International Valuation Standards E-Book

David Parker

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 459

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

International Valuation Standards: a guide to the valuation of real property assets is an essential road map to using the new International Valuation Standards in everyday practice for real estate assets, explains their content, application and operation. It shows how to value assets including property, plant and equipment and is written in an explanatory style using commonly understood business English with as little jargon as possible. It takes a thematic format, focusing on the application of IVSs to investment property and owner-occupied property with the author addressing valuation instruction, operation and reporting under IVSs.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Foreword

About the Author

Preface

Acknowledgements

Introduction

1 Market Value

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Globalisation and valuation

1.2 Evolution of valuation standard setting

1.3 Market value

1.4 Businesses and business interests, intangible assets and financial instruments

1.5 Summary and conclusions

References

2 Concepts

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Conceptual framework

2.2 Reconciliation with capital market theory

2.3 Definition of the market

2.4 Value vs. cost vs. price

2.5 Summary and conclusions

References

3 Definitions

3.0 Introduction

3.1 Definition of valuation

3.2 Definition of contextual terms

3.3 Principal approaches to valuation

3.4 Summary and conclusions

References

4 Valuation Process

4.0 Introduction

4.1 Preliminary questions

4.2 Instructing the valuer

4.3 Undertaking the valuation

4.4 Reporting the valuation

4.5 Summary and conclusions

References

5 Valuation of Investment Property

5.0 Introduction

5.1 Valuation of investment property

5.2 Valuation of investment property for financial reporting

5.3 Valuation of investment property for secured lending

5.4 Summary and conclusions

References

6 Valuation of Owner Occupied Property

6.0 Introduction

6.1 Valuation of owner occupied property

6.2 Valuation of owner occupied property for financial reporting

6.3 Valuation of owner occupied property for secured lending

6.4 Summary and conclusions

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 02

Table 2.1 Bases of value – assumptions

List of Illustrations

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework – participants and markets.

Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework – nominated participants and markets.

Figure 2.3 Conceptual framework – postulated participants and postulated markets.

Figure 2.4 Conceptual framework – postulated participants and hypothetical markets.

Figure 2.5 Conceptual framework – on market exchange.

Figure 2.6 Conceptual framework – on/off market and exchange/no exchange.

Figure 2.7 Conceptual framework – participants, market, on/off market, exchange/no exchange.

Figure 2.8 Conceptual framework – participants, market, on/off market, exchange/no exchange.

Figure 2.9 Conceptual framework – market value.

Figure 2.10 Conceptual framework – investment value.

Figure 2.11 Conceptual framework – synergistic value.

Figure 2.12 Conceptual framework – fair value.

Figure 2.13 Conceptual framework – special value.

Figure 2.14 Relative contribution to value.

Figure 2.15 Conceptual framework – bases of value.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

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International Valuation Standards

A Guide to the Valuation of Real Property Assets

David Parker

This edition first published 2016© 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Cover image: Getty Images © piccerella

To my twins, Elliot and Victoria.

May the future recompense for that foregone.

Foreword

International Valuation Standards (IVSs) are essential to measuring the performance of investment funds consistently and transparently across the globe. All fund managers have a duty to invest clients’ money responsibly, and for me this means adherence to IVS.

This book is therefore timely, with no other analysis of the content and application of IVSs available to the property industry and property profession worldwide. This scholarly work does not simply describe IVSs but analyses them in detail, drawing together the context of globalisation with the historic and central concept of market value.

The book’s focus on the instruction, implementation and reporting of valuation as an interconnected process is enlightening, as is the use of the RICS Red Book Global Edition to illustrate the application of IVSs. The Red Book transcends national differences and shows how IVSs can be adopted and applied by professionals active in many countries across the world.

David Parker is a recognised authority on property valuation theory and practice, with roles both in academia and practice. If property investors, property lenders and property valuers around the world followed his pithy maxim “say what you are going to do, do it and say what you have done”, many of the problems so commonly arising in valuation could be avoided.

Martin Brühl FRICSManaging Director, Union Investment Real Estate GmbHGermany

About the Author

David Parker is an internationally recognised property industry expert on both the theory and practice of valuation and a highly regarded property academic, being a director and adviser to property investment groups including listed real estate investment trusts, unlisted funds and private property businesses (www.davidparker.com.au).

Professor Parker is currently the inaugural Professor of Property at the University of South Australia, a Visiting Professor at University Tun Hussein Onn in Malaysia, a Visiting Fellow at the University of Ulster and an Acting Valuation Commissioner of the Land and Environment Court of New South Wales.

With over 25 years of experience in all aspects of valuation, property fund management, portfolio management, asset management and property management, Professor Parker previously held senior executive positions with Richard Ellis, Schroders Property Fund and ANZ Funds Management.

Holding BSc, MComm, MBA, MPhil and PhD degrees, Professor Parker is a Fellow of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, the Australian Institute of Company Directors, the Australian Institute of Management and the Australian Property Institute and a Senior Fellow of the Financial Services Institute of Australasia. He is a member of the Society of Property Researchers, the American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association and the European, American, Asian and Pacific Rim Real Estate Societies.

The author of numerous papers published in academic and industry journals, Professor Parker is a regular conference presenter around the world, Editor of the Pacific Rim Property Research Journal and Editorial Board Member for the highly ranked Journal of Property Research and Property Management.

David Parker may be contacted by email at [email protected].

