Introduction to Maintenance Engineering E-Book

Mohamed Ben-Daya

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1033

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

This introductory textbook links theory with practice using real illustrative cases involving products, plants and infrastructures and exposes the student to the evolutionary trends in maintenance.

• Provides an interdisciplinary approach which links, engineering, science, technology, mathematical modelling, data collection and analysis, economics and management
• Blends theory with practice illustrated through examples relating to products, plants and infrastructures
• Focuses on concepts, tools and techniques
• Identifies the special management requirements of various engineered objects (products, plants, and infrastructures)

Leseprobe

INTRODUCTION TO MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING

MODELING, OPTIMIZATION, AND MANAGEMENT

Mohammed Ben-Daya

King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Uday Kumar

Luleå University of Technology, Sweden

D.N. Prabhakar Murthy

The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

This edition first published 2016© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com.

The right of the authors to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ben-Daya, Mohammed, author. | Kumar, Uday, author. | Murthy, D. N. P., author.Title: Introduction to maintenance engineering : modeling, optimization, and management / Mohammed Ben-Daya, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, Uday Kumar, Lulea, Sweden, D. N. Prabhakar Murthy, Brisbane, Australia.Description: Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2015036759 | ISBN 9781118487198 (cloth)Subjects: LCSH: Maintenance.Classification: LCC TS174 .B455 2016 | DDC 620/.0046–dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015036759

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

To our wives Faouzia, Renu, and Jayashree for their patience and understanding.

Preface

The Metal Age, which started around 3000 BC, saw the appearance of metal tools and the evolution of civilizations in different regions of the world. This led to the development of tools for warfare and farming, and the building of roads, boats, houses, and so on. The Industrial Revolution created new mechanical devices and machines. This, in turn, led to the development of the electrical, hydraulic, and other devices and equipment that are used nowadays in nearly all sectors – farming, processing, mining, manufacturing, transport, communication, and so on, all with specific needs for maintenance. The construction of infrastructures (such as electricity, water, gas and sewage networks, dams, roads, railways, bridges, etc.) resulted in new maintenance challenges in order to keep them operational.

The reason why engineered objects (be they products, plants, or infrastructures) need maintenance is that every object is unreliable, in the sense that it degrades with age and/or usage and ultimately fails when it is no longer capable of discharging its function. Maintenance actions compensate for the inherent unreliability of an object and may be grouped broadly into two categories: (i) preventive maintenance (PM) to control the degradation process and (ii) corrective maintenance (CM) to restore a failed object to the operational state.

Maintenance actions were mainly of the corrective type until the middle of the last century – the adage being, “don’t touch if it ain’t broke.” Also, preventive actions were viewed as money wasted. Maintenance was done by trained technicians who were very good at fixing failures (often fondly referred to as “grease-pit monkeys” in the popular literature). Maintenance was an afterthought in the design of new objects and was simply viewed as an unavoidable cost to be incurred after these objects were built and put into operation.

There was a dramatic change after the Second World War. Reliability evolved as a new discipline, and the theory of reliability dealt with various aspects, such as (i) the science of degradation, (ii) the use of statistical methods to assess reliability, and (iii) mathematical models to predict item failures and the importance of preventive maintenance. Investing in preventive maintenance lowers the cost of corrective maintenance but results in additional costs. Operational Research (the application of scientific methods to solve industrial problems) focused on models to decide on the optimal level of preventive maintenance to achieve a proper trade-off between the costs of corrective and preventive maintenance.

The next stage of evolution was the emergence of alternative approaches to the maintenance of objects in different industry sectors. Two methods that have been used extensively across the world are: (i) reliability-centered maintenance (RCM), which had its origins in the airline industry, and (ii) total productive maintenance (TPM), which had its origins in manufacturing. Advances in technology (sensors, data collection, computers, and communication) have resulted in the evolution of condition-based maintenance (CBM) and e-maintenance.

Maintenance in the twenty-first century has moved from the trial and error approach of the technicians of the early twentieth century to a multi-disciplinary subject with science, engineering, and technology as its foundations. A maintenance engineer is a professional engineer with this background, and so is different from a maintenance technician, who is skilled in carrying out specified maintenance tasks. An understanding of the basic principles of management is also an important element of modern maintenance practice. Furthermore, maintenance engineers/managers need advanced techniques for maintenance data analysis and also need to build models to assist effective maintenance decision making. The need to interact with other disciplines (such as law, accounting, etc.) is also needed by senior-level maintenance managers. The figure below shows this in a schematic format.

