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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
The first volume to focus on race, ethnicity, and accent as elements of language teacher identity, a valuable guide for in-service teachers and teachers-in-training
Language Teacher Identity presents a groundbreaking critical examination of how ideologies of race, ethnicity, accent, and immigration status impact perceptions of plurilingual teachers. Bringing together contributions by an international panel of established and emerging scholars, this important work of scholarship addresses issues related to native-speakerism, monolingualism, racism, competence, authenticity, and legitimacy while examining their role in the construction of professional identity.
With an intersectional and holistic approach, the authors draw upon case studies of practical teacher experiences from Brazil, Canada, Germany, Norway, Mongolia, Pakistan, and the United States to provide teachers with real-world insights on responding to the assumptions, biases, and prejudices that students, student teachers, and teachers may bring into the classroom. Topics include the impact of policies and ideologies on teacher identity development, the intersection between L2 teacher identity and teacher emotion research, awareness of ethnic accent bullying, and the use of transraciolinguistic approaches in the classroom. This unique new work:
- Provides a broad overview of the different types of challenges language teachers face in their careers
- Focuses on race, ethnicity, plurilingualism, and accent as fundamental elements of a language teacher’s identity
- Discusses the sensitive political and social factors that complicate the role of a language teacher in the classroom
- Covers the teaching of a wide range of languages, including English, Japanese, Portuguese, French, Spanish, and Norwegian
- Addresses key issues and significant gaps in contemporary research on language teacher education, including the experiences of teachers of two or more languages
Employing a variety of methodological and theoretical approaches, Language Teacher Identity is a forward-looking look at an exciting area of research and theory in language teacher education and training. It is essential reading for students training to become language teachers, in-service teachers, and for students and scholars in applied linguistics with a focus on TESOL, teacher and language education.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Foreword: Filling the Gaps in Language Teacher Education: A Prologue
References
1 Language Teacher Identity and Education in the Crossfire of Evolving Raciolinguistic and Monolingual Ideologies
1.1 Introduction: How and Why Did We Get Here?
1.2 Addressing the Key Concepts of This Volume
1.3 The Volume in a Nutshell
1.4 Conclusion
References
Part 1: Experiences of Identity Construction of Plurilingual Language Teachers
2 Future Teachers of Two Languages in Germany: Self‐reported Professional Knowledge and Teaching Anxieties
2.1 Introduction: Moving Beyond the Dichotomy of Native/Non‐native Foreign Language Teachers in the Study of Professional Knowledge and Teaching Anxiety
2.2 Teachers of Two Languages and Foreign Language (Teaching) Anxiety: Crisscrossing Two Research Fields
2.3 The Empirical Study
2.4 Findings
2.5 Discussion of the Results, Unanswered Questions, and Further Research Perspectives
2.6 Implications for Teacher Education Programs
References
3 Exploring Identities and Emotions of a Teacher of Multiple Languages: An Arts‐based Narrative Inquiry Using Clay Work
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Identities and Emotions in Teaching Multiple Languages
3.3 Clay Work as Arts‐based Narrative Inquiry
3.4 Methodology
3.5 Park’s Narratives
3.6 Discussion
3.7 Reflections on Using Clay Work
References
4 Emotional Geographies of Teaching Two Languages: Power, Agency, and Identity
4.1 L2 Teachers’ Experiences: Beyond Ideologies
4.2 Understanding Teaching Through Emotional Geographies
4.3 Research Design: Autoethnography
4.4 Findings in Stories
4.5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
5 Teaching Languages in the Linguistic Marketplace: Exploring the Impact of Policies and Ideologies on My Teacher Identity Development
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Language Teaching in Norway
5.3 The Linguistic Marketplace
5.4 A Poststructuralist Perspective on Teacher Identity
5.5 Autoethnography
5.6 Teaching a Language of Convenience: Destabilizing Identity
5.7 Teaching a Language of Necessity: Disintegrating Identity
5.8 Teaching a Language of High Prestige: Regaining Agency
5.9 Teacher Identity in the Linguistic Marketplace
5.10 Practical Implications for Language Teacher Education
References
Part 2: Emergent and Critical Perspectives on Language Teacher Education Programs
6 Cultivating the Critical: Professional Development as Ideological Development for Teachers of Racialized Bi/Multilingual Students
6.1 Introduction
6.2 A Critical Translingual Approach to PD: Theoretical Framings
6.3 Project Design and Methods
6.4 Findings
6.5 Discussion and Implications for Language Teacher Education
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 “The Words Flowed Like a River”: Taking Up Translanguaging in a Teacher Education Program
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Methodology
7.3 Translanguaging and Translanguaging in Teacher Education
7.4 Capitalizing on Our Languaging Practices: Cecilia’s Story of Her Pedagogical Practices
7.5 Serving the Campus Community Through Multilingual Library Services and Collections: Alison’s Story of Her Pedagogical Practice
7.6 Child Development Reflections: Melissa’s Story of Her Pedagogical Practice
7.7 Implications and Conclusion
References
8 Linguistic Journeys: Interrogating Linguistic Ideologies in a Teacher Preparation Setting
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Developing Teachers’ Stances and Leadership
8.3 Pre‐service Teachers at a Community College
8.4 Conclusion
References
Part 3: Confronting Ideologies of Ethnicity, Language, and Accent
9 Racialization of the Japanese Language in the Narratives of Brazilian Undergraduate Students
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Methods and objectives
9.3 The Racialization of the Japanese Language
9.4 Discussion
9.5 Conclusion
References
10 Ethnic Accent Bullying, EFL Teaching and Learning in Mongolia
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Ethnic Accent Bullying
10.3 Research Methodology
10.4 Overt Ethnic Accent Bullying
10.5 Covert Ethnic Accent Bullying
10.6 Conclusion
References
Part 4: Disrupting Raciolinguistic Ideologies
11 Englishes as a Site of Colonial Conflict: Nuances in Teacher Enactment of a Transraciolinguistic Approach
11.1 Immigrant Multilingual Teachers Crossing Transnational Boundaries
11.2 Raciolinguicizing World/Global Englishes in a “Post‐colonial” Transnational World
11.3 Methods
11.4 Findings
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 The Raciolinguistic Enregisterment and Aestheticization of ELT Labor
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Aestheticizing and Racializing Labor
12.3 The Consequences of Raciolinguistically Enregistered Aesthetic Labor in ELT
12.4 Concluding Thoughts
References
13 Issues of Legitimization, Authority, and Acceptance: Pakistani English Language Teachers and Their Confrontation of Raciolinguistic Ideologies in ELT/TESOL Classrooms
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Anecdotal Narrative and Raciolinguistic Ideologies
13.3 English as a Lingua Franca‐Aware Teaching and Learning
13.4 Two‐way Multilingual Turn in TESOL
13.5 Research on English Language Teaching in the Gulf
13.6 Conclusion and Implications for Confronting Raciolinguistic Ideologies
References
14 Language Student‐Teachers of a Racialized Background: The Transracial Construction of the Competent Language Teacher
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Empirical study
14.3 Findings
14.4 Discussion
14.5 Conclusion
References
Postface
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Categories for analysis of teachers’ knowledge and personality....