Preface

Having evolved over half a century, International Valuation Standards are a shining example of what may be achieved when nations work together for the common global good.

With a source in the ruins of the 1974 UK property crash, valuation standards evolved through Europe and then to the world following the stock market crash of 1987 and the global property downturn of the early 1990s.

The exponential growth of globalisation in business has reduced the significance of national and political borders and increased the significance of economic integration. The interconnectedness of the world’s major economies was glaringly apparent during the Global Financial Crisis towards the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century, when problems arising in the US property, banking and finance markets rapidly became problems for the property, banking and finance markets of each of the world’s major economies.

Recognition of globalisation through International Financial Reporting Standards, designed to provide a common basis of measurement in order to foster international business and the global flow of capital, together with the increasing prevalence of cross-border secured lending necessitates a common basis of value measurement for real property assets.

International Valuation Standards provide that common basis and are now prevalent in many of the world’s major economies offering standardisation of concepts and terminology while leaving scope for flexibility in methodology and application to suit differing countries and differing circumstances.

With International Valuation Standards starting to take precedence over harmonised national valuation standards, an analysis of their application is timely. As it may be daunting to start at the beginning of the most recent published edition of International Valuation Standards and keep reading until the end is reached, this book seeks to group elements of International Valuation Standards together with explanation through application to the real world of business.

Accordingly, both of the principal forms of real property assets, being investment property and owner occupied property, are considered together with both of the principal purposes for valuation, being for financial reporting and for secured lending. Similarly, the valuation process, through the key stages of instruction, implementation and reporting, is dissected and analysed in the context of the relevant provisions of International Valuation Standards.

Caution is, however, required given the dynamic nature of International Valuation Standards which are regularly amended and updated, such that primary reliance should always be placed on the most recent International Valuation Standards which may be found at www.ivsc.org.

David Parker

Adelaide, February 2016

Acknowledgements

The author gratefully acknowledges the general contribution of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and of delegates at American, European and Pacific Rim Real Estate Society Conferences over the past few years in providing feedback to research papers, together with the specific contribution, through review of draft chapters, by Chris Thorne, former Technical Director for the International Valuation Standards Council.

Introduction

International Valuation Standards are now accepted as the basis for the measurement of the value of real property assets in most of the world’s major economies. Through an evolutionary process of harmonisation, the national valuation standards issued by the professional bodies, regulators or governments of many countries in the world are now aligned with International Valuation Standards.

It is, therefore, timely for a scholarly work to analyse and explain International Valuation Standards in the context of application to global business. Drawing on the author’s 25 years of experience in property valuation and extensive academic study of the valuation process, this book seeks to provide an understanding of the key aspects of International Valuation Standards and their interrelationship with International Financial Reporting Standards and International Accounting Standards.

Placing International Valuation Standards in the context of globalisation, the book focuses on the central concept of market value, reconciling a conceptual basis for valuation with economic theory and capital market theory. Distinguishing the definitions of value, cost and price, other key definitions are analysed and the principal approaches to valuation within International Valuation Standards identified.

Having examined the market approach to valuation, the book continues to examine the income approach to valuation in the context of investment property and the cost approach to valuation in the context of owner occupied property, both for the purposes of financial reporting and for the purposes of secured lending.

The book also describes and analyses those elements of International Valuation Standards that are of relevance to the three principal stages of the real property valuation process, being the instruction of the valuer, undertaking the valuation and reporting the valuation which should be seamlessly integrated in valuation practice.

Like the global businesses and property markets within which real property assets for valuation sit, International Valuation Standards are continuously changing, being regularly updated and amended, such that primary reliance should always be placed on the most recent International Valuation Standards which may be found at www.ivsc.org.

1Market Value

1.0 Introduction

In the context of the valuation of real property assets, this book provides an analysis of the International Valuation Standards (IVS), International Accounting Standards (IAS) and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) which, being dynamic, are regularly updated and/or replaced. Accordingly, readers should not rely upon this book as a current statement of an IVS, IAS or IFRS publication and should visit www.ifrs.org and/or www.ivsc.org to find the most recent version.

This chapter seeks to outline the emergence of globalisation, the role of IFRS and the evolution of valuation standards setting, the role of the International Valuation Standards Council (IVSC) and IVSs and an analysis of market value, being the central concept of IVSs, with an overview of other IVSs relevant to the valuation of businesses and business interests, intangible assets and financial instruments.

Chapter 2 will then develop a conceptual framework for valuation based on economic theory, align this framework with finance and capital market theory, examine the definition of the market and distinguish definitions of cost and price from defined concepts of value before reconciling these to the conceptual framework for valuation.

Chapter 3 will consider various aspects of valuation standard definitions within IVSs, discuss the definitions of other relevant contextual terms and identify the principal approaches to valuation within IVSs including a focus on the market approach to valuation.

Chapter 4 will describe and analyse those elements of IVSs that are of relevance to the three principal stages of the real property valuation process, being the instruction of the valuer, undertaking the valuation and reporting the valuation.

Chapter 5 will consider IVSs in the context of the valuation of investment property, with particular reference to IAS 40 Investment Property and the income approach to valuation, including an examination of IVSC TIP 1 Discounted Cash Flow.

Finally, Chapter 6 will focus on IVSs in the context of the valuation of owner occupied property held by operating businesses, with particular reference to IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment and the cost approach to valuation, including an examination of IVSC TIP 2 The Cost Approach to Tangible Assets.