Over the last few decades, hundreds of books on maintenance have appeared in print. The authors are not aware of any book for use in a first course on maintenance that takes the comprehensive view needed for the twenty-first century. This book aims to fill this gap and is meant for use as a textbook on maintenance at the senior undergraduate or graduate level in engineering programs. The unique features of the book are as follows:

It provides a unified approach linking science, engineering, technology, mathematics and statistics, and management.

It focuses on concepts, tools, and techniques.

It links theory and practice using real, illustrative cases involving products, plants, and infrastructures (many chapters have three sections dealing with specific issues for these different types of items).

The book provides a good foundation for a new graduate to work as a maintenance engineer and to build a career by moving through the ranks of junior- and middle-level management responsible for maintaining the various types of engineered objects. It can also be used as a reference book by practicing maintenance engineers/managers to understand the modern knowledge-based approach to maintenance. The book can also be used as a starting point for researchers in maintenance.

The book is flexible enough to be used as a textbook in various undergraduate and graduate programs. A suggested sequence for four programs is as follows:

Undergraduate level

Industrial engineering programs:

Chapters 1

–

7

,

8

–

9

,

17

,

19

–

22

Other engineering programs:

Chapters 1

–

4

,

6

–

7

,

17

,

19

,

22

Graduate level

Maintenance engineering programs:

Chapters 1

–

4

,

6

,

8

–

12

,

13

–

20

Engineering management programs:

Chapters 1

–

7

,

17

–

22

Each chapter deals with several topics. The book is suitable for one or two full courses or part of one or more courses depending on the topics selected.

The background needed to understand and fully appreciate the contents of the book is an understanding of the basic concepts from the following disciplines:

Mathematics;

Physics and Chemistry;

Engineering (covering design, manufacturing, construction, and operations);

Probability and Statistics.

This book evolved through a joint partnership between three researchers/educators from three different continents and is based on the experiences of the authors in teaching and research in maintenance over the last three decades.

Mohammed Ben-Daya, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Uday Kumar, Lulea, Sweden

D.N. Prabhakar Murthy, Brisbane, Australia

Acknowledgments

Many colleagues and ex-doctoral students from several universities have helped in different ways. A special thanks to the following people:

Dr Nat Jack for discussions and proof reading;

Dr Mohamed Rezaul Karim from the University of Rajasahi in Bangladesh for carrying out the data analysis and modeling (using Minitab) for the examples in Part B of the book;

Dr Iman Arasteh Khouy from Lulea University of Technology in Sweden for writing the second case study of

Chapter 23

;

Professor Alireza Ahmadi from Lulea Technical University in Sweden for assistance with the first case study of

Chapter 23

.

Others who have been very helpful include Professor Renyan Jiang from Changsha University in China and Dr Sami Elferik from King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals. The authors are grateful for their help and contributions.

The authors wish to acknowledge the support from King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (project # IN 121004), Luleå University of Technology, and the University of Queensland. Finally, a special thanks to Anne Hunt, Tom Carter, and Clive Lawson from the editorial staff of Wiley for their support and encouragement.

Abbreviations

A–D

Anderson and Darling

AE

Acoustic emission

AI

Artificial Intelligence

AIC

Akaike information criterion

ASCE

American Society of Civil Engineers

BIT

Built-in-testing

BOT

Build, operate, transfer

CAPEX

Capital expenditure

CBM

Condition-based maintenance

CC

Cycle cost

CEN

Comité Européenne de Normalisation (French) European Committee for Standardization

