information, communication, arrangement, Time, disorder, order and, without any doubt, the issue of Being.
The paradigm of self-organization was, on the one hand, in line with mechanistic philosophy and, on the other hand, relied on the theory of dissipative systems developed by Prigogine, as well as on the system theories elaborated since the 1950s. The paradigm of Information concerns all the branches of physics and plays a prominent role in quantum dynamics as well as cosmology, interpreting Gravity as the uncovering of an informational order in the universe. The great journey toward the universe of Information has begun, but it is facing a major turning point at the start of the 21st Century. All of science will be disrupted, without taking into consideration philosophy and theology.
Nothing can illustrate this paradigm shift more effectively than a reference to the cultural facts related to technological progress. The 18th Century was defined by the figure of the great watchmaker situated outside of the human sphere, whereas, here on earth, people were fascinated by automata, simulacra supposed to represent life entering matter. Automata seem alive, as they are animated, just like animals. The hallmark of the 21st Century is the great computer, which organizes information in the universe. However, here on earth, people are fascinated by robots, which, as we should point out, incorporate an information-processing system unlike the purely mechanical automata of the Enlightenment. Moreover, computers have become simulacra supposed to embody awareness, just as automata represented life. As we can clearly see, a computer will never be aware, but this belief aptly illustrates how we have moved from a technological and mechanical era on to the age of information and the processing devoted to this information, which is artificial in machines that carry out calculations by using digital information and natural in the systems of nature that use what our understanding still cannot grasp, namely natural information.
Google, another symbol, has become the largest market capitalization ahead of Apple, without forgetting giants like Microsoft or Facebook. All these companies are linked to the dissemination of information, the way it is processed, the objects connected, and so on. We are now in 2017. Half a century ago, commodities and mechanical industries were the most important factors. It was the peak of the era of machines, energy and military–industrial complexes.
1.1.2.Philosophizing means being concerned
What is philosophy and why do we need it? Etymologically, philosophy is defined as the love of wisdom, which attributes a purpose to it. However, is it wisdom that man looks for on earth? We are not that sure. Philosophy has become a type of knowledge. Why should not we then conceive philosophy as the production of a set of types of knowledge and learning, focusing on general, not to say generic, kinds of reality rather than on singular things? Moreover, these realities are not separate from man. Because these realities, which philosophy deals with, concern us. They “surround” us, envelop us and influence us, while we are involved in this existential theatre, where we represent the actors and the audience. In other words, we are interested in these things. Interest may mean two things: (1) a trivial and material thing and (2) a more spiritual thing, in keeping with its etymology – inter esse – an essence-to-essence relationship. We concern ourselves with and are interested in that which philosophy regards as knowable and deserving of sustained research.
Let us take a look at some previous eras. In Vedic India, sage philosophers were concerned with the cosmos. This is also the case for pre-Socratic Greece, before philosophy became particularly interested in Man after Pericles’ “Golden Age”. Outlining the themes that have concerned philosophers as well as society is nearly cliché. The topics that philosophy deals with are quite often very important, not too say critical, in a society, as philosophy enables the development of shared knowledge as well as the organization of human groups. We may think that philosophy predates the form of society, but if we believe the allegory of the owl of Minerva formulated by Hegel, philosophical knowledge arrives at nightfall, once historic events have taken place. Philosophers have concerned themselves with the cosmos, nature or “physis”, Man and then God in the Middle Ages, putting Man once again on stage in Europe after the Renaissance. Modern philosophers have had a keen interest in Man, leaving nature to scientists, without preventing the development of philosophies of nature in the Romantic age at the beginning of the 19th Century.
1.1.3.Technology affects us
It has taken centuries of mechanical development for philosophers to develop an interest in Technology, which is the issue of the 20th Century, according to Ellul. However, technology had been known since ancient times as techné, meaning the craftsman’s work. At the end of the Middle Ages, Europe had been invaded by water- and windmills, as these machines coupled with nature could generate enormous mechanical power for the time. The end of the Middle Ages saw the emergence of a new era that gave more importance to active rather than contemplative life. Men turned toward the temporal world. After Descartes, will became a key topic for modern philosophy.