In many countries around the world, national and local valuation professional bodies adopt IVSs and supplement them with national or local valuation practice guidance which may expand upon IVSs in a national or local context for the benefit of their membership. However, only the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) produces global valuation practice guidance that adopts and expands upon IVSs but is not country specific, comprising mandatory professional standards and valuation practice statements and non-mandatory practice guidance applications and practice guidance notes for use by members globally – generally referred to as the RICS Red Book Global (RICS 2013). Accordingly, this book refers to the RICS Red Book Global for the purposes of considering how a professional body interprets IVSs for application by its members worldwide but without a country-specific application.

This book is based upon International Valuation Standards 2013 (IVSC, 2013) and International Financial Reporting Standards 2013 (IFRS, 2013). Given their nature, IVSs, IAS’s and IFRSs are dynamic, being regularly updated and with the most recently published versions replacing previously published versions. Accordingly, readers should not rely upon this book as a current statement of an IVS, IAS or IFRS publication and should visit www.ifrs.org and/or www.ivsc.org to find the most recent version.

1.1 Globalisation and valuation

This section seeks to outline the emergence of globalisation and the role of IFRS, with the following sections considering the evolution of valuation standards setting, the role of IVSC and IVSs and an analysis of market value, being the central concept of IVSs, with an overview of other IVSs relevant to the valuation of businesses and business interests, intangible assets and financial instruments.

1.1.1Globalisation

Globalisation has increasingly gained pace since the end of the Second World War, with the Bretton Woods Agreement on international monetary policy, commerce and finance, the emergence of container shipping and the growth in international air travel as examples of global developments facilitating increasing international integration in trade and commerce. The late twentieth-century developments in communications, computing and the advent of the internet facilitated even greater globalisation in banking, finance and investment contributing to the current very high level of interconnectedness between the world’s major economies.

The establishment of the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and Basel Committee on Banking Supervision provide examples of the impact of globalisation in the financial markets, with groups such as the G20 providing an example of governmental globalisation. The creation of the European Union led to the free movement of labour and capital across Europe and a common currency, with the fall of the Berlin Wall leading to the creation of independent eastern European states which further enhanced European movement of labour and capital.

A series of bilateral and later regional trade agreements between countries, the formation of GATT and the World Trade Organisation have each fostered the development of international trade and the growth of multinational corporations such as HSBC and Airbus, making it economically feasible for a European based company to manufacture goods in China or India and sell to world markets in the USA or Africa, either directly through the supply chain leading to the world’s shopping centres or indirectly through fulfilment of internet orders.

The increasing impact of globalisation has the effect of reducing the significance of national and political borders and increasing the significance of economic integration. The interconnectedness of the world’s major economies was glaringly apparent during the Global Financial Crisis towards the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century, when problems arising in the US property, banking and finance markets rapidly became problems for the property, banking and finance markets of each of the world’s major economies.

In the context of property, the growth in multinational corporations has significantly increased the amount of property in other countries held by businesses for the purposes of operations. As a result of globalisation, such multinational corporations as HSBC and Airbus have become significant property owners and occupiers in a vast number of countries around the world. Similarly, property investment has rapidly globalised in the last 25 years with the emergence of sovereign wealth funds in the 1970s building diversified global property portfolios and many pension funds, superannuation funds, real estate investment trusts (REITs) and other property fund managers seeking to invest outside their country of origin, resulting in many of the major office, shopping centre, hotel and warehouse properties of large cities around the world now being owned by foreign investors.

The globalisation of property has been mirrored by the globalisation of property services groups, with the UK Richard Ellis merging with the US Coldwell Banker to become CBRE and the UK Jones Lang Wootton merging with the US LaSalle Partners in 1999 to become Jones Lang LaSalle or JLL, with 30,000 staff in 750 locations in 60 countries (Babawale, 2012a).

Consistent with trends in other parts of the economy worldwide, the emergence of both multinational corporations and international property investors has created the demand for international valuation services and the merger of major national firms into international property services groups has created the supply of international valuation services.

1.1.2International Financial Reporting Standards

In an increasingly global marketplace, international comparability of information is essential to enable the effective allocation of scarce resources. Accordingly, global businesses require a common basis for company accounts that is understandable, comparable, reliable and relevant for internal and external users across different countries.

As globalisation evolved, it became apparent that national accounting standards would be both inadequate for and complicate international business and investment. The apparent need for international accounting standards led to the formation of the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) in 1973 by accounting bodies from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Mexico, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Ireland and the United States. The aim of the IASC was to achieve consistency internationally in definitions, measurement and treatment of transactions in the course of business or investment to enable financial reporting that permitted cross country comparability and appreciation. (Dugeri et al., 2012) Those standards issued by the IASC between 1973 and 2001 comprise the International Accounting Standards (IAS’s).

From 2001, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) succeeded the IASC and assumed the full standard setting role for the accountancy profession worldwide, with those standards issued by the IASB from 2001 comprising the IFRS (Dugeri et al., 2012). The objectives of the IASB are:

to develop, in the public interest, a single set of high quality, understandable, enforceable and globally accepted financial reporting standards based on clearly articulated principles;

to promote the use and rigorous application of those standards;

to take account of the needs of a range of sizes and types of entities in diverse economic settings; and

to promote and facilitate the adoption of IFRS through the convergence of national accounting standards and IFRS’s (IFRS, 2013, para 6, page A10).