CEO

Chief Executive Officer

CL

Cycle length

CM

Corrective maintenance

CMMS

Computerized maintenance management system

CPM

Critical path method

DBFO

Design, build, finance, and operate

DIKW

Data, information, knowledge, and wisdom

DoD

Department of Defense

DOM

Design out maintenance

DTC

Diagnostic trouble code

EAC

Equivalent annual cost

ECC

Expected cycle cost

ECL

Expected cycle length

EDF

Empirical distribution function

EMMS

e-maintenance management system

EN

Europäische Norm (German): European Standard

EPP

Exponential probability plot

ET

Electromagnetic testing

FF

Failure finding

FHWA

Federal Highway Authority

FM

Facilities management

FMEA

Failure mode and effects analysis

FMECA

Failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis

FMMEA

Failure modes, mechanisms, and effects analysis

FRW

Free repair/replacement warranty

FT

Fault tree

FTA

Fault tree analysis

GPR

Ground-penetrating radar

GPRS

General packet radio service

HPP

Homogeneous Poisson process

HSE

Health, safety, and environmental

ICT

Information and communication technology

IEC

International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IEV

International electrotechnical vocabulary

IMU

Intelligent monitoring unit

IQR

Inter-quartile range

ISO

International Standards Organization

JIT

Just-in-time

KPI

Key performance indicator

K–S

Kolmogorov and Smirnoff

LC

Lease contract

LCC

Life cycle cost

LCC

C

Life cycle cost (customer perspective)

LCC

M

Life cycle cost (manufacturer perspective)

LCCA

Life cycle cost analysis

LIDAR

Laser imaging detection and ranging

LORA

Level of repair analysis

LT

Leak testing

LTM

Laser testing method

M&R

Maintenance and rehabilitation

MCF

Mean cumulative function

MEMS

Micro-electromechanical sensor

MFL

Magnetic flux linkage

MGT

Million gross tons

MIL-HDBK

Military handbook

ML

Maximum likelihood

MLE

Maximum likelihood estimate

MMS

Maintenance management system

MPI

Maintenance performance indicator

MPM

Maintenance performance metric

Maintenance performance management

MPMS

Maintenance performance management system

MPT

Magnetic particle testing

MTBF

Mean time between failures

MTTF

Mean time to failure

MTTR

Mean time to repair

NASA

National Aeronautic and Space Administration

NDT

Non-destructive testing

NFF

No fault found

NHPP

Non-homogeneous Poisson process

NN

Neural network

NPD

New product development

NPV

Net present value

NRT

Neutron radiographic testing

NTC

Negative temperature coefficient

O&M

Operation and maintenance

OBD

On-board diagnostics

OEE

Overall equipment effectiveness

OEM

Original equipment manufacturer

OOR

Out-of-round

OPEX

Operating expenditure

OPG

One-pass grinding

OR

Operations Research

PDCA

Plan, do, Check, Act

PFI

Private financing initiative

PI

Performance indicator

PLC

Product life cycle

PM

Preventive maintenance

PMS

Performance management system

Production management system

PPE

Property, plant, and equipment

PPP

Public–private partnership

PT

Penetrant testing

PTC

Positive temperature coefficient

R&D

Research and development

R&M

Reliability and maintainability

RAIB

Rail Accident Investigation Branch

RAM

Reliability, availability, and maintainability

RBD

Reliability block diagram

RBM

Risk-based maintenance

RCD

Residual current device

RCF

Rolling contact fatigue

RCM

Reliability-centered maintenance

RFID

Radio frequency identification

RIW

Reliability improvement warranty

RLC

Regional logistic center

ROCOF

Rate of occurrence of failures

RP

Renewal process

RT

Radiographic testing

RTD

Resistance temperature detector

RTF

Run to failure

SAE

Society of Automotive Engineers

SCC

Stress corrosion cracking

SOLE

The International Society of Logistics

SRB

Solid rocket booster

TAM

Turn around maintenance

TLC

Technology life cycle

TPM

Total productive maintenance

TQM

Total quality management

TR

Thermal/infrared testing

UHF

Ultra high frequency

UT

Ultrasonic testing

VA

Vibration analysis

VHF

Very high frequency

VT

Visual testing

WLAN

Wireless local area network

WPAN

Wireless personal area network

WPP

Weibull probability plot

WSN

Wireless sensor network

WT

Wind turbine

WWAN

Wireless wide area network

1An Overview

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Define maintenance and explain its importance from a strategic business perspective;

List the three main aspects of maintenance;

Provide a classification of engineered objects;

Describe reliability and non-reliability performance measures of engineered objects;

Describe the factors that affect performance degradation;

Recognize the consequences of poor maintenance;

Describe the main categories of maintenance costs;

Explain that there is a trade-off between preventive maintenance effort and maintenance costs;

Explain that there are maintenance decision-making problems at the strategic, tactical, and operational levels;

Describe the evolution of maintenance over time and the new trends;

Understand the structure of the book.