Table 2.2 Categories for analysis of teaching anxiety (Fuller, 1969).
Table 2.3 Comparative quantitative analysis of student teachers’ perception...
Table 2.4 Visualizations of professional knowledge.
Table 2.5 Teaching anxiety as defined by the two cohorts.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Three language teaching settings.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Overview of PD sessions, September 2021–June 2022.
Table 6.2 Participating teacher information.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Participant information.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Overview of language awareness‐based activities and lessons.
Table 13.2 Linguistic similarities between Arabic and Urdu.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Summary of self‐reported characteristics of the 11 participants....
List of Illustrations
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 (a) “Star,” (b) “Flat,” (c) “Explosion,” and (d) “Ball.”
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 A DLC language map for two‐way multilingual TESOL in practice.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Foreword: Filling the Gaps in Language Teacher Education: A Prologue
Begin Reading
Postface
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Language Teacher Identity
Confronting Ideologies of Language, Race, and Ethnicity
Edited by Sílvia Melo‐Pfeifer and Vander Tavares
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About the Authors
Sender Dovchin is a Senior Research Fellow and the Discipline Lead of Applied Linguistics and Languages Group at the School of Education, Curtin University, Australia. She is a Discovery Early Career Research Fellow by the Australian Research Council. She has authored numerous books and articles in international peer‐reviewed journals focusing on linguistic racism, translanguaging, and global Englishes.
Ivana Espinet is an Assistant Professor at Kingsborough Community College. She holds a PhD in Urban Education from the CUNY Graduate Center and an MA in Instructional Technology and Education from Teachers College, Columbia University. She is a former project director for CUNY New York State Initiative on Emergent Bilinguals. She is interested in the use of multimodal and collaborative methodologies to learn about emergent bilinguals in school and in out‐of‐school programs.
Cecilia M. Espinosa, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Early Childhood and Childhood at Lehman College/CUNY. Cecilia co‐authored the book Rooted in Strength: Using Translanguaging to Grow Multilingual Readers and Writers (with Ascenzi‐Moreno).
Ofelia García is a Professor Emerita in the PhD programs in Urban Education & Latin American, Iberian, and Latino Cultures at The Graduate Center, City University of New York. She has published extensively and has been elected to membership in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Education.
Melissa L. García teaches at the City University of New York (CUNY)—Lehman College. Her research interests examine children’s literature with emphasis on the Caribbean region, multilingual learners, and the global context. She earned a doctoral degree in Caribbean literature from the University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras. She has taught in kindergarten through college classrooms. She currently works with both pre‐ and in‐service teachers. Her most recent project is a two‐volume anthology on Caribbean children’s literature with the University of Mississippi Press.
Paula Garcia de Freitas has a PhD in Linguistics from the Federal University of Santa Catarina, holds a Master’s degree in Languages (Italian Language and Literature) from the University of São Paulo, and a Bachelor’s Degree in Languages—Portuguese and Italian—from the University of São Paulo. She is a Professor of Italian in the Languages Course at the Federal University of Paraná, collaborating with the Postgraduate course of this same university in Applied Linguistics and Language Teacher Training. Leader of the Research Group Núcleo de Estudos em Língua Italiana em Contexto Brasileiro (NELIB/CNPq), she is also active in the following areas: teaching methodology, Italian language, language teaching, language learning, and Italian culture, (language) teacher training, task‐based teaching, and learning, analysis, reflection, and production of didactic material.
Jonas Yassin Iversen is an Associate Professor of Education at Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences. His research focuses on multilingualism in education, including multilingual teaching strategies for newly arrived migrant students, preservice teachers’ experiences with multilingualism in teacher education, and minority language instruction inside and outside of mainstream education.
Tala M. Karkar‐Esperat serves as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Eastern New Mexico University. Her research is focused on multiliteracies, new literacies, preservice teachers’ literacies, literacy coaching, international students’ online literacies, and pedagogical literacy practices. She has studied teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge of multiliteracies and traditional literacies in the classroom and developed the pedagogical content knowledge of multiliteracies survey to guide pre‐service teacher preparation for teaching literacy in contemporary classrooms. She wishes to improve the scholarship surrounding preservice teachers’ use of new literacies and multiliteracies. Her recent publication is titled Compassionate Love: Improving International Student Online Learning Through New Literacies and is published in International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education.
Eric K. Ku is a Specially Appointed Associate Professor at Hokkaido University, Japan. His research interests span across both language teaching/learning and sociolinguistics, specifically language teacher identities, multilingualism, linguistic landscapes, and visual and arts‐based methods of qualitative research. He is the author of the newly published monograph Teachers of Multiple Languages: Identities, Beliefs and Emotions. He has also published in academic journals, such as Critical Discourse Studies and English Teaching & Learning, as well as chapters in various edited volumes. He currently serves on the Editorial Advisory Board of TESOL Journal.
Alison Lehner‐Quam is an Assistant Professor at Lehman College, City University of New York. She teaches information literacy sessions, develops and maintains children’s and education book collections, and provides individual research support for education students. Her areas of research include explorations into information literacy experiences of teacher education students as well as inquiry into the impact of culturally and linguistically relevant children’s book experiences on children and education students. She has served as chair of the Instruction for Educators Committee (ACRL EBSS) and also serves on the Maxine Greene Institute Board and the New York City School Library System Library Council.