The IASB achieves its objectives primarily by developing and publishing IFRS’s and promoting their use (IFRS, 2013, para 7, page A10). IFRS’s set out recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure requirements dealing with transactions and events that are important in general purpose financial statements (IFRS, 2013, para 8, page A11), prepared by the entity (IAS 1, para 2, page A541) on the going concern assumption (IAS 1, para 25, page A547).

Those IAS’s and IFRS’s of principal relevance to the valuation of real property assets include:

IAS 16

Property, Plant and Equipment

IAS 17

Leases

IAS 36

Impairment of Assets

IAS 40

Investment Property

IFRS 5

Non-Current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations

IFRS 13

Fair Value Measurement

Currently, around 100 countries have adopted IFRS including the European Union, Australia, Canada, Montenegro and Nepal. However, major economies such as the USA, Japan and India are yet to require IFRS for listed companies.

The benefits of IFRS, as a common basis for accounting worldwide, includes the provision of high quality, transparent and comparable information in financial reporting to help investors, other participants in the various capital markets of the world and other users of financial information make economic decisions (IFRS, 2013). Such transparency and comparability aids the global flow of capital between countries, supports national economies and improves international competitiveness as well as reducing financial reporting costs, improving the quality of financial reporting and providing more useful information to decision makers.

Therefore, for such multinational corporations as HSBC and Airbus and for international property investors such as sovereign wealth funds, pension funds, superannuation funds, REITs and other property fund managers, who have become significant property owners and occupiers in a vast number of countries around the world, IFRS effectively provide one common basis for accounting worldwide facilitating the ultimate ‘apples with apples’ comparison for the purpose of decision making.

1.1.3Valuation

While IFRS effectively provide one common basis for accounting worldwide, in order for IFRS to provide a reliable decision-making basis in the context of property, the provision of those inputs concerning property valuation also need to be undertaken on one common basis worldwide.

The global client base driving the adoption of international standards in accounting and banking also required the same for valuation, given that valuation is the basis for lending decisions, financial reporting of multinational companies, cross border property investment, securitisation of real estate and so forth (Babawale, 2012b):

In the emerging globalised world, valuations that would be relied upon internationally can therefore be produced only by a valuation profession that conforms to international standards of professional education, competence and practice.

(Babawale, 2012a)

Essentially, the principal drivers for the introduction and adoption of international valuation standards may be identified as:

the requirement of Governments for valuations of publicly owned assets for the purpose of accountability, measurement of performance and financial transparency;

the trend towards the privatisation of Government enterprises;

the development of international accounting standards;

emerging economies with no established skill or depth in real estate appraisal;

the Basel Committee on bank lending;

world trade agreements, designed to balance world trade practices;

the move towards a fair value accounting model;

the activities of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, which is working towards the harmonisation of accounting and other professional practices; and

the need for performance measurement of both investment property and owner occupied property to contribute to the measurement of property, portfolio and company management performance (Edge, 2001).

While the principal benefit of converging valuation regulation internationally with accounting regulation may be contended to be the efficient and effective functioning and stability of global capital and debt markets, several further benefits of global regulatory convergence may be identified:

improving the comparability of financial information, with consistent valuation practices supporting the transparency and credibility of valuations in financial reporting globally, so increasing the potential mobility of capital across national borders and providing all decision makers with consistent, high quality, reliable information with which to make informed investment, resource and policy decisions;

improving the auditability of financial statements, with adoption and application of globally consistent valuation standards providing auditors with clear benchmarks to assess whether valuations included in financial statements are reasonably founded;

reducing the effects of systemic risk, with a reduction in the threats to the global financial systems of such behaviours as over confidence in rising markets and extreme risk aversion in falling markets which may heighten systemic risk in globally connected markets such as banking, insurance and securities;

reducing information costs, with multinational companies and global property investors being able to measure assets consistently in different countries which reduces the cost of preparing financial statements and the need to reconcile differing valuation approaches;

decreasing the opportunities for regulatory arbitrage by removing opportunities for pricing differentials that do not have a basis in economic fundamentals but instead arise from different valuation practices;

providing an underpinning for a global regulatory system, through which global bodies such as the G20 can develop global solutions to address global issues with regulatory convergence facilitating intergovernmental co-operation, greater institutional linkages and international policy integration; and

providing additional benefits for developing and emerging economies, through the adoption and implementation of existing high-quality, internationally accepted standards recognised by international bodies, governments, investors, corporations, lenders and so forth (IVSC, 2014).

The development of international valuation standards that are consistent with IFRS contributes to achieving such benefits and provides investors, regulators, and users of valuations with that which they seek, being consistency, clarity, reliability and transparency in valuation reporting worldwide (Edge, 2001), as:

Clients need to understand that a valuation produced in Massachusetts, Manchester, Melbourne, Moscow or Matabeleland is reliable in its standards and its methodologies.

(Gilbertson, 2002)

Like the journey to achieve one common basis for accounting worldwide through IFRS, the journey to achieve one common basis for valuation worldwide was an evolutionary process spanning almost half a century.

1.2 Evolution of valuation standard setting

The previous section sought to outline the emergence of globalisation and the role of IFRS, with this section seeking to consider the evolution of valuation standards setting and the role of IVSC and IVSs, with the following sections then seeking to analyse market value, being the central concept of IVSs and to provide an overview of other IVSs relevant to the valuation of businesses and business interests, intangible assets and financial instruments.