1.1 Introduction

Modern societies use a range of engineered objects for many different purposes. The objects are designed and built for specific functions. These include a variety of products (used by households, businesses, and government in their daily operations), plants, and facilities (used by businesses to deliver goods and services) and a range of infrastructures (networks such as rail, road, water, gas, electricity; dams, buildings, etc.) to ensure the smooth functioning of a society.

Every engineered object is unreliable in the sense that it degrades with age and/or usage and ultimately fails. A dictionary definition of failure is “falling short in something expected, attempted, desired, or in some way deficient or lacking.” From an engineering point of view, an engineered object is said to have failed when it is no longer able to carry out its intended function for which it was designed and built. Failures occur in an uncertain manner and are influenced by several factors such as design, manufacture (or construction), maintenance, and operation. In addition, the human factor is also important in this context.

The consequence of a product failure may vary from mere inconvenience (for example, a dishwasher failure) to something serious (for example, an automobile brake failure leading to economic and possibly human loss). The failure of an industrial plant or commercial facility may have major economic consequences for a business as it affects the delivery of goods and services (outputs of the business) and the revenue generation. The daily loss in revenue as a result of the product being out of action due to failure may be very high. Rough estimates (circa 2000) for the revenue lost due to engineered objects being out of action are as follows:

Large aircraft (A340 or Boeing 747) ~ $500 000/day;

Dragline (used in open cut mining) ~ $1 million/day;

A large manufacturer (for example, Toyota) ~ $1–2 millions/hour.

Definition 1.1

Maintenance is the combination of all technical, administrative, and managerial actions during the life cycle of an item intended to retain it in, or restore it to, a state in which it may perform the required function (CEN, 2001).

In a sense, maintenance may be viewed as actions to compensate for the unreliability of an engineered object. Building in reliability is costly and is constrained by technical limits and economic considerations. However, not having adequate reliability is costlier due to the consequence of failures. Thus, maintenance becomes an important issue in this context. Table 1.1 shows the maintenance costs (as a fraction of the operating costs) in different industry sectors, as reported in Campbell (1995).

Table 1.1 Maintenance as a percentage of operating cost.

Industry sector

Maintenance cost (%)

Mining (highly mechanized)

20–50

Primary metals

15–20

Electric utilities

5–15

Manufacturing processing

3–15

Fabrication/assembly

3–5

There are several aspects to maintenance and they may be grouped broadly into the following three categories:

Technical (engineering, science, technology, etc.);

Commercial (economics, legal, marketing, etc.);

Management (from several different perspectives – manufacturer, customer and maintenance service provider when maintenance is outsourced).

This implies that maintenance decisions need to be made in a framework that takes into account these issues from an overall business perspective. Figure 1.1 shows the link between maintenance (strategic and operational) and production from a business perspective.1

Figure 1.1 Maintenance from a business perspective.

In this book we discuss all of these aspects and this chapter gives a broad overview of the book.

The outline of the chapter is as follows. Section 1.2 deals with the classification of engineered objects and presents some examples that are used in later chapters to illustrate different concepts and issues. The performance of an engineered object degrades with age and/or usage and this is the focus of Section 1.3, where we look at both reliability and non-reliability performance measures. Maintenance consists of actions to ensure the desired performance and this is discussed in Section 1.4, where we look at a range of such types of maintenance, the consequence of poor maintenance, maintenance costs, and so on. Although maintenance has been practiced since the dawn of civilization (maintaining shelters to live, stone tools, etc.), the theory of maintenance evolved only recently (in the early part of the twentieth century). Since then it has been growing at an ever-increasing pace and this issue is discussed in Section 1.5, where we look at both the past and future trends. These sections provide the background to highlight the focus of the book, which is discussed in Section 1.6. We conclude the chapter with a brief outline of the various chapters of the book in Section 1.7.

1.2 Classification of Engineered Objects

Engineered objects may be grouped into three broad categories, as indicated in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Classification of engineered objects.