It is after the turning point of 1820 that a new theme chosen by philosophy started taking shape. Technology became an important issue. It was examined by three philosophers who had significant influence on society: Hegel, Comte and Marx. However, for Hegel, it was more the anthropological aspect that was conceived in relation to work and the man concerned with the hammer. For Comte, man concerns himself with science and machines, whereas for Marx with machines and economics. This new philosophical situation is the result of an invention whose significance has not been assessed, despite the fact that it dates back to the end of the 18th Century. The steam engine represented a considerable breaking point in terms of generation of mechanical energy on two levels. First, in relation to its principle, with the use of heat converted into mechanical force, which differs from wind or waterways, whose energy is already mechanical. Heat can be converted into work. Second, the engine allows us to generate mechanical energy anywhere, independently of the presence of wind or a waterway. The steam engine generates a nomad form of energy, which will end up becoming a mode of transport with railways, steam-powered ships, cars and airplanes. With the invention of electricity, mechanical energy and even light energy is decentralized even more, reaching every household equipped with a network of electrical wires.
This mechanization of our existence led to a second stage in the philosophy of technology with great figures, who, from the 1930s onward, have analyzed this theme with unparalleled depth. Mumford, Spengler, Heidegger, Jünger and Ellul, followed by Habermas, left behind dazzling writings, which are, however, sometimes misunderstood and unfortunately forgotten, while the technological phenomenon plays a key role in our existences. The age defined by the philosophy of technology results from a rapid historical development that produces an unprecedented situation in history. Men have used machines, but if we think that they have taken hold of them, the opposite is equally true: machines have taken hold of men with their quasi-magical and captivating power. The same goes for war. We say that men take up arms, but also that men are conquered by arms. This allows us to bring together these two fields, war and technology, by means of a phrase by Gabor, the inventor of the laser: everything that can be done (from a technological point of view) will be done. Technology’s hold on men was Ellul’s central theory, according to which technology is no longer controlled by men and evolves autonomously as if it produced its own purposes independently of the goals established by human thinking. Heidegger’s famous phrase about science is quite apt in this context. I will gladly paraphrase it while also completing it: technology doesn’t think, it advances!
Therefore, we are surrounded by this Technology, which has become not only a tool but also the specific feature of our anthropological environment, like a second nature superimposed on the cosmos and conceived as a technocosmos. This is why philosophy felt affected by this Technology, which evolves according to its own purposes. It is insofar as Technology brings about changes while also being the product of its change that we need to concern ourselves with this universal phenomenon that determines to a large extent our future. Technology seems diabolical in certain respects. It leads us to adapt ourselves, and it no longer necessarily produces progress in the sense established by the Enlightenment thinkers and those who have followed.
1.1.4.Information affects us
Technology has become second nature for us, but it still has not been completely understood in its philosophical sense, especially its metaphysical dimension. It took a long time for thinkers to concern themselves with Technology, occasionally making it the central theme of a work. The contemporary philosophy of technology began when Technology took hold of men, who do not know whether it will come to an end and, if this is the case, when we will be done with it. Philosophy is now concerned with another equally important issue, which, however, has not been at the center of deep thinking. The issue of the 20th Century is information, in every sense of the notion. Information goes hand in hand with communication!
Why does Information affect us now as much as Technology did a century ago? We could state this in a phrase. There was a time when men sent information and picked it up to make “good” use of it. Currently, the opposite has happened. We are picked up by Information. Information is an ingredient that drives our cognitive life, which is not related to the contemplative life of the past. In our age, communicating requires cerebral activity, even when this activity is passive, which is an oxymoron. Therefore, let us mention how man is mobilized by and for Information by recalling this TV manager’s famous phrase about how TV programs use our brain time. Besides being controlled by Technology, we are picked up by Information.
Man has manipulated information and talked and communicated with signs and languages for tens of thousands of years. Animals also communicate with natural communication instruments. The new Information situation relies on the way information is transmitted. For a long time, men have communicated by using material media, with paper and books used to disseminate texts and images, without forgetting the architectural works and artworks situated in public places. Consulting books or seeing artworks allows us to develop a thought or to access a sort of intuitive, not to say contemplative, knowledge. In our age, Information tends to become a consumer product just like any other. Receiving information has become an activity that is no longer chosen or specifically targeted but semiautomatic, like the inopportune use of Technology. As soon as a machine is available, we use it; as soon as a piece of information can be accessed by the brain, it is received; conversely, several pieces of information that reach the brain are disseminated publicly through flat-screen TVs, blogs, smartphones and social networks. Regardless of the content, it is the information sent that represents the message. The shift from analog to digital has enormously increased the possibility of communicating.