The challenge facing international valuation standard setters may be summarised as follows:

Deals happen. There is not a perfect market. This imperfection makes a valuer’s task very difficult. The valuer has to interpret where the market is going. A valuation is like a snapshot in time.

Imagine a photograph containing a ball in flight. Is it actually going up or down? That’s what the client wants to know. He would really like to know where that ball will be after an agreed period of time, but that is probably too difficult for all but the crystal ball gazers.

Valuers have to reflect, not make, the market. A valuation could be a surrogate pricing process. Whereas, worth is what the purchaser is prepared to pay. What is value? Does value exist? Can value really be measured or is it ethereal?

Does a valuer work in the property market, or measure the market in property? (Gilbertson, 2002)

with this challenge exacerbated by the booms and busts of independent and interdependent cyclical national property markets worldwide.

1.2.1Principal phases

The journey to achieve one common basis for valuation worldwide has been an evolutionary process spanning almost half a century, which may be contended to comprise the following principal phases (Babawale 2012a, 2012b; Banfield, 2014; Dugeri et al., 2012; Edge, 2001; French, 2003; IVSC, 2015a; Mackmin, 1999; Mallinson and French, 2000):

initial development of valuation standards in the UK:

Arising from the 1970s UK recession and the 1974 UK property crash which precipitated a loss of credibility for the valuation profession, RICS established a joint working party with the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales in 1973 to report on the valuation of property assets, followed by the formation of the Asset Valuation Standards Committee in 1974 which developed guidance notes;

Following Greenwell’s (1976) criticism of traditional capitalisation of income methods as incorrect, illogical and by deduction, leading to inaccurate valuations, RICS responded by establishing a research programme into valuation methods and published Guidance Notes on the Valuation of Assets in 1976, the original RICS Red Book, being endorsed by the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, City Panel on Takeovers and Mergers, banking associations and others; The Red Book has been regularly updated since, including reflection of the RICS-initiated Trott Report (1980, 1986), Mallinson Report (1994) (incorporated in the 1996 RICS Red Book) and Carsberg Report (2002);

followed by development of regional European valuation standards:

The European Group of Valuers of Fixed Assets (TEGOVOFA) was created in 1977, now The European Group of Valuer Associations (TEGoVA), which created a set of regional European valuation standards published in 1981 as the Blue Book or Guide Bleu;

and development of valuation standards internationally:

The International Assets Valuation Committee (TIAVSC) was created in 1981/82 which metamorphosed into the International Valuation Standards Committee in 1996 and the International Valuation Standards Council (IVSC) in 2008, having published the first International Valuation Standards in 1985;Since 2000, IVSC published IVSs reviewed in accordance with IFRS, reflecting international regulatory convergence, with the process coming full circle as the 2003 edition of the RICS Red Book adopted and supported IVSs; and

In 2014, IVSC Trustees commissioned an independent assessment ‘to ensure the organisation is equipped for the next phase of its development’ (IVSC, 2015a). A Review Group was created which assessed the governance, financial stability, processes and outputs of IVSC and made recommendations for improvements which are currently in the process of evaluation and implementation.

Therefore, valuation standards developed out of valuation practice rather than out of valuation theory, having evolved independently of economic theory, finance theory and capital market theory, the effect of which will be considered in greater detail in Chapter 2. Significantly, the development of valuation standards worldwide was initially undertaken by national valuation professional bodies independently or in association and then internationally for around 30 years, but in a property vacuum until 2000 when convergence with the common basis for accounting worldwide was undertaken, reflecting the demands of globalisation and leading to the evolution of one common basis for valuation worldwide.

1.2.2Role of IVSC

The IVSC is an independent, non-profit organisation incorporated in the USA which has two principal functions:

to develop and promulgate globally recognised financial standards, acceptable to the world’s capital market organisations, regulators and market participants; and

to act as a global focus for the valuation profession;

which came into sharp focus following the Global Financial Crisis from 2007 when G20 leaders called for standard setters to improve valuation principles and to achieve clarity and consistency worldwide (IVSC, 2009).

The objective of the IVSC is to build confidence and public trust in the valuation process by creating a framework for the delivery of credible valuation opinions by suitably trained valuation professionals acting in an ethical manner (IVSC, 2013).

In its policy paper on Global Regulatory Convergence and the Valuation Profession, IVSC succinctly stated:

With many corporations and financial institutions now operating globally, convergence of the diverse systems of national regulation of the financial markets is essential for both effective regulation and to facilitate economic growth.

Consistent and effective regulation is important in promoting the comparability of financial information, minimising the effects of systemic economic risks, and helping to create a level playing field for international competition.

For the valuation profession, regulatory convergence includes the global adoption and implementation of high-quality internationally accepted standards for the undertaking and reporting of those valuations that are relied upon by investors and regulators of the global financial markets. (IVSC, 2014)

Acting in the public interest, IVSC contends that valuation is a key input into financial information relied upon by investors and used to support decisions in financial markets, such as financial reporting, managing the solvency of financial institutions, supporting lending or other investment decisions and pricing units in collective investment schemes, that each have a direct impact on the public interest and that each will benefit from global regulatory convergence (IVSC, 2014).

