Lost Battlefields of Britain E-Book

Martin Hackett

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 298

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2005

Beschreibung

The British Isles have witnessed hundreds of battles, both great and small, in their two thousand years of recorded history, but not all are widely remembered today. Many of these battles are well known, due to their far-reaching consequences, their sheer scale or the involvement of famous protagonists. Even so, many battles have never been properly investigated, perhaps because their importance was never understood or because they have never been included in previous books on British battlefields. In this book, Martin Hackett examines ten forgotten British battles, covering the length and breadth of Britain and some 900 years of warfare. For each, he provides a concise account of the battle itself and analyses its military, archaeological and political significance. Each entry is accompanied by current photographs of the location, a modern map of the battlefield with suggested tours and information on exploring the site today.

Leseprobe

LOST

BATTLEFIELDS

OF BRITAIN

MARTIN HACKETT

Endpapers, front: The Severn valley at Welshpool; rear: Re-enactment of Montrose’s men’s initial salvo at the battle of Inverlochy.

First published in 2005

This paperback edition published in 2011 by

The History Press

The Mill, Brimscombe Port

Stroud, Gloucestershire, GL5 2QG

www.thehistorypress.co.uk

This ebook edition first published in 2013

All rights reserved

© Martin Hackett, 2005, 2011, 2013

The right of Martin Hackett to be identified as the Author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

This ebook is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

EPUB ISBN 978 0 7509 5410 5

Original typesetting by The History Press

Contents

General Touring Information

Acknowledgements

Map of Great Britain Showing the Battle Sites

Introduction

1

Buttington

893

2

St Albans

22 May 1455

3

Norwich

27 August 1549

4

Powick Bridge

23 September 1642

5

Lyme

20 April to 15 June 1644

6

Montgomery

18 September 1644

7

Inverlochy

2 February 1645

8

Stow-on-the-Wold

21 March 1646

9

Killiecrankie

27 July 1689

10

Goudhurst

21 April 1747

Bibliography

General Touring Information

The author has personally visited and photographed, during the last twelve months, each battle site listed within this book, so that the information you read and the photographs you see should be as accurate and as up-to-date as possible; those photographs without a specific credit were all taken by the author. The majority of the photographs were taken during the winter months, so be prepared for some fields to look different if they are rich with crops where once bare soil lay; similarly with hedges and trees, their natural spring and summer growth may now obscure some landmarks that were clearly visible before, so be prepared for things to look a little different. Also the land use, infrastructure, road systems and rights of way can all change, sometimes at very short notice. If you encounter difficulties in following any tour then we would very much like to hear about it, so that we can incorporate changes in future editions. Your comments should be sent to the publisher at the address provided at the front of this book. With each battle is a scale map designed to illustrate the key locations on the tour and, where applicable, the key points are cross-referenced to the text. So that you derive maximum value and enjoyment from your exploration of these battle sites, I would suggest that you equip yourself with the following items:

• Appropriate maps. A general road map to navigate to the appropriate location and, if more detail is required, then either the Landranger or Explorer series of maps from the Ordnance Survey, which are available from all good booksellers in most high streets of the UK.

• Lightweight waterproof clothing and robust footwear. These are essential, especially if one leaves the footpaths of built-up areas.

• A compass. This is always a useful tool, and it allows the reader to verify the locations of troops and their movements upon the battlefield.

• A camera and spare films. The author always carries a cheap, disposable camera as emergency cover for his more expensive equipment, and they have saved the day on more than one occasion.

• A notebook to record details of any photograph taken and to jot down any changes that have occurred, with any information that you feel would be useful to the publishers.

• Food and drink. Although in Britain, in theory, you are never far from a retail outlet, there are roads in Wales and Scotland where, even in the twenty-first century, passing another car can be a rarity, especially in winter. It is therefore sensible always to take spare drinking water with you and some light refreshments, particularly if you are planning to do some of the full-length walks.