The expression “talk for talk’s sake” makes perfect sense in our age. Communicating and informing without sharing anything. Little by little, we are becoming a product of Technology as well as Information. Man seems like a machine of a communication system that has been left behind. Thus, the technological field has widened to include those technologies that transform information through digitization, as well as dissemination and calculation technologies. A digitized piece of information can be manipulated by a computer. Classic material media (books, vinyl records) now include digital tools, USB drives, digital CDs, hard drives, or RAM. The cables used to supply electricity to power machines and light bulbs in the 1900s are also used to transmit digital communication, which reaches households and is converted into analog information when we listen to a CD, read a text on our screen, stream a movie, and watch it on DTV or with a DVD player.
1.1.5.Where can we situate a philosophy of information?
As we have quickly explained, Information with a capital I represents an issue of a cultural and political order faced by the 21st Century, besides constituting a philosophical challenge. The idea of a philosophy of information is not very widespread, but it appeared on the radars of intellectual circles in the early 2000s. Luciano Floridi, a philosopher, was presented as a pioneer in this specialty. However, if we pay attention to this philosopher’s intentions, we can legitimately think that the philosophy of information put forward lacks in scope, as it considers computers and information technologies, which, despite certainly affecting our existences, do not exhaust the richness of a broader reflection on information with two lines of inquiry. The first one is based on physics and information from a natural and metaphysical point of view. The second one follows on from Ellul’s writings with this issue, which had already been put forward by technology: is information neutral? Or does it deeply change the nature of the man who uses Information but also becomes in part the product of this Information itself?
Browsing the Internet, we can find an extremely well-documented website used as a portal dedicated to actors who are more or less related to the philosophy of information, with two thorough lists that bring together philosophers and scientists, as well as several instructive notes about this subject, which a few decades ago was in its early stage and defined as ergodic philosophy by english-speakers until the 1980s. Nowadays, the notion of philosophy of information has solid foundations in the field of knowledge. The fact remains that we still need to understand what it deals with and which are the key issues regarding Information.
The presentation of this website, called “information philosopher”, is clear. It starts from a well-defined principle involving the use of the tools and objects of Information to answer major unsolved philosophical issues. If we base our reflection on Information, how can we formulate and then shed light on the “classic” problems of ancient and modern philosophy? This “research program” suggests that Information is a tool used to solve major classic questions such as freewill, conscience or the interaction between body and mind. However, this program is not unambiguous. It mentions research of an ontological or metaphysical kind about information in the universe as well as in matter. This presentation of the key issue related to Information is developed in two ways, with an epistemological and ontological approach that will be bottom-up if we are trying to shed light on the philosophical and existential field with bottom-tier elements – quanta, information, atoms, and so on – or top-down if conscience and the living world are used to understand what happens in terms of matter and fields (of influences, information).
The philosophy of information covers several domains of knowledge: the relationship between man and the information manipulated, which also manipulates, or information in nature as it takes shape in quantum matter sciences, as well as the cosmos, and information as a central notion in the key metaphysical issue of the essence of the universe, Being and Time. The philosophy of Information completes the philosophy of Technology. Men have to determine two essential components, namely technological activity and the conscience emerging with inputs of information that organizes itself and is reflected. This anthropological configuration is in line with the century-old ontological configuration developed in many ways, elaborated and conceived by Descartes: matter and mind, will and representation, action and conscience. Now that modern sciences are nearing completion, a two-branched structure will take shape across the two types of physics, on the one hand pivoting on mechanics and on the other hand dealing with communication. However, we should not forget the issue of the living world, which I have personally tackled by conceiving a technological substance and a cognitive substance. One acts in matter, while the other arranges the information received, with the issue of perceptions linked to the purposes.
If the philosophy of Technology lends itself to a universalization process, the science of machines cannot replace a philosophy of Technology, which studies the relationship between man and machine, as well as natural technology, which can be found in living systems, molecular assemblies and matter. The philosophy of Information will follow the same path. The science of information cannot replace an authentic philosophy of information, which, among other things, links conscience-related phenomena to quantum processes, matter transformations and the gravity-quantum order that governs information.