IVSC operates by consulting with valuation users to identify their concerns, working with professional valuers to identify issues and projects and then developing and promoting solutions (such as standards, valuation applications or technical information papers) following an established process of public exposure and consultation. Enforcement of compliance with IVSs is, however, not undertaken by IVSC but by those regulators and national valuation professional organisations adopting the IVSs (IVSC, 2012a).

1.2.3Role of IVSs

The two components of the role of IVSC, being to develop and promulgate international valuation standards and to act as a global focus for the valuation profession, are effectively intertwined. IVSC is required to develop standards at a conceptual or principle level that are capable of implementation internationally and which require both enforcement of implementation by national bodies or regulators and development of complementary and consistent national standards, where necessary, by national bodies or regulators.

1.2.3.1Structure of IVSs

IVSs, by definition, are of international application, with the role of regional and national standards considered in the following section. It is through application that IVSs gain their status as, when a statement is made that a valuation has been undertaken in accordance with IVSs, it is implicit that all relevant standards are complied with and due account is taken of any supporting guidance issued by IVSC (IVSC, 2013, page 3). Accordingly, unlike some national and regional standards issued by valuation professional organisations for their valuer members, IVSs are not mandatory on valuers unless they state that they are undertaking a valuation in accordance with the IVSs.

The objective of the IVSs is to increase the confidence and trust of users of valuation services by establishing transparent and consistent valuation procedures (IVSC, 2013, page 2). An IVS is intended to do one or more of the following:

identify or develop globally accepted principles and definitions;

identify and promulgate procedures for the undertaking of valuation assignments and the reporting of valuations;

identify specific matters that require consideration and methods commonly used for valuing different types of asset or liability; and/or

identify appropriate valuation procedures for the major purposes for which valuations are required (IVSC, 2013, page 2).

An IVS contains either:

requirements that have to be followed in order to produce a valuation that is compliant with the standards; or

information or guidance that does not direct or mandate any particular course of action but which is intended to assist the development of better and more consistent valuation practice or that helps users better understand a valuation on which they intend to rely (IVSC, 2013, page 2).

While IVSs may be applied to assets or liabilities, this book only considers IVSs in the context of assets, specifically real property assets. The IVSs are arranged as a Framework, General Standards, Asset Standards, Valuation Applications and Technical Information Papers.

Further, it should be noted that, rather than necessarily adopting dictionary definitions or commonly used interpretations of terms, IVSs define and construe terms in a particular manner for the purpose of consistency in application and users should be aware of such definitions and constructions in order to appropriately apply IVSs. Within this book, a reference to a term as defined by IVSs is italicised, such that, for example, market value refers to the term ‘market value’ as it is defined in IVSs.

1.2.3.1.1 IVS Framework

The IVS Framework provides, as the name suggests, a framework or scaffolding within which the General Standards, Asset Standards, Valuation Applications and Technical Information Papers sit, setting forth generally accepted valuation principles and concepts that are to be followed in the application of each but not including any procedural requirements (IVSC, 2013, page 2).

The IVS Framework is principally considered in Chapter 2 in the context of valuation concepts and valuation approaches.

1.2.3.1.2 IVS General Standards

The IVS General Standards comprise:

IVS 101

Scope of Work

;

IVS 102

Implementation

; and

IVS 103

Reporting

;

which are considered in detail in Chapter 4. IVS General Standards set forth the requirements for the conduct of all valuation assignments (except as modified by an Asset Standard or a Valuation Application), being designed to be capable of application to valuations of all types of assets for any valuation purpose to which the IVSs apply (IVSC, 2013, page 2).

1.2.3.1.3 IVS Asset Standards

The IVS Asset Standards include:

IVS 220

Plant and Equipment

;

IVS 230

Real Property Interests

; and

IVS 233

Investment Property Under Construction

;

which are considered in detail in Chapters 5 and 6 plus others not directly concerning real property assets which are considered in section 1.4, below.

IVS Asset Standards include Requirements and Commentary, with Requirements setting forth any additions to or modifications of the requirements in the General Standards with illustrations of application. The Commentary provides background information on the characteristics of each asset type that influence value and identifies the common valuation approaches and methods used (IVSC, 2013, page 2).

As referred to in section 1.0, above, IVSs are dynamic, being regularly updated and/or replaced. Currently, IVS 230 and IVS 300 may be amended, IVS 233 may be retired and a generic guidance paper on the valuation of property in the course of development may be introduced. Accordingly, as stated above, readers should not rely upon this book as a current statement of an IVS, IAS or IFRS publication and should visit www.ifrs.org and/or www.ivsc.org to find the most recent version.

1.2.3.1.4 IVS Valuation Applications

The IVS Valuation Applications include:

IVS 300

Valuations for Financial Reporting

; and

IVS 310

Valuations of Real Property Interests for Secured Lending

;

which are considered in detail in Chapters 5 and 6.

IVS Valuation Applications address common purposes for which valuations are required, each including Requirements and Guidance, with Requirements setting forth any additions to or modifications of the requirements in the General Standards with illustrations of application. The Guidance provides background information on:

the valuation requirements of internationally applicable regulations or standards issued by other bodies, such as IFRS;

other commonly accepted requirements for valuations for that purpose; and

appropriate valuation procedures to meet these requirements (IVSC, 2013, page 3).