Products

Consumer:

Household appliances, automobiles, and so on

Commercial and Industrial:

Also referred to as equipment, machinery, and so on

Defense:

Ships, tanks, planes, and so on

Plants

Collection of several elements: Power plant composed of boiler turbine, generators, and so on

Infrastructures

Discrete:

Buildings, dams, and so on

Distributed networks:

Rail, road, gas, water, and so on

Each of these categories may be subdivided, and this is discussed in subsequent sections.

1.2.1Products

Products may be classified into three groups, as indicated in Table 1.2. Each group may be divided into two subgroups: (i) standard (or off-the-shelf) and (ii) custom-built.

Consumer products:

These are mostly standard products (for example, television sets, appliances, automobiles, and personal computers) that are consumed by society at large. (These products are also consumed by businesses and government agencies.) As such, the number of customers is large, with a small to medium number of manufacturers. The complexity of the product may vary considerably, and the typical small consumer is often not sufficiently well informed to evaluate product performance, especially in cases involving complex products (computers, cars, etc.).

Commercial and industrial products:

These may be either standard or custom-built (for example, mainframe computers, CNC machines, pumps, X-ray machines, and aircraft), with a small number of customers and manufacturers. The technical complexity of such products and their mode of usage may vary considerably. The products may be either complete units, such as cars, trucks, pumps, and so forth, or product components needed by another manufacturer, such as batteries, drill bits, electronic modules, turbines, and so on.

2

Defense products:

These are specialized products (for example, military aircraft, ships, rockets) with a single customer and a relatively small number of manufacturers. The products are usually complex and expensive and involve state-of-the-art technology with considerable research and development effort required from the manufacturers. These products are usually designed and built to customers’ requirements.

1.2.2Plants and Facilities

Plants are used to produce a variety of goods. They may be classified into several categories, as indicated in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Classification of plants.

Industry sector

Operations and outputs

Mining

Extracting and enriching raw materials (for example, ore, fuels)

Processing

Converting ore to metal, crude oil to gasoline, and so on

Manufacturing

Converting processing plant outputs to goods

Power

Producing electricity from coal, oil, nuclear fuel, and so on

Facilities (such as hospitals, schools, sport centers, entertainment centers, etc.) also use a range of products to deliver different services. We include these under plants.

A facility is a collection of products used to produce different types of services. They may be classified into several categories, as indicated in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Classification of facilities based on sectors.

Health

Provide healthcare in hospitals, nursing homes, and so on

Transport

Help move goods and people by road, rail, sea, or air

Maintenance

Provide maintenance services for a variety of industrial and commercial products (such as elevators, buses, etc.)

Educational

Provide education (such as in schools and universities)

1.2.3Infrastructures

Infrastructures are physical structures and facilities that provide services essential for plant operation and also to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions. In other words, they are needed for the smooth operation of a society and the effective functioning of the economy. Infrastructures facilitate the production of goods and services and their delivery to customers; they may be classified into several groups, as indicated in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5 Classification of infrastructures.

Industry sector

Examples of infrastructures

Transport

Road and rail networks, ferries, airports, pavements, bridges, and so on

Energy

Electricity networks, gas and petroleum pipelines, and so on

Water management

Water network, sewerage network, dams, and so on

Communication

Telephone and mobile phone networks, cable television, Internet, and so on

Others

Public buildings such as school and hospital buildings, and so on

Infrastructures may be further classified as being (i) distributed (involving a spatial dimension, such as networks) or (ii) discrete or lumped (where the spatial dimension is not significant, such as buildings, dams, terminals, etc.).

1.2.4Assets and Systems

The term asset is often used in the context of maintenance. In financial accounting, assets are economic resources – tangible or intangible with a positive economic value. A business balance sheet records the monetary value of the assets owned by the business. Tangible assets contain various subclasses, including current assets and fixed assets. Current assets include inventory (such as spares and material needed for carrying out maintenance), whilst fixed physical assets (such as buildings, plants, and equipment) are purchased for continued and long-term use to earn profit for a business. This group includes buildings, machinery, furniture, tools, equipment, and so on. They are written off against profits over their anticipated lives by charging depreciation expenses. Accumulated depreciation is shown in the balance sheet.

The term system is used to denote a collection of interconnected elements. Thus, a product, a plant, and an infrastructure may all be viewed as a system.

1.2.5Illustrative Examples