• Binoculars. An excellent aid especially when verifying the location and interpreting how much each army could have seen of the other when they were deploying for battle.

The author has visited all of the sites by vehicle as not all of them are accessible by rail, but in each chapter the details of the nearest railway station have been provided so that travellers can make their own arrangements if they intend to visit by train. Within each chapter are details on other attractions to see in the area, but this is not a definitive list; as the reader will appreciate, whole brochures are available on some towns and cities and it would be impossible to include every attraction or indeed cater for every taste. The author would advise anyone planning to visit any of these sites to contact the local tourist office, as they can provide news of any special events and are generally happy to post out information, including maps and places with accommodation. The author has contacted or visited over forty tourist offices in the last year and has received excellent service from all of them. To assist the reader, each chapter has the details for the local tourist office included.

For those disabled visitors wishing to visit a battle site, please take note of the routes and location points detailed. While it may not be possible to explore a complete site because of the nature of the terrain, wherever practicable the author has given vantage points, many of which can be reached by road. So, depending on the level of disability, the visitor should still be able to enjoy the majority of locations within the book. Buttington, St Albans, Norwich, Powick Bridge, Lyme, Montgomery, Stow and Goudhurst all fall into this category, while some parts of both Inverlochy and Killiecrankie could also be visited.

SOME DOS AND DON’TS

Touring a battlefield can be an interesting, a rewarding and sometimes a most emotional experience, especially if you have studied the battle beforehand or are related to people who were involved in it. However, it is clear from my tours that although there are some locals who know that a battle was fought in their area, there will also be people who are totally unaware that there was any kind of military action there, so be patient if you are quizzed and simply explain the reason for your interest in the location.

Wherever possible, all of the routes are on the public highway, along public footpaths and bridleways, or across other recognised footpaths – a harbour wall for example. Therefore, when walking, please keep to these designated rights of way, but if you do stray and you are asked to leave the land you are on, then please do so immediately by the quickest and safest way possible. Particularly in Scotland, keep to the designated paths; there are bogs and ditches that lie unseen, covered by layers of moss and heather which can cause injury if one is unlucky enough to step down into one.

Always be aware, especially in rural areas, of not blocking gates or drives to farms when choosing a place to park. If you take a dog with you, and Rosie accompanied the author on all of his walks without any problem, remember that there are times when the dog must be on the lead both in the town and the country; this is for both the dog’s safety and that of wildlife and farm animals. If there is no clear parking place, then choose an open stretch of road where vehicles coming from both directions can clearly see your position. If you have to use a gate to continue your walk, then please ensure that the gate is closed, and secured behind you, before you move on.

Do not feed animals that you find on the walks: it is dangerous to the animal and potentially dangerous to the person providing the food, as these are wild animals, not domesticated pets. The owner of one estate upon which a battle site encroaches was fortunate enough to see and stop a woman feeding crisps to one of her Highland cows; the woman was pleased that the cow appreciated the crisps sufficiently to nuzzle his 24in pointed horns up the side of her head and face, unaware that a sudden move could have led to her being blinded or gored.

Many country estates have shoots or equestrian events and, although the author is not aware that any battle sites in this book are near such an estate, as stated above, things change. Therefore if you hear gunshots, or there are signs indicating that there is a shoot or a cross-country event in progress, make sure that you are on the correct route and, if unsure, try and verify with the local farmer or landowner where the event is taking place and what walks will be affected.

Finally, as one sometimes reads in the press, it happens that someone may find a small artefact: a ring, a coin or perhaps a cannon ball. If you find any artefacts upon the battle site, then if possible leave them where they are and mark their location with a stone or stick, and then photograph a landmark in relation to the object so that the marker can be found; use a Global Positioning System instrument if you have one. Then contact the landowner and the local police, who will be able to put you in touch with the relevant archaeological department. If it is likely that the artefact could be damaged or taken by someone else by leaving it, then, before removing it, mark and record the location as above and then report the matter to the local landowner; if you cannot determine who this is, then the local police will take all the necessary details. As regards stone structures such as castles, walls and buildings, or memorials or cairns that have been placed there to remember the dead, these should not be damaged or marked in any way, and none of the items placed upon these monuments should be removed.