1.2.3.1.5 Technical Information Papers

The Technical Information Papers (TIP’s) include:

TIP 1

Discounted Cash Flow

(considered in

Chapter 5

);

TIP 2

The Cost Approach to Tangible Assets

(considered in

Chapter 6

);

TIP 3

The Valuation of Intangible Assets

(considered in

section 1.4.2

, below); and

TIP 4

Valuation Uncertainty

(considered in

Chapter 4

).

Technical Information Papers support the application of the requirements in other standards by:

providing information on the characteristics of different types of asset that are relevant to value; and/or

providing information on appropriate valuation methods and their application; and/or

providing additional detail on matters identified in another standard; and/or

providing information to support the judgement required in reaching a valuation conclusion in different situations (IVSC, 2013, page 3).

TIP’s are neither a text book nor an academic discussion and are not intended to provide training or instruction to inexperienced valuers. While TIP’s provide guidance, they do not prescribe or mandate the use of a particular approach but present information to an experienced valuer to assist in the selection of the most appropriate course of action to take (IVSC, 2013, page 3).

1.2.3.2International, Regional and National Valuation Standards

Having considered the development of IVSs, the other component of the role of IVSC is to promulgate international valuation standards and to act as a global focus for the valuation profession. This is largely operationalised by IVSC through engagement with valuation professional organisations (VPOs), regulators and other groups around the world who enforce implementation and who may also develop complementary and consistent regional and/or national standards.

IVSC further describes its role as to promote and advance the global regulatory convergence agenda through the independent development of high-quality, internationally accepted valuation standards, provision of support for their adoption and implementation and engagement with member valuation professional bodies to promote consistent competency and ethical standards (IVSC, 2014):

We serve the public interest by promoting consistent compliance with, and implementation of, high-quality, internationally accepted standards in the preparation and presentation of valuations around the world. (IVSC, 2015b)

Through the signing of a memorandum of understanding, IVSC has formalised its relationship with 20 VPOs to foster adoption of IVSs, with IVSC having engaged with 50 VPOs spanning geographically from the Norges Takseringsforbund to the Property Institute of New Zealand and from the China Appraisal Society to the Colombian Registro Nacional de Avaluadores. (IVSC, 2015b).

Such VPOs are generally the national valuation professional body for their country who advance the adoption and implementation of IVSs in that country, act to regulate individual valuers either through self-regulation or shared regulation with government and promote the benefits of IVSs to their government and regulators (IVSC, 2014).

With IVSC producing international standards, being a limited number of high level, principle based requirements which are supported with guidance and of common applicability across countries, it is then up to member VPOs to produce regional or national standards or guidance, as may be required for that jurisdiction, consistent with the provisions of the IVSs (IVSC, 2014):

… valuation rules are no longer national standards existing in isolation. The standards of various countries have to harmonise with each other, and to do that there must be a strong, single benchmark of common standards to which all our states can relate. This is the role that the IVSC fulfils. (Edge, 2001)

By each member VPO’s standards and guidance harmonising with IVSs, they effectively harmonise with each other and so achieve the IVSC policy goal of global regulatory convergence. Such convergence may be further extended where the VPO, regulator or government of developing countries, that lack their own national standards, choose to adopt IVSs as their de facto national standards.

In a national context such as Great Britain, for example, RICS is the national VPO which engages with IVSC and adopts IVSs in the RICS Red Book (UK Version) which is binding on RICS members acting in Great Britain and who are, therefore, required to follow IVSs. The RICS Red Book includes mandatory professional standards (PS), mandatory valuation practice statements (VPS) and advisory (not mandatory) valuation practice guidance applications (VPGA), with the UK version then also including RICS UK Valuation Standards (UKVS), RICS UK Appendices and RICS UK Valuation Practice Guidance Notes (VPGN) to cover specific statutory or regulatory requirements in the jurisdiction of Great Britain while being consistent with IVSs (Banfield, 2014).

1.3 Market value

The previous sections sought to outline the emergence of globalisation, the role of IFRS, the evolution of valuation standard setting and the role of IVSC and IVSs, with this section seeking to analyse market value, being the central concept of IVSs, with the following sections then seeking to provide an overview of other IVSs relevant to the valuation of businesses and business interests, intangible assets and financial instruments.

The concept of market value evolved in an early Australian High Court decision, Spencer v Commonwealth (1907) 5 CLR 418, which enunciated several of the key elements found in today’s definition of market value by the IVSC that is now adopted globally though not, necessarily, fully integrated with economic theory, finance theory and capital market theory as will be considered further in Chapter 2.

1.3.1Spencer concept of market value

A significant early development in the evolution of the concept of market value was the decision of the Australian High Court in Spencer v Commonwealth (1907) 5 CLR 418 (Spencer). Following the cessation of colonial status with the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia upon Federation on 1 January 1901 and separation from Great Britain, the High Court of Australia was only four years old when three judges heard an appeal on a compulsory acquisition matter. The bench was particularly notable, comprising Griffith CJ who was generally claimed to be the principal author of the Constitution of Australia and the first Chief Justice of Australia, Barton J who had previously been the first Prime Minister of Australia from 1901 to 1903 and Isaacs J who became the first Australian born Governor General of Australia in 1930.

The appeal concerned the acquisition by the Commonwealth of 6 acres, 1 rood and 2 perches of land in North Fremantle for the construction of a fort, being described as follows:

The land consists of sand-hummocks overlooking the Indian Ocean. It has no grass; and it is useless in its present condition for any purpose of production.

with Mr Spencer claiming compensation of £10,000 and the High Court awarding the sum of £3,000, being that which had previously been admitted and paid into Court.