Sílvia Melo‐Pfeifer is a Full Professor of Romance Language Teacher Education (University of Hamburg, Germany). Her main research interests relate to pluralistic and arts‐based approaches to language learning and teaching, in teacher education and in research. She has co‐edited Visualising Multilingual Lives (2019) and The Changing Face of the “native speaker”: Perspectives from Multilingualism and Globalization (2021), among other titles, and some issues of international journals, including International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (on multilingual interaction, in 2018), European Journal of Higher Education (on expatriate teachers in Higher Education, in 2019), and Language and Intercultural Communication (on Arts in Language Education, in 2020).
Fabiana Cristina Ramos Patrocínio has a degree in Languages Portuguese‐Japanese from São Paulo State University, with a specialization in teaching methodology. She worked as a Japanese language teacher at public schools in the states of São Paulo and Paraná and is a former substitute professor at the Department of Modern Foreign Languages of the Federal University of Paraná. She was a scholar of the Japanese government for linguistic and cultural studies in Japan by both the Japan Foundation and the Japanese government. She is interested in language studies within Critical Applied Linguistics, focusing on language as a social practice, critical literacy, culture and identity, and decolonial studies.
Vijay A. Ramjattan is an Academic English instructor at the University of Toronto. His research interests pertain to the intersection of language and race with respect to (language teaching) labor. His interdisciplinary peer‐reviewed work has appeared in such journals as Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, Race Ethnicity and Education, Intercultural Education, Journal of Industrial Relations, Applied Linguistics Review, and Teaching in Higher Education. He received his PhD in Adult Education and Community Development from the University of Toronto and is a member of the Language, Culture, and Justice Hub at Brandeis University.
Kashif Raza is a PhD student at the University of Calgary, specializing in Leadership, Policy, and Governance. He has previously taught in Pakistan, the United States, and Qatar. His research interests include policy development, educational leadership, TESOL/applied linguistics, ESP law, translation, and political economy. He is the co‐editor of Policy Development in TESOL and Multilingualism: Past, Present and the Way Forward.
Crystal Dail Rose graduated with a PhD in Curriculum and Instruction with a focus on Language, Diversity, and Literacy Studies from Texas Tech University in 2020, and worked on planning, piloting, and building a yearlong residency with the Tarleton State University US PREP Leadership Team, while serving in various capacities as Site Coordinator, Assistant Professor, Research Lead, Curriculum Redesigner, and edTPA Regional Coordinator. She is passionate about her work supporting preservice teachers as they teach in a year‐long residency in partner districts. Her research interests lie in practice‐based teaching, coaching, observation, and assessment as a way to challenge preservice teachers to engage multicultural, multilingual learners and to be day one ready to serve all students.
Kate Seltzer is an Assistant Professor of Bilingual and ESL Education at Rowan University whose overarching goal is to help schools and teachers build on students’ rich language practices while also disrupting their own ideologies about these students and their ways of using language. A former high school English Language Arts teacher in New York City, Dr. Seltzer currently teaches pre‐ and in‐service teachers of bilingual students. She is co‐author of the book, The Translanguaging Classroom: Leveraging Student Bilingualism for Learning as well as several book chapters and articles in journals such as English Education, Research in the Teaching of English, and TESOL Quarterly.
Bolormaa Shinjee is currently a PhD candidate at the School of Education, Curtin University, Australia. Previously, she worked as a Senior Lecturer at the National University of Mongolia and an English teacher in Japan. She obtained her Master’s degree in TESOL from Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia. Her main research interests include linguistic racism, language policy, and translanguaging.
Patriann Smith is an Associate Professor of Literacy Studies in the Department of Language, Literacy, Ed.D., Exceptional Education & Physical Education at the University of South Florida. Her research interests include Black immigrant literacies; Black immigrant Englishes; standardized and non‐standardized English ideologies; transcultural teacher education; international literacy assessment; and cross‐cultural, cross‐racial, and cross‐linguistic literacy practices. Her recent publications include “Characterizing competing tensions in Black immigrant literacies: Beyond partial representations of success” in the Reading Research Quarterly, “How does a Black person speak English? Beyond American language norms” in the American Educational Research Journal, and “A transraciolinguistic approach for literacy classrooms” in The Reading Teacher. She is co‐author with Dr. Arlette Willis and Dr. Gwendolyn McMillon of the book Affirming Black Students Lives and Literacies: Bearing Witness (2022) published by Teacher College Press and author of the forthcoming book Black Immigrant Literacies: Intersections of Race, Language, and Culture in the Classroom (2023) to be published by Teachers College Press.
Vander Tavares is a Postdoctoral Researcher in education at Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Norway (Norwegian: Høgskolen i Innlandet) and holds a PhD from York University, Canada. His research interests include language teacher identity development, critical second language education, internationalization of higher education, and identity in multilingual/multicultural contexts. In 2021, he was the recipient of the Equity, Diversity and Inclusion (EDI) Award by the Canadian Bureau for International Education (CBIE) for having demonstrated “significant contributions via behavior, research, initiatives or community engagement that fosters equity, diversity and inclusion through international education.” He is the author of International Students in Higher Education: Language, Identity, and Experience from a Holistic Perspective (Rowman & Littlefield), editor of Social Justice, Decoloniality, and Southern Epistemologies within Language Education: Theories, Knowledges, and Practices on TESOL from Brazil (Routledge).
Rahat Zaidi is a Professor and Chair of Language and Literacy in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary. Her research expertise focuses on multilingual literacies that clarify intersectional understandings across sociophobia, diversity, immigration, and pluralism. Through her research, she advances social justice and equity, transculturalism, and identity positioning in immigrant and transcultural contexts, all of which are particularly relevant and pertinent to the intertwining social, cultural, and political contexts in which society functions today.
Foreword: Filling the Gaps in Language Teacher Education: A Prologue
Ofelia García
Urban Education & Latin American, Iberian, and Latino Cultures Program, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA
In the last decade, dominant ideologies about language and language education have been questioned. Critical scholars have shown how the idea that “native speakers” have only one named language is false. The language education field has, for the most part, moved past a monolingual/monoglossic ideology, making more room for the complexity of language practices and of speakers. However, the focus and more inclusive views on students and their languaging have not impacted much the ideologies surrounding language teachers and their preparation. By foregrounding the experiences of language teachers of more than one language, as well as racialized language teachers, this volume by Sílvia Melo‐Pfeifer and Vander Tavares clearly shows how the language taught continues to be closely linked to one nation, one culture, one people, one dominant racial group, leaving teachers of multiple languages and identities behind.
Much research has focused on the learning context of the classroom and students, but little has focused on the main actor in the classroom—the language teacher and the ways they are impacted by sociopolitical ideologies about language. The multilingualism of learners, and multilingualism as a goal, is often recognized, but rarely are the multilingual/multiracial/multiethnic identities of language teachers acknowledged or valued. In fact, the paradigm of a “good” language teacher continues to be that of a “monolingual” “native speaker” of the “target language.” We continue to prefer to have one teacher teach one language, and we assign these teachers one language identity even when they are plurilingual. This volume brings into view this contradiction. It reminds us of the capacities of plurilingual and racialized language teachers whether they are teaching one language, two, or more. And at the same time, the contributions in this book often highlight these teachers’ anxieties about their own complex identities and languaging. Some chapters describe the ways in which these teachers are “othered” because they do not “fit” the traditional mold of what a “foreign” language teacher should be.
In many ways, and despite the advances in the applied linguistic and sociolinguistic fields, we have not broken free from the monolingual “othered” ideology in foreign language education. The language taught is made to be for “foreign” lands and cultures, taught preferably by someone who learned the language in that “foreign” land. For example, in the United States, Spanish‐speaking teachers in the Southwest were not allowed to be teachers of Spanish until 1965. Instead, teachers of Spanish were required to be those who learned “Castilian Spanish” in Spain and studied the literary texts of Cervantes and others. The Spanish of racialized Mexican American teachers was considered a “jargon,” unsuitable for literary pursuits and specially so to teach White Americans. It wasn’t until the second half of the 20th century that it was possible to even hire US Latinx teachers to teach Spanish (García & Alonso, 2021).
Although language teachers are supposed to advance the bilingualism of students, they are caught in bilingualism as an ideology (Heller, 2007), an ideologically constructed understanding as simply L1 + L2 produced by a monolingual who has learned the two languages sequentially and separately. That is, in most of the world, bilingualism is understood as simply what monolinguals acquire, not based on the complexity of local and Indigenous language practices. Thus, even teachers hired to be bilingual teachers most often cannot perform their duties as bilingual individuals.
Today, bilingual programs in the United States readily hire bilingual Latinx teachers from racialized groups. But for the most part, they are not allowed to behave as bilinguals themselves. That is, they often teach what is called “the Spanish side” of the instruction, leaving the “English side” to an English monolingual speaker. It is often said that to teach a language one has to behave monolingually. This is rampant in the scholarly literature, even when thinking of family language policy. One parent, one language is the common advice. The same for teachers. One teacher, one language is what works, creating the conditions for monolingual immersion and for subjectivities of inferiority among teachers who are themselves bilingual.
The common notion that speakers should always behave monolingually is what causes the insecurity, fear, and burnout among teachers whose multiple identities and complex language practices are not in any way valued. The concept of plurilingualism, which has opened up spaces in our understanding of complex multilingual practices, has also done little to challenge the ideologies about who language teachers should be. The European Union has adopted plurilingualism as a value, but language teachers continue to be expected to perform monolingually according to standards that have emerged from the way that White‐dominant monolingual teachers “do” language. Thus, the teachers’ plurilingualism is seldom acknowledged.
Even though the concept of translanguaging has also advanced our thinking about the value of local language practices in the development of bi/multilingualism, it is taken up more easily when the teacher herself has met monolingual standards and can be trusted to teach the named language according to external standards. That is, plurilingual teachers’ translanguaging lesson designs are seldom valued for leveraging the language practices of the local community. Instead, they are judged to be the result of the bilingual teachers’ “jargon,” their confusion, their mixing of languages, and their code‐switching. These chapters make clear that unless teacher education programs raise the teachers’ critical consciousness of the bilingual ideologies that are operating, White monolingual teachers of one language will continue to be more valued than others, despite the fact that these “other” teachers are able to connect to the local communities of linguistic and cultural practices more easily. Teachers who have been socialized into language through translanguaging practices can better understand the “academic” value of translanguaging, as well as how to use it to engage students in learning what is considered an additional language. Because these teachers often share histories of oppression and racialization with many of the students they teach, they are also able to enact care, cariño, and trust in ways that transform the students’ potential for learning.
Overall, these chapters make evident what the editors call “the pervasiveness of native‐speakerism, the monolingual mindset, the White listener‐observer norms, and blatant (linguistic) racism” (Introduction). It makes us notice the teachers and their lack of preparation to behave in ways that leverage the community’s translanguaging practices. It warns us that these monoglossic ideologies of bilingualism are actually doing us harm. By focusing on what Vijay Ramjattan (in this volume) calls “the esthetic qualities of teachers,” that is, their race, gender, and ways of speaking a monolingual standard, we are missing out. Speaking about English language teaching, Ramjattan warns of the “deskilling of the ELT profession,” since these teacher qualities are considered better “credentials” than actual teaching experience.
This last statement is the most important. What is real in language education? Is it to ensure that students acquire another language and become truly plurilingual? Or is that language education inculcates the values of monolingualism and Whiteness, resisting and forgetting processes of colonization and nation‐building that continue to operate today? It is this latter proposition that has operated in the education of language teachers in the past and that continues to work today.
Melo‐Pfeifer and Tavares’ volume is important because it brings to our consciousness how we are wasting an important resource, the resource of people, of teachers who have themselves experienced linguistic and social discrimination. These teachers can help students learn another language without othering, doing so with and alongside local communities, and ensuring their inclusion. It is time that we question our ideologies of who the “good” teachers of languages are and delink languages from the concepts with which they have operated—spoken homogeneously by one people, a symbol of one nation without social class, gender, racial, or linguistic differences. Only when we recognize the messiness of the language education enterprise would we be able to acknowledge the great asset of teachers whose identity is not wrapped up in one language, one culture, one nation, but who push these boundaries, as they have for centuries, and as they continue to do today.
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1Language Teacher Identity and Education in the Crossfire of Evolving Raciolinguistic and Monolingual Ideologies
Sílvia Melo‐Pfeifer1 and Vander Tavares2
1Department of Languages and Aesthetic Disciplines Education, Faculty of Education, University of Hamburg, Germany
2Department of Teacher Education and Pedagogy, Faculty of Education, Inland Norway, University of Applied Sciences, Norway
1.1 Introduction: How and Why Did We Get Here?
It is always difficult to explain how a volume is born or what moved the editors toward an editorial project around a specific theme. We would like to start this introduction by explaining the genesis of the present publication, which began at a time when in‐person activities were still significantly impacted by the global pandemic. Sílvia and Vander had never met in person before they decided to work together. And still up to this day, they have only met virtually. They had heard about each other’s work, they have a friend in common (who is also a common co‐author, Inês Cardoso), and they knew something about each other: that they both speak Portuguese and taught or were teaching (in) languages that do not happen to be their first languages.
Sílvia is Portuguese, and completed her entire education, from primary to higher education, including her PhD, in Portugal, where she studied to become a French and Portuguese language teacher. Her parents are the so‐called retornados from Angola, a country where they had lived in for more than 15 years before it regained its independence. During her PhD, she met “the one” in Spanish classes in Spain and moved to Germany some years later (in 2016), a country whose official language she never dreamed of learning before. She then became a full professor at a German university, being involved in French and Spanish language teacher education programs. She is a happy mother of two multilingual children, who are happy to know and speak the language of their “mãe maluca.” She, as a Portuguese speaker, usually teaches French and Spanish teacher candidates mostly in German or through translanguaging using German and one of the other two languages according to the audience. When she met Vander, she used to tell him how difficult and sometimes frustrating it was to adjust to another language and academic culture. She laughed about the “linguistic” incidents she caused (and still causes) during her teaching in German. Of course, humor and playfulness are great ways to get to know ourselves, express our fears and frustrations, and expose our emotional precarity (Dovchin, 2022).
Vander is Canadian–Brazilian with schooling experiences in both Canada and Brazil. Following his graduation from the PhD program in linguistics and applied linguistics at York University in Toronto, he moved to Norway, initially to take up a position of postdoctoral researcher to develop and conduct a research project on language teacher education and identity development. As part of the preparation for his upcoming position of associate professor at the same institution, he has been learning Norwegian as an additional language. Like Sílvia, Vander has also learned French and Spanish, but it has been the journey of now learning Norwegian—for a different purpose (work), under different life circumstances (as an adult immigrant worker), within a prescribed time frame of two years, and in a new country—which has been the most challenging for him, both linguistically and emotionally. Indeed, in conversations with Sílvia, Vander shared his feelings of frustration, anxiety, and also embarrassment considering his numerous linguistic and social faux‐pas in Norwegian. In conversation about these experiences, Vander and Sílvia became even more aware about how ideologies of language manifest themselves in each other’s contexts (Norway and Germany) and how they navigate them while being the other.
So, when the two of us met online, it was academic love at first sight! We engaged in conversations that helped us better understand our own academic multilingual lives, and dig deep(er) into our memories to understand our fears, anxieties, coping strategies, and more or less humorous ways of dealing with all of the above. In that meeting, we also discovered that we were both teachers (or teacher educators) of two languages, expatriates, and invested in learning the language of the countries that are now included in our repertoire of home: German and Norwegian. While this narrative is being constructed about our origins and languages, we should acknowledge that, as time went by, we started crisscrossing our narratives with others putting forward issues related to race, ethnicity, nationality, and accent. And we discovered ourselves being multilingual expatriate White academics, both based in the so‐called Global North.
When Rachel Greenberg, the commissioning editor, reached out to Sílvia with an invitation to propose a volume to Wiley Blackwell, the book was sort of already instilled in our minds! We invited those authors we knew personally (or whom we received advice about through colleagues) who have worked to address different aspects of multilingual identities of language teachers, raciolinguistic ideologies, and teachers’ agency in disrupting raciolinguistic ideologies. The first title we proposed for the book was Foreign Language Teacher Identity: Confronting Ideologies of Language, Race, and Ethnicity.
We did not think about the name of the book too much until January 2023, when Ofelia García agreed to write the Foreword. Her first question was as simple as it was disruptive: “Do you really want to call it foreign languages?” (email exchange). She was challenging us to become more “accurate” and “inclusive” (her words), exactly as we wanted to be from the very beginning, but we needed the cognitive scaffolding to really become. It was not just that some chapters were not directly connected to the so‐called foreign language education: it was about misrepresenting the speakers and the relationship they establish with their languages. It was misrepresenting the teaching practices of teacher educators and practitioners represented in the volume, and equally important, it was an act of othering toward a research field that so intimately connects to others. “Foreign” was dividing, unequally, teachers (and their students), languages, contexts, and practices where flexibility, complexity, and fluidity have been the norm, but hardly recognized as such.
Following our biographical accounts, the spontaneous meeting of the two editors, and the encounters with experts we had along the way, this volume has emerged to address language teacher identity and professional development at the intersection of ideologies of language, race, and ethnicity—concepts which we will address in the next section. In this sense, our research says as much about us as it does about the object being researched. The same can be said of this project, though not only in relation to the two editors but also and together with all contributing authors.
Language Teacher Identity: Confronting Ideologies of Language, Race, and Ethnicity covers issues and gaps in connection with the latest developments in research about language teacher education, particularly around language teacher identity. The field of language (teacher) education has been struggling with issues related to monolingualism and native‐speakerism (Holliday, 2015; Slavkov et al., 2022), perceptions of what counts as competence and authenticity in the classroom, and the accommodation of diversity in school systems. So, while the multilingual turn in (language) education has been announced (May, 2014), the pervasiveness of monolingual constructs prevails, through which the language teacher being characterized as native speaker still holds currency over terms that reflect the world’s reality, such as the multicompetent speaker (Cook, 1992; see also Ortega, 2014, for a critique).
In the broader field of teacher education, the “place” of teachers with a transnational background has been acknowledged and their professional paths have received growing attention (Bräu et al., 2014; Georgi et al., 2011; Lengyel and Rosen, 2015; Rosen and Lengyel, 2023). However, in the field of language teacher education, in general, the study of those issues is still to be developed, with particular emphasis on linguistically, ethnically, and racially minoritized teachers. Additionally, despite the recognition that language teachers draw on their multilingual repertoires to teach and construct their professional identities, a significant gap remains in relation to exploring the experiences of teachers who teach two or more languages. In other words, our knowledge of language teacher experiences has relied primarily on associating one teacher with one language in the context of instruction and identity development, despite the boundary‐breaking complexities within experiences of identity construction for language teachers acknowledged in recent research. This volume contributes to bridging some of these gaps with investigations that critically discuss ideologies of race, ethnicity, language/accent, (im)migration, and their impact on language teacher identity, aiming at empowering minority and minoritized language teachers from the earlier years of their careers onward.
1.2 Addressing the Key Concepts of This Volume
When defining the scope of this volume, the first compositum we needed to disentangle was “language teacher identity,” once we had agreed to remove the qualifier “foreign.” “Language teacher identity” is made of three complex concepts, each adding a new intricate layer of interpretation to the other(s) and leading to a transformation of each and all of them simultaneously: “language,” “teacher,” and “identity.” Each of these terms is complex per se: what is a language? What can be defined as a language? What makes a teacher? What constitutes our identity? Or, in partially combined duets, what is language identity? What makes a language teacher?
At a glance, recent discussions inspired by postcolonial and decolonial theories (Makoni and Pennycook, 2006) and others focused on translanguaging (García and Li Wei, 2013) have exposed the need to rethink the founding concept of “language” itself: one that has been embedded in Eurocentric and colonial nation‐building ideologies that tend to associate one set of grammar features—that spoken by the majority—exclusively to one country and to one people. Such construction of languages is therefore more political than it is linguistic as it fuels and reproduces (mono)normative ideologies at the expense of linguistic diversity, especially that which is reflective of minoritized speakers. In studies based on translanguaging within bilingual education, the argument put forward against named languages rests on the fact that such labels misrepresent the real, multilayered, and multisemiotic repertoires of bilingual (and often minoritized) individuals. In this context, the languages of bilinguals are not only categorized hierarchically but also viewed as two distinct (monolingual) meaning‐making systems that follow strict social conventions of language use.
Taking this issue into account, our conception of language is that of a social practice of its users (Ortega, 2014), rather than a decontextualized set of pre‐given rules (phonological, morphological, and so on). If we think of pedagogical approaches, chapters included in Macedo (2019) have already vastly illustrated how colonial languages are still mistaught, underlying the need to decolonize the (language) curriculum, by which we mean resisting epistemic monoculture and hegemonic language ideologies that delegitimize the multilingual speaker and their language use in everyday social practices. One way of resisting such ideologies is through translanguaging in the classroom, as a way to co‐construct meaning and legitimize students’ and teachers’ repertoires (reminder: teachers are multilingual too!), and by including translanguaging in language teacher education programs (Prada, 2019). The chapters by Seltzer, Espinosa and colleagues, and Espinet all depart from such a perspective and demonstrate, both critically and creatively, what translanguaging in (language) teacher education programs can look like, being transformative for both teachers and their (future) students alike.
As for “teacher,” the discussion is just apparently simple. Is being a teacher a career, a profession, a métier, a passion? What makes the specificity of a teacher as a “professional” in comparison to other professionals? Teachers are said to be responsible for educating the future generations, but this assertion should be taken carefully because they are not the only agents at play within the school system. They can enact linguistic and educational policies, but also resist them (independently of their scope and their expected outcomes). As Menken and García (2020) recalled, teachers, regardless of being teachers of languages or other school subjects, are agentive actors that can turn out to be policymakers in the classroom and the school at large. Nevertheless, teachers are also victims of worsening working conditions, both material and social; are deprived of voices in some teaching contexts; and/or have to cope with increasing mental health issues, such as burnout, insecurity, and fear.
And then we arrive at the third concept of the formula: identity. Post‐structuralist perspectives reject identity as stable, fixed, and unidimensional, characterized by a single character trait (Ayres‐Bennett and Fisher, 2022). Reducing identity to underscore a language, a nationality, or a religion, as Maalouf (1998) warned, is the shortcut to extremist positions. Now that we have foregrounded what identity is not, it is then possible to assert that identity is multifaceted, negotiated, co‐constructed, and reconstructed in social (inter)action, which considers the aims and needs of the individual as well as the features of the surrounding social context. This is the position espoused in this introduction. This explains why one might choose to make salient (and even assert) a facet of what they understand to be their identity on one occasion, but enact other facets more prominently on another. Some characteristics involved in the enactment of one’s identity might be denied, claimed, or auto‐ and hetero‐assigned at different points in time and space. Identity, Block and Corona (2016) claimed, is an assemblage of units such as age, gender, sex, sexual orientation, ethnicity, race, and a constellation of affiliations, such as religious, linguistic, familial, or professional affiliation. Identity is intersectional, meaning that each characteristic enriches, alters, and adds to the dynamics between the others.
In line with the complexity we have delineated in relation to the three concepts aforementioned, the identity of a language teacher is not stable or determined by the fact that he or she teaches a (specific) language, as some literature have us believe by describing the identity of ESL, French, or Portuguese teachers. It is fluid (Neokleous and Krulatz, 2020) and influenced by sociological aspects such as gender, age, class, race, ethnic origin(s), accent, among others. And it is also influenced, and sometimes determined, by one’s linguistic profile, including the language(s) one teaches, the languages learned previously, and which beliefs one holds regarding language education: the reasons why they believe that learning a specific language is (or is not) useful for a specific target audience in a particular sociolinguistic context. On a more macro, historical, and geopolitical level, the identity of a language teacher is also determined by their position in the local society and the value this society attributes to (being) a teacher, in general, and to a language teacher, more specifically.
This volume focuses on two groups who remain underrepresented in the literature and consequently deserve more recognition, because of the hyperdiversity of our societies at the very least: teachers of two or more languages and racialized language teachers. While these two categories are not mutually exclusive (as it would be the case of racialized teachers of two languages), we will shortly provide a separate account of the two groups, in order to magnify what makes them distinct per se. The first theme, on teachers of two or more languages, covers special constructs that are prominent in the default “language teacher” literature (meaning the teacher of a specific language), but analyzes them with a multilingual focus. Language teacher knowledge, teacher anxiety, and teacher emotions, for example, are topics already covered in the literature (De Costa, 2015). The novelty of this volume is that such issues are addressed not only side by side, but also in hybridity, and through a multilingual lens: teachers of two or more languages, typically when these languages are not the teachers’ L1, face some of the same prejudices and obstacles which teachers of one language do (e.g. does the teacher speak “well” and “correctly” in both languages, could he or she be a native speaker—based on not only the accent but also their look and behavior—if so, in which language? And why should this matter?).
Yet, teaching two or more languages brings those issues to a more complicated, intersectional place: are those emotional experiences comparable in (teaching) each language? Are those feelings dealt with equally and why (not)? What kind(s) of self‐perception does a teacher of two or more languages develop? What sociological aspects emerge more predominantly in each language identity? How do issues of power manifest in relation to teaching each language? How do language ideologies differently influence each teaching context? The chapters by Melo‐Pfeifer and Tavares, Tavares, Iversen, and Ku exploit issues related to experiences of identity construction when teaching multiple languages and of being confronted with linguistic ideologies through/and discourses about professional competence that clash with one’s own beliefs, self‐perception, life experiences, and teaching qualifications. These critical moments of self‐reflection, which offer potential for personal and professional development, are difficult to navigate as language teachers work to prioritize curriculum mandates, students’ learning and expectations, their own well‐being, and their relationships with colleagues and, sometimes, parents: relationships that may even be in conflict.
The second theme covers issues related to teachers’ racialized identities, which are perceived as either conforming to or transgressing social and cultural expectations tied to a specific language as a result of prevailing raciolinguistic ideologies. We understand raciolinguistic ideologies as those intersecting and mutually naturalizing linguistic and racial categories (Rosa, 2019; Rosa and Flores, 2020). In the field of language and teacher education, they refer to how racialized teachers’ language practices (and professional competence) come to be perceived as a deviation from the “standard” or, on the other hand but by the same token, as legitimate. In the chapters included in this volume, the racialization of pre‐service and in‐service language teachers is not limited to Indigenous populations or immediately connected to colonialism. Here, racialization also permeates the experiences of pre‐service teachers of Japanese in Brazil who are considered illegitimate, and actually in some cases denied admission into a Japanese language program, due to the lack of an Asian phenotype. Conversely, racialization also enables in‐service teachers of Spanish in Germany to be able to “pass” for a native speaker of Spanish because of their perceived skin color and complexion that approximate the teacher to an imagined native speaker. Therefore, the connection between race and language (Alim et al., 2020) becomes salient to understand the identity construction of language teachers (and researchers, such as in Ortega, 2021, and some chapters in the present book).
In this volume, chapters also illustrate the ways in which raciolinguistic ideologies intersect with language and language teaching ideologies (Ortega, 2021). Their combined presence only further demonstrates the pervasiveness of native‐speakerism, the monolingual mindset, the White listener–observer norms, and blatant (linguistic) racism. The chapters by Patrocínio and de Freitas; by Smith, Rose, and Karkar‐Esperat; and by Melo‐Pfeifer bring to light some of the struggles language teachers may encounter simply because they do not look like an imagined native speaker of the target language, echoing Rosa’s argument on race and language (Rosa, 2019). Particularly in the study by Melo‐Pfeifer, we are able to understand that moments of struggle are also moments of agency in which teachers sometimes manage to manipulate dominant ideologies in their favor, yet without openly challenging them.
Transversal to the chapters on the racialized bodies of language teachers is another raciolinguistic ideology: passing for a native speaker. It has been claimed that the ideology of the native speaker is a zombie or walking‐dead concept with malignant power (Slavkov et al., 2022; see particularly the introduction). Indeed, the pervasive effects of native‐speakerism are very real: Melo‐Pfeifer analyzes how pre‐service teachers consider their ability to pass or not pass for a native speaker as a threshold of professional competence, while Raza, as a self‐identifying non‐native teacher, addresses linguistic racism and prejudices in his teaching practices as a way to disrupt prejudice.
The combination of the issues covered in this volume illustrates the complexity of language teacher identity and the impossibility of studying it more comprehensively unless we, on the one hand, interrogate the ideologies and mainstream perspectives governing the understanding of each concept in isolation (i.e. language, teacher, identity) and unless we, on the other hand, also address the interconnectedness of raciolinguistic and dominant language (education) ideologies.
1.3 The Volume in a Nutshell
This volume is thematically organized around four areas that individually deal with specific issues in connection with language teacher identity. While this thematic organization might be at odds with the very principle of addressing the intersectionality of language teacher identity, it helps to unfold the different layers of the construct “language teacher identity,” such as teachers’ own multilingualism, their multilingual pedagogies that challenge the notion of “language,” and their strategies to cope with and disrupt their racialization and the racialization of their métier. Taken separately, each section offers a specific lens to underscore the uniqueness of a specific characteristic of language teachers’ identities. Taken together, in a posteriori interpretation, they expose the complexity of identity construction for teachers of one or more languages, through a superposition of all identity layers, offering a kaleidoscopic vision of what it might look like to be a (racialized) teacher of two or more languages.
The first thematic area examines identity‐related experiences of teachers of two (or more) languages; the second foregrounds the enactment of multilingual pedagogies, translanguaging, and their transformative potential in terms of identity construction; the third explores the impact of ideologies of ethnicity, language, and accent on both identity construction and pedagogical practices of teachers; and the final focuses on the ways in which teachers employ agency to disrupt raciolinguistic ideologies.
Part 1 is titled Experiences of Identity Construction of Multilingual Language Teachers and encompasses four chapters about experiences related to language identity construction of teachers of two or more languages. By focusing on this particular population, the chapters underscore different struggles and positionalities of teachers of two languages. They offer methodologically differentiated and in‐depth accounts of what it means to be confronted with monolingual and market‐based ideologies and expectations, leading to distress and anxiety, emotional setbacks, and emotional labor.
The first chapter in this part, by Sílvia Melo‐Pfeifer and Vander Tavares, is titled Future Teachers of Two Languages in Germany: Self‐reported Professional Knowledge and Teaching Anxieties. Melo‐Pfeifer and Tavares aim to understand how these individuals (re)present themselves as future teachers of two languages in Germany by combining written and visual productions made by the student teachers themselves. In this chapter, Melo‐Pfeifer and Tavares analyze and compare the self‐created profiles of the student teachers as future teachers of two languages (either two modern languages or one modern language and German as the language of schooling). Combining content and multimodal analysis over the data, the authors map out the differences within and across the student teachers’ representations of disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge, and the emotions attached to their work, namely, teaching anxiety, according to their language teaching profiles. The authors draw out implications for language teacher education programs based on the analysis.
The second chapter in this part, by Eric K. Ku, is titled Exploring Identities and Emotions of a Teacher of Multiple Languages: An Arts‐based Narrative Inquiry Using Clay Work. Ku works with a South Korean scholar at a university in Japan who has taught Korean and English language courses as well as conducted content courses using Japanese and English as the media of instruction. The author employs semi‐structured interviews and uses a clay work session to explore the identity and emotional dynamics involved at the intersection of teaching multiple languages and using multiple languages as the medium of instruction. Data analysis is conducted through thematic analysis of interview and clay work data with a particular focus on the use of conceptual metaphors. Ku demonstrates that teaching multiple languages involves identity/emotional work that is constantly changing, multifaceted, and possibly in conflict and fragmented. Ku concludes by discussing the findings in relation to language teacher education and reflecting on the methodological applications of clay work in language teaching research.
The next chapter, by Vander Tavares, is titled Emotional Geographies of Teaching Two Languages: Power, Agency, and Identity. In this chapter, Tavares argues that the experiences of L2 teachers who teach two or more languages have received less attention in the scholarly literature due to the monolingual foundation of language education (research). Following an auto‐ethnographic approach (resorting to memory and teaching journals) and the concept of “emotional geographies” (Hargreaves, 2001), Tavares (re)interprets and discusses his own experiences as a teacher of two languages in Canada: English (mostly as an additional language) and Portuguese (predominantly as a heritage language). He problematizes and deconstructs three language ideologies (monolingualism, native‐speakerism, and linguistic purism) that emotionally impacted his sense of self as an L2 teacher and his interactions with his students. Tavares illustrates that when his professional expertise and role as a teacher were questioned or rejected, by either students or even the students’ parents, moral and professional distance toward students emerged as a result.
The first part is concluded with Jonas Yassin Iversen’s chapter, titled Teaching Languages in the Linguistic Marketplace: Exploring the Impact of Policies and Ideologies on My Teacher Identity Development. Iversen explores his experience as a teacher of English, Norwegian, and Spanish in Norway, teaching in the “linguistic marketplace,” where languages are commodified and valued according to demand. Iversen reflects on the complex interplay of different language ideologies in each of these teaching contexts as follows: teaching English as a language of “high prestige” to newly arrived migrant students to Norway; teaching Norwegian as a language of “necessity” to (the same) newly arrived students, who wish to transfer into Norwegian‐language‐based mainstream education for social mobility; and teaching Spanish as a language of “convenience” in a lower secondary context. Following an auto‐ethnographic approach, Iversen reveals the impact that such configurations had on his own teacher identity development as he attempted to implement multilingual teaching approaches within the three teaching settings. The author concludes by calling on teacher education programs to better prepare future language teachers to understand, work with, and navigate language policies that impact the professional identity of language teachers.
Part 2 is titled Emergent and Critical Perspectives on Language Teacher Education Programs and includes three contributions whose investigations are situated in the context of initial teacher education. Although they focus on the American context, their findings can inspire researchers and practitioners all over the world, as the authors reflect on struggles that are common to other geographic and sociolinguistic settings, such as the need to adopt linguistically and culturally responsive teaching practices across the board. The three contributions have translanguaging pedagogies in common, which were developed powerfully in the United States after its emergence in the Welsh context and are currently being reconfigured and problematized to better fit other contexts, going beyond the emergent bilingual school population in the United States.
In Cultivating the Critical: Professional Development as Ideological Development for Teachers of Racialized Bi/multilingual Students, Kate Seltzer describes a year‐long professional development (PD) project that invited three teachers of English to engage with critical theories of language, namely translanguaging, and to unpack how those theories disrupt deficit‐oriented perceptions of and approaches to teaching racialized bi/multilingual students. Seltzer outlines the PD series and explores what surfaced when teachers were given the opportunity to grapple with ideologies that inform deficit‐informed perceptions and approaches. Findings show that when given the space and time to do so, teachers articulated critical shifts in their thinking and connected those shifts to more expansive pedagogical possibilities for their students. Seltzer’s project has meaningful implications for language teacher education, particularly for those teachers who identify as White, monolingual English speakers teaching racialized bi/multilingual students.
The chapter The Words Flowed Like a River: Taking Up Translanguaging in a Teacher Education Program by Cecilia M. Espinosa, Melissa García, and Alison Lehner‐Quam, presents narratives of the ways the three of them—two teacher educators and an education librarian—actively advocated for translanguaging in education programs. Espinosa, García, and Lehner‐Quam propose a perspective of strength and possibility that normalizes their students’ bi/multilingualism and views it as an asset and resource. The authors describe the ways in which they have begun to integrate translanguaging and an awareness of raciolinguistic perspectives into their practices and reflect on how these were transformative for both college student teachers and teachers alike. In their own words, the authors make recommendations for (language) teacher education based on their experiences as, the “three stories illustrate that change can begin with individual agency and faculty coming together to re‐imagine what it means to take a perspective of strength towards the languaging practises our teacher candidates bring with them.”
In Linguistic Journeys: Interrogating Linguistic Ideologies in a Teacher Preparation Setting