Acknowledgements

Although this book was written alone, no work as involved as this could have been realised without the help and patience of some of my closest friends and family. To Rosie, Annie’s dog, who has spooked us on more than one occasion by encountering something on the battle site that we have not seen or heard – a rabbit or perhaps some spirit lingering from a bygone age? To Sabrina, for being patient whenever we embarked upon another Sunday ‘route march’ and for all her assistance with the photographs. To Imogen, whose stimulating questions have aided me in my interpretation of the disposition of the troops upon the battlefields of Powick Bridge and Montgomery, and especially for her map-reading in some of the coldest February weather I have known. To Annie, for visiting each of the sites with me and for being patient beyond measure both in the field and en route to the isolated places that we have visited, while she unwillingly learned more about the infinite variety of British military history than she had ever dreamed existed. To Derek, for his assistance with the Archaeologia Cambrensis and his all-round support.

While travelling the mainland of Britain through the short hours of daylight when the window of opportunity for photography was particularly fine, I have encountered wisdom, assistance and fascinating snippets of information that together have made my research so much more enjoyable. It is incredible how much local knowledge is stored about the history of ‘this sceptred isle’, and the fact that much of that knowledge has been passed on from parent to child makes it all the more priceless. Woods do not get known as ‘Dead Men’s’, for no reason, lanes do not get entitled ‘Gore Street’ for nothing, and the answers to many small but important historical interpretations are still there just waiting to be revealed. I therefore thank all the many local people I have spoken to as I have travelled the length and breadth of Britain researching this book. Turning more to the academic side, I must thank Vanessa for her insight into the battle of Killiecrankie and the kindness that she extended to Annie and myself during our visit there, and to Ben Notley of the National Trust for Scotland for his help after my return from Scotland. My thanks also to Margaret Wilson for her tour and invaluable archives that allowed me to complete my work on St Albans, and Davina Mansell for her help, also with St Albans. My work on Norwich could not have been completed without the assistance of Brian Ayers, the County Archaeologist for Norfolk, to whom I am much indebted. To the people of Lyme Regis Philpot Museum, who allowed me to take notes from the archives and exhibits there that were relevant to the great siege. My thanks also to Tom Browning for his invaluable work on Goudhurst, especially the information on William Sturt. Giles Dickson and Winston Williamson’s help was very beneficial to my investigations at Donnington. My thanks to the many tourist offices that I have visited or contacted who have forwarded bundles of guides and maps allowing me to plan my accommodation and my site visits long before I arrived at the location. My thanks to the Best Western chain of hotels, who assisted by managing to accommodate my requirements for five hotels in six nights, with Annie and Rosie, as we did our whistle-stop tour of Scotland, taking in nine battlefields in six days during blizzards and howling winds. On the battles from the English Civil War, I must express considerable gratitude to Paul Meekins, Susanne Atkin and the re-enactors from the Fairfax Battalia for their patient assistance. Finally, whole-hearted appreciation to Geoff Buxton, whose photographs came to my rescue at the eleventh hour when previously well-laid plans had been unravelled.

SPECIAL THANKS

When embarking upon an exercise as involved as a historical work that covers nine centuries of warfare, there are times when an author can become thwarted. Perhaps a vital piece of information is required to complete a chapter, or a photograph of a specific event is needed but none can be located. This section is dedicated to those people and organisations that have helped the author make this book as complete and as accurate as it can be at the time of going to print, though it is true to say that no work is ever truly finished as there is always something that could be added, or something that could be removed, or some new piece of evidence that comes to light just as the work is completed.

Geoff Buxton – photographer

To Geoff Buxton for the photographs of the Jacobites and smugglers.

Email: [email protected]

Telephone: [phone]

The Mercian Guard, the Albini Household, Mark and Sarah Glover, Keith Venables

These Dark Age re-enactors provide living history and authentic Saxon, Viking and Norman displays.

Authentic Dark Age weapons and equipment can be found at Thorgrim’s Emporium.

Details of the above groups can be found on the website www.mercianguard.co.uk.

Email: [email protected]

Leader Sturaesman: Paul Crossley

Secretary/Treasurer/Publicity Officer: Lucy Corke

Group Training Officer: Paul Hims

To Lucy Corke for the photographs of the above groups in action.

Paul Meekins Military & History Books

Specialising in military and social history from Roman times to the Second World War. Located at Valentines, Long Marston, Stratford-upon-Avon, CV37 8RG.

Telephone or fax: [phone]

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.paulmeekins.co.uk

The Fairfax Battalia – re-enactment group

The Fairfax Battalia re-creates a seventeenth-century infantry company, and aims to entertain, educate and stimulate interest in the English Civil War period. Over the years the Battalia has built up a reputation for high standards of performance and historical accuracy, and has performed at venues such as the Tower of London and English Heritage sites. Events range from large battle re-enactments to detailed drill displays and living histories, which offer a mixture of military and civilian roles, as well as television, museum and education work. Credits include Channel 4 Time Team, BBC’s History File, A History of Britain and Battlefield Britain series.

For further information, please visit the website www.fairfax.org.uk or contact Paul Meekins on 01789 722434 or via [email protected].

To Susanne Atkin for her photographs of the Fairfax Battalia in action.

St Albans Tourist Information Centre

To Davina Mansell for providing the swiftest responses I have ever known to an email or telephoned question. My thanks too for permission to use the picture from the re-enactment of the First Battle of St Albans.

My thanks also to the friendly staff of the Tourist and Information Centre who, with just a few days to go to the deadline of the book, provided the author with several vital pieces of information. It goes to show that they can furnish people with the necessary information whether it is on major tourist destinations or on a range of local historical, geographical or simply general information about the area.

Telephone: [phone]

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.stalbans.gov.uk/tourism/tic.htm

Harvington Household

To Adrian Durkin for the photograph and his assistance with the chapter on Norwich. For further information concerning the Harvington Household contact the Administrator, Harvington Hall, Harvington, near Kidderminster, Worcestershire.

Introduction

Why lost battlefields? The famous battlefields of Hastings, Bosworth, Naseby and Culloden are etched as milestones on the journey through British history as clearly as the monoliths of Stonehenge stand upon Salisbury Plain, but these are just four battles from 2,000 years of conflict across Britain. Most books on British battlefields cover the same seventy or so battles, but if one includes the numerous sieges that have taken place at the hundreds of castles scattered across the British Isles, then England alone has at least 500 battle sites and throughout Britain there could be as many as 700, possibly even more. Importantly, each one of these battles has contributed in some way to the social, economic and political structure that we have in Britain today. The history of Britain is littered with civil war, rebellion and invasion, and over the centuries military historians have had to concentrate on, and rightly attach importance to, some battles more than others. However, in doing so they have concentrated upon no more than 100 battles. What then of the other hundreds of sites? Are the locations of these battlefields known and are any of them still visible today? What was their significance? Who were the men and women who fought and died at these ‘unknown’ places? My quest is to bring some of these ‘lost’ battlefields to light, to allow you the reader to follow in my footsteps and the footsteps of those combatants who fought long ago, little guessing at the time that they were shaping the Britain that we know today.

I have not walked these battlefields alone. When one treads across a sodden, undulating field for the first time, knowing that it is a place of conflict where men, and women, fought and died, it is sometimes important not to be alone. One needs to share the experience with other people, to understand their thoughts as they pass across the land and perhaps touch an edifice that is still standing from the time of conflict. It is helpful to be able to discuss where the troops may have advanced, stood, retreated or fallen. Accordingly I have trodden these ‘lost’ battlefields with my partner, Annie, our ever-faithful dog, Rosie, my youngest daughter, Imogen, and on occasion my eldest daughter, Sabrina. Together we have uncovered remarkably preserved sites, unchanged from when they were fought over, hundreds of years ago. We have found that in some areas the names of leaders involved in the conflict are used to name the parks and the streets of their local town or city. Sadly, some battlefields have been lost to the mighty earth excavators of our modern age, changing the format of the landscape forever and covering the ground with concrete-rich housing estates, reservoirs and tarmacadam roads. Other sites have been lost to more-natural attack and have been eroded by wind, rain and tide to disappear forever into the sea. In some instances it is the significance of the battle that has been lost: it may to modern historians seem of little importance, but perhaps hindsight is a distracting eye and one needs to consider those people who fought in the battle and examine the outcome in the context of its own time period. On some battlefields there are monuments erected by local people or by a national society; on others there is nothing save the vegetation that has grown and fed cattle and sheep as they have chomped their way through the grass, century after century, leaving the ground and its secrets undisturbed.

And does it matter, the issue of these battlefields that were fought over by people who perished ten, twenty or even fifty generations ago? The answer is yes, it does matter today, because even though more than 250 years have elapsed since the last of the Jacobite Rebellions, descendants of those who died still lay wreaths on the battle sites in memory of their ancestors. Yet in some cases, within twenty-four hours of those wreaths being laid, they are uplifted from their cairn, torn apart and the flowers scattered across the battlefield to rot, just as the dead would have lain centuries before. Clearly, feelings still run high and this kind of wanton, cowardly desecration merely symbolises the lack of understanding and unforgiving bigotry that runs through mankind. If we do not comprehend the past, then there can be no hope going forward. That is why these battlefields matter: people should recognise the past, understand why the battles were fought, and they should certainly carry respect for those who lost their lives; but that respect should be for the dead of both sides and not just one or the other. I carry no banner in any of these battles for any particular side; I would simply wish that after 250 years there could at least be respect for the dead.

1

Buttington – 893

WELSHPOOL, POWYS – OS Landranger 126, Shrewsbury and Oswestry (250 090)

Buttington is a small hamlet situated in the wide plain of the Severn valley, some four miles inside the current Welsh border, and lies close to the modern course of the River Severn. The market town of Welshpool is a further mile to the west, and the important Dark Age monument Offa’s Dyke runs close by. With regard to the majority of Dark Age battle sites, modern historians have little or no written evidence to enable them to identify one location from another. This, when coupled with the lack of archaeological evidence available for those battles fought more than a thousand years ago, makes an exact identification of a battle site even harder. Given the literary and archaeological evidence available, by cross-referencing the entry for 893 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle with the archaeological evidence from the Archaeologia Cambrensis, it is clear that this hamlet of Buttington is the exact site of a long-lost Dark Age battle and, as such, Buttington is a gem among Dark Age battlefields.

PRELUDE TO BATTLE

In 893, King Alfred the Great, ruler of Wessex, was preoccupied with a Danish invasion in the south-west of England. This is supported by evidence elsewhere in the most important written source for this period, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The entry for 893 states that two Danish fleets, with a combined force of 140 ships, were making for Exeter. At this time another Danish force, apparently made up from four different armies, was making its way up the River Thames and then up the River Severn, until it was overtaken by English and Welsh forces at Buttington, near Welshpool. Accordingly, King Alfred sent three ealdormen to gather what men they could to tackle this new threat, which had appeared surprisingly far inland. ‘Ealdorman’ was an appointed and sometimes hereditary title carried by a man who, in conjunction with the sheriff, was responsible for the administration of a shire. Their importance in military terms is that they were also responsible for commanding the armed force of their shire and leading it on behalf of the King, whenever and to wherever he commanded.

At Buttington, the Danes either occupied an existing fort or constructed a defensive position of their own. An English army on the east bank of the Severn, and a Welsh force on the west bank, had by then besieged the Danes for some weeks. This was an impossible position for the Danes because they had no way of escape without conflict and little chance that their supplies could be replenished by a relief force. Accordingly, with their food supplies gone and their numbers and fitness declining, they were left with no alternative but to try and fight their way out. To head west would be suicidal: they would have needed to cross the Severn and fight a Welsh army that had the advantage of ground, and with an English army at their heels. The only logical way was therefore east and back down the Severn valley, but straight into the arms of the waiting English troops. This meant that the Danes would have been facing only one enemy, as the Welsh army would probably have been forced to remain isolated on the far bank of the Severn. It seems unlikely that there was any means of crossing the Severn quickly, otherwise the Welsh would have done so earlier and defended their crossing-point against any Danish attempt to go that way.

Looking from the welsh side of the River Severn towards the mound on which Buttington Church stands, with the schoolroom at the centre of the picture.

RECONSTRUCTING THE BATTLE

It is the author’s belief that at least part, if not all, of this Danish army made its way to Buttington by water. The Danes, in common with other Vikings, were master boat builders and built a variety of differently sized ships pursuant to their requirements. Modern archaeologists have proved that the Vikings successfully traded between Scandinavia, Byzantium and Russia. They achieved this by using the major rivers of eastern Europe and by rolling the ships across the land between these trading rivers, effectively making their boats into land vehicles.

All Danish ships were of shallow draught and capable of moving fast, even when rowed against wind and tide, while carrying not only men but also horses and supplies. These vessels were capable of transporting anything from a dozen to a hundred men, and on some of the ships they would work in shifts, half of the crew resting while the others rowed; this meant that the ships could be kept moving at all times. When they returned downriver, the waterway would carry them and their booty, meaning that the majority of the crew could rest before their return home, whether that was a base on the British mainland or a distant fjord in Scandinavia.

The Severn is known to have been navigable as far as Poolquay, just two miles north-east of Welshpool, until the last century. Wroxeter, located five miles west of modern Shrewsbury, was the key Roman town in Shropshire; in the second century AD it was serviced by Roman craft making their way up the Severn. Indeed the stones from which the church at Wroxeter is constructed carry marks indicating that they were once part of the Roman quay that served the 200-acre site of the city of Wroxeter.

One can imagine the scene. The Danes have rowed against the flow of the river for several days, perhaps raiding or resting up at night depending on the lands through which they were passing. Then they come to a wide-open valley with hills far away on either side. Unknown to them, the rain on the Welsh mountains has swollen the two rivers that meet west of Shrewsbury, the Vyrnwy and the Severn, causing them to burst their banks and flood the valley. The Severn would be the weaker of the two currents at this point and also the wider valley. Noting this fact, the Danes push on, unaware that the course they are now taking is across flooded marshes and not a normal riverbed.

As evening approaches they espy an old earthwork perhaps part of the great Dyke, which has been on their east side for the last few miles. They gather their boats together and use the mound as a base for the night. The Danish warriors are alerted in the night by those on watch, who have seen torches about a mile to the west on the other side of the river. Alarmingly, further torches are seen a little later on, but this time they are on the eastern side of the river from the direction of the hills that the Danes passed earlier in the day. The Danish camp stirs into life, and as dawn begins to break, those on watch are horrified to see that the river has overnight retreated some twenty yards to the west, and it is still visibly falling. The Danish ships, which had been half in and half out of the water, are now resting in tall, sodden reeds and grasses.

With full light, the harsh reality of their situation is brought home to the Danes. Their ships are stuck on sodden ground some distance from the river, a distance that will increase unless more rains come and the river rises again. There is a Welsh army standing on the west bank of the river. Although the Welsh are out of missile range at the moment, if the Danes try and drag their ships to the river they will have to do so in the face of prolonged attack from the arrows, slings and javelins of the Welshmen. Meanwhile, to the east an English army is forming up on the lower slopes of the long mountain ridge behind them. The Danes are surrounded, a long way from their homes and a lifetime away from assistance.

The Severn valley at Welshpool seen from the top of the Breidden Hills, showing the extent of spring flooding.

At this point the Danish leaders must have held a meeting to discuss their options. Do they defend their position while they wait for the river to rise again, and so escape between both armies without having to fight? Or do they risk an all-out attack before more English and Welsh troops arrive? The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that they were ‘encamped for many weeks’, so one can safely assume that the Danes decide to consolidate their force, perhaps rationalising the ships into the minimum number required to get home, and breaking up some of the others. This will provide them with the materials to construct a rudimentary palisade around their camp as well as providing fuel for fires to cook and light their camp by night. As is the way with Britain, the rain does not fall to order and now, though the Vikings probably pray to their gods every day, no rain falls in sufficient quantity to raise the river level.

DARK AGES WARFARE

Battles in this period of history were fought at very close quarters: it was not only the whites of the eyes but the spots, the sweat and the fervour that you saw on your enemy’s face just before your weapons clashed together. This was warfare where death was dealt close up, with perhaps no more than 5 per cent of the casualties being caused by missile fire.

An example of a Dark Age shield-wall provided by various re-enactment groups. (Lucy Corke, Mercian Guard re-enactment group)

An English army of the period would have consisted largely of troops armed with a spear and a shield. Such troops could comprise as much as 80 per cent of the total force, and of these probably only one in four would have a hauberk of chain-mail to wear. Nobles would make up a further 10 per cent of the army: they would be armed with superior-quality mail and a large two-handed axe. Leaders would be similarly armed to the nobles but would have the highest-quality weapons and armour available, and would probably be the only men in the army with helmets. Both leaders and nobles took their positions in the front of the line, looking to engage their opposite number in single combat, if possible amid the confusion of battle. The lesser-armed troops, known as the ‘select fyrd’, would take up their positions in the second and subsequent ranks behind their better-armed superiors. The remaining 10 per cent of the force would be missile troops and skirmishers: these lightly armed troops’ role was to harry and weaken the opposition by concentrating their missiles at a particular point.

The tactics for all armies at this time centred on the creation of a shield-wall with which to assault their enemies. This was a solid mass of men who interlocked shields with the men on each side before fixing their spears at the attack position. Their opponents would be similarly formed, and both sides would chant and shout insults at each other, each force trying to boost their own morale and at the same time weaken that of their opponents. Eventually the two sides would charge towards each other and a huge maul would occur as each side tried to hack and stab their enemy down by sheer brute force. The light troops would try to exploit any gap or weakness that appeared in the enemy lines. If any light troops were caught between the two opposing shield-walls as they closed together, then unless they were able to extricate themselves, either by leaping over or passing round the lines of tightly packed shields, they would simply be caught and crushed in the fight.

As time goes on and some warriors die from disease, hunger or wounds suffered in earlier battles, the Danes continue to rationalise their resources. This is a desperate time for them, trapped and incapable of doing anything save watching the sky for rain, sharpening their weapons for the fight that must surely come if the rains do not, with their belts getting tighter and their bodies weaker as food supplies dwindle.

Eventually the situation becomes so desperate that the Danes decide that they have to try and break out. By now, the weather has probably got much warmer, drying out the land around their remaining boats and indicating that summer is near at hand and that the likelihood of any more heavy rains has passed until the autumn. Almost all of their food is gone, but the Danes need strength to fight their way out. Their only source of fresh food is their horses, so in desperation they kill sufficient of them to feed the remaining men; perhaps, as only one horse head was found in the burial pits, one horse was sufficient to feed the whole force. They plan to break out in the last light of evening, after they have rested all day; this will give them a chance to run through the English lines and then scatter into the darkness of night, in an ‘every man for himself’ situation. Accordingly they have one last meal together, calling one last time on their gods to assist them before they prepare for battle.