The significance of the decision lies in the way in which the judges constructed the concept of market value:

In my judgement, the test of value of land is to be determined, not by inquiring what price a man desiring to sell could actually have obtained for it on a given day, ie, whether there was in fact on that day a willing buyer, but by inquiring “What would a man desiring to buy the land have had to pay for it on that day to a vendor willing to sell it for a fair price but not desirous to sell?” It is, no doubt, very difficult to answer such a question, and any answer must be to some extent conjectural. The necessary mental process is to put yourself as far as possible in the position of persons conversant with the subject at the relevant time, and from that point of view to ascertain what, according to then current opinion of land values, a purchaser would have had to offer for the land to induce such a willing vendor to sell it, or, in other words, to inquire at what point a desirous purchaser and a not unwilling vendor would come together. (Griffiths CJ)

And I should say, in view of the many authorities cited and upon the sense of the matter, that a claimant is entitled to have for his land what it is worth to a man of ordinary prudence and foresight, not holding his land for merely speculative purposes, nor, on the other hand, anxious to sell for any compelling or private reason, but willing to sell as a business man would be to another such person, both of them alike uninfluenced by any consideration of sentiment or need. (Barton J)

To arrive at the value of the land on that date, we have, as I conceive, to suppose it sold then, not by means of a forced sale, but by voluntary bargaining between the plaintiff and a purchaser, willing to trade, but neither of them so anxious to do so that he would overlook any ordinary business consideration. We must further suppose both to be perfectly acquainted with the land, and cognizant of all circumstances which might affect its value, either advantageously or prejudicially, including its situation, character, quality, proximity to conveniences or inconveniences, its surrounding features, the then present demand for land, and the likelihood, as then appearing to persons best capable of forming an opinion, of a rise or fall for what reason soever in the amount which one would otherwise be willing to fix as the value of the property. (Isaacs J)

together with:

In order that any article may have an exchange value, there must be presupposed a person willing to give the article in exchange for money and another willing to give money in exchange for the article.

(Griffiths CJ)

… value implies the existence of a willing buyer as well as of a willing seller…

(Griffiths CJ)

Prosperity unexpected, or depression, which no man would ever have anticipated, if happening after the date named, must be alike disregarded.

(Isaacs J)

… the all important fact on that day is the opinion regarding the fair price of the land, which a hypothetical prudent purchaser would entertain, if he desired to purchase it for the most advantageous purpose for which it was adapted. The plaintiff is to be compensated; therefore he is to receive the money equivalent to the loss he has sustained by deprivation of his land, and that … cannot exceed what such a prudent purchaser would be prepared to give him.

(Isaacs J)

Within the judges’ construction of the concept of market value, the following elements may be identified:

an estimated amount:

could actually have obtained for it, have had to pay

(Griffith CJ),

value of the land, the fair price of the land

(Isaacs J);

an exchange:

a man desiring to buy the land have had to pay for it… to a vendor willing to sell, may have an exchange value

(Griffith CJ),

willing to trade

(Isaacs J);

a valuation date:

on a given day, on that day

(Griffith CJ),

on that date, prosperity unexpected, or depression,… if happening after the date named

(Isaacs J);

a willing buyer:

a man desiring to buy the land, a desirous purchaser, willing buyer

(Griffith CJ),

voluntary bargaining, willing to trade, hypothetical prudent purchaser

(Isaacs J);

a willing seller:

a vendor willing to sell it for a fair price, a not unwilling vendor

(Griffith CJ),

voluntary bargaining, willing to trade

(Isaacs J);

a knowledgeable and prudent buyer and seller:

to a man of ordinary prudence and foresight, willing to sell as a business man would be to another such person

(Barton J),

perfectly acquainted with the land, hypothetical prudent purchaser

(Isaacs J);

an absence of compulsion:

but not desirous to sell

(Griffith CJ),

nor, on the other hand, anxious to sell for any compelling or private reason, uninfluenced by any consideration of sentiment or need

(Barton J),

not by means of a forced sale, overlook any ordinary business consideration

(Isaacs J); and

an assumption of highest and best use:

the most advantageous purpose for which it was adapted

(Isaacs J).

Accordingly, at the beginning of the last century within the judgements in Spencer, the key elements of the concept of market value may be identified. It should, however, be noted that the judgements were in the context of a vacant block of land on the coast of Western Australia in 1907 such that, while as a concept it is still of relevance today, care is required in the interpretation of language in this century – for example, perfectly acquainted with the land should be interpreted relative to a vacant coastal block in 1907 rather than in the context of the application of the efficient market hypothesis to a high rise office investment property in 2015.

Significantly, as will be considered further in Chapter 2, the judgements in Spencer contribute to the development of valuation theory through the provision of a legal construct of supply, demand, price, market and participants for a specific statutory purpose.

1.3.2IVS definition of market value

The definition of market value is both fundamental for and central to IVSs:

Market value is the estimated amount for which an asset or liability should exchange on the valuation date between a willing buyer and a willing seller in an arm’s length transaction, after proper marketing and where the parties had each acted knowledgably, prudently and without compulsion.

(IVSC, 2013, page 8; IVSC, 2013, para 29, page 18; RICS, 2013, page 9)

The definition includes most elements identified above from the concept of market value in Spencer, being: