Making up the Numbers E-Book

Dan Boyle

• Herausgeber: THP Ireland
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 568

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

At a time when global politics is being reshaped, the accountability of those we put in power has never been more vital. In Making Up the Numbers, Dan Boyle, former chairman of the Green Party, applies his first-hand experience of non-traditional politics in Ireland to assess the role of minor parties in government and in coalition. This book is an essential contribution to our understanding of the 'others' vote in Irish politics.

Leseprobe

MAKINGUP THENUMBERS

MAKINGUP THENUMBERS

SMALLER PARTIESAND INDEPENDENTSIN IRISH POLITICS

DAN BOYLE

First published 2017

The History Press Ireland

50 City Quay

Dublin 2

Ireland

www.thehistorypress.ie

The History Press Ireland is a member of Publishing Ireland, the Irish book publisher’s association.

© Dan Boyle, 2017

The right of Dan Boyle to be identified as the Author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the Publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 0 7509 8534 5

Typesetting and origination by The History PressPrinted and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY

eBook converted by Geethik Technologies

Contents

Introduction

  1 Towards Government in Ireland

  2 Towards a Normal Politics

  3 Change is Possible

  4 Change is Coming

  5 Changes Occur

  6 Blue is the Colour

  7 ‘Others’ Return

  8 The Gathering of the Clanns

  9 You Can’t Keep a Long Man Down

10 The Last Long Strides

11 The Swingeing Sixties

12 The Seventies Would Not Be Socialist

13 A Coalition of All Talents

14 Jack is Back

15 A Right Charlie

16 Garret the Good

17 To Hell or to Tallaght?

18 The One-Sheet Man

19 The Most Devious, the Most Cunning of Them All

20 You’re Playing Senior Hurling Now

21 Labour’s Way, Not Frankfurt’s Way

Appendix 1 A Confidence and Supply Arrangement for a Fine Gael-led Government

Appendix 2 Policy Framework for a Confidence and Supply Agreement to Facilitate a Fine Gael-Led Minority Government

Bibliography

Introduction

In the thirty general elections that have been held in the Republic of Ireland (and its earlier incarnation as the Irish Free State) since 1922, close on 44 million votes have been cast. Nearly three-quarters of these votes have been won by the two parties created from the constitutional cleavage that brought the State itself into existence: Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael.

Only one political party has contested all of these elections – the Labour party. Winning some 11 per cent of the vote, the existence of the Labour party has led many political scientists to label Irish electoral politics as a two-and-a-half-party system.

An important factor in recent Irish elections has been the strength of the ‘others’ vote. In this category the votes of candidates of minor parties and independent candidates have on occasion, and in recent years with increasing regularity, fractured the traditional template. The ‘others’ category has been more likely to bring a change in government formation when a minor party (or parties) breaks from the pack. At over 15 per cent this has been a vote that has been very influential in the final determination of parliamentary seats, and often in the ultimate composition of governments.

This ‘others’ vote is in need of further analysis. While Ireland has had a tradition of ‘independent’ candidates contesting election without party affiliation, three-fifths of the ‘others’ votes were for candidates of ‘minor’ parties, political parties that sought to break the hold of the three traditional parties. Even when the votes of independent candidates are removed from the ‘others’ vote, the remaining proportion of votes for minor parties is comparable to the Labour party.

The Irish voting system – Proportional Representation Single Transferable Vote (PRSTV) – allows for the significant representation of minor parties and independents, but it also gives a greater benefit to larger parties. Notwithstanding this, seats in Dáil Éireann won by ‘others’ still outnumber those won by the Labour party.

Of the 551 seats won by ‘others’, 304 of these seats were won by candidates of other parties; 140 of these seats were won by the six parties that have participated in government. This, and consequent analysis of vote and seat share, indicates a significant and influential political presence of ‘others’ resulting from Irish elections, and within this sector a predominance of minor parties as a grouping capable of involvement in the formation of government.

The dominance of the Fianna Fáil party in Irish elections, particularly in the period 1932–2011, might suggest that Ireland has been close to being a one-party predominant party system. However, Fianna Fáil’s total dominance has always been somewhat undermined, in that despite lengthy unbroken periods of government (1932–48, 1957–73 and 1997–2011), several of these single-party governments were minority administrations; since 1989 the party has been unable to enter government without a coalition partner.

Neither can the Irish party system be said to be bipolar. The traditional second party, Fine Gael, has only twice come close to winning a majority of seats in the Irish parliament (November 1982 and 2011). In its earlier version, as Cumann na nGaedheal, the party managed single party governments without ever holding a majority of seats, helped in no small part by the abstentionism of anti-treaty republicans.

Defining the Irish party system as a two-and-a-half-party system is convenient and is certainly closest to reality. But it is more correct to state that it is a party system in transition, and that that transition has been evolutionary. Part of that evolutionary road of transition is a journey from being a two-and-a-half-party system to a two-and two-halves-party system, and ultimately to a multiparty system.

However, up until 2016, no clear competitor to the Labour party as the second ‘half’ in a two-and two-halves system has been apparent. There has been a litany of minor parties that have not persisted, and neither have they consistently had the levels of electoral support enjoyed by the Labour party. In individual elections the Labour party has been relegated to fourth position (by the Farmers party in 1923, the Centre party in 1933, in terms of votes but not seats by Clann na Poblachta in 1948, by the Progressive Democrats in 1987, and most recently by the modern manifestation of Sinn Féin in 2016), but no minor party has yet outpolled Labour in consecutive elections.

Within the ‘others’ category there is competition occurring between competing candidates of minor parties, and between minor parties and independent candidates, this competition not unlike the election competition between the largest parties or two half parties, selecting the best potential challenger to the two-and-a-half party system.

While Irish party politics, according to Peter Mair, represents ‘a rather incongruous strain within the relatively clear cut patterns which exist within the rest of Western Europe’, it may be that Ireland has taken longer to settle on a pattern that has been more prevalent elsewhere.

More likely, within the ‘others’ vote in Irish elections is a character that often refuses to conform to type. This unpredictably, this eccentricity, this eclectiveness, is found in the individual and collective stories of those who have sought votes and presented clear alternatives to the existence of a political mould, while offering alternatives as to why that mould should be broken.

Pre-Independence

The last all-island Irish parliamentary election – the Westminster election of 1918 – put in place templates that were rarely diverged from, in either jurisdiction, over the next seventy years.

Twentieth-century Irish politics had begun to slip into a comfortable predictability. John Redmond had come out best from the Irish Parliamentary Party’s internecine fallout over the deposing of its leader, the much-vaunted ‘Uncrowned King of Ireland’, Charles Stewart Parnell. Redmond had solidified support for the Irish Parliamentary Party and sidelined factions led by Tim Healy, and breakaways like the All for Ireland group led by William O’Brien.

The coming together, influenced by Arthur Griffith, of Sinn Féin in 1907 seemed unlikely to upset the comfortable complacency that surrounded Irish politics. As editor of the United Irishman newspaper, Griffith had floated ideas such as parliamentary abstentionism as a policy, believing it to be effective in helping Hungary gain additional status within the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Griffith formed a number of political vehicles to promote his ideas. The first of these was Cumann na nGaedheal, a vehicle that was later to assert itself more prominently. A second grouping was the National Council. It was at a gathering of this organsiation in 1905 that began the formalising of a Sinn Féin policy. In 1907 Cumann na nGaedheal combined with a similarly inclined northern Ireland based organisation, the Dungannon Clubs, to form the Sinn Féin League. Later that year the National Council came on board to form the Sinn Féin party.

While this was occurring a discontented Irish Parliamentary Party MP became supportive of the new party. C.J. Dolan, MP for North Leitrim, resigned from the Irish Parliamentary Party. In 1908 he became the Sinn Féin candidate in the subsequent by-election. Despite a respectable 27 per cent of the vote for Sinn Féin, the new Irish Parliamentary Party candidate, in this two horse race, succeeded in winning more than twice as many votes.

There was to be no big bang for this incarnation of Sinn Féin. By 1910 its Ard Fheis was poorly attended. It was not possible to elect all the party officers from among those present. Small footholds were gained in electing some councillors at the local elections of 2011, but of itself these were not enough to register on the Irish public’s conscientiousness. Sinn Féin ‘Mark I’ would soon be seen to have served its purpose.

It may have attracted wider public interest had the party’s executive acted on a proposal made by William O’Brien. O’Brien, a nationalist MP for Cork, had expended much of his political capital trying to reunite the Irish Party. Having been largely successful in doing so, he became dissatisfied with what resulted and this led to his own breakaway in forming the All for Ireland League. He approached Sinn Féin proposing co-operation but, despite Griffith being well disposed, the idea did not find wider favour within Sinn Féin.

Sinn Féin had not even the capacity to contest the Westminister elections of 1910 – a year of two general elections. Those elections slashed what had been a comfortable Liberal majority and placed them level with the Conservatives, whose numbers also included Irish unionists. For the first time since Parnell, the Irish Parliamentary Party had leverage within the House of Commons.

By 1914 a Home Rule Act was on the British statute books. A largely self-governing Ireland, albeit partitioned, was soon expected to come into being. Then came the Great War. This was to cause an interregnum in general elections for the Westminster parliament. Because of the war no general election would be held from the second election of 1910 until 1918.

Parliamentary by-elections continued. Several dozen such by-elections were held in Ireland during this period. Most were uncontested. The few that were indicated some changing winds that were subsequently to make greater sense in 1918.

In 1915 a by-election was held for the Dublin College Green constituency. The Irish Party was challenged there by an independent Labour candidate, Thomas Farren. He performed very creditably, winning almost 43 per cent. The effect of the Dublin Lock Out of 1913 had been felt.

The Irish Labour Party had been established in 1912 after a meeting in Clonmel, County Tipperary. It was established as the political wing of the Irish Trade Union Congress. It even created a military wing in the form of the Irish Citizens Army, this had been created as a response to the 1913 Lock Out. It maintained a presence in the febrile atmosphere of the time.

The party participated in local elections, succeeding in having a number of councillors elected. It did not officially contest any of by-elections that took place between 1910 and 1918. Regarding the 1918 general election, it took a position that it would not contest, seeing the election as a referendum on national sovereignty. According to the political scientist, Brian Farrell, the failure of the Irish Labour Party to contest the British general election in Ireland in 1918 helped copper-fasten the role of the party as the third wheel of Irish politics.

The 1912 meeting was not the first attempt by founder, James Connolly, to establish an Irish left-wing party. At the turn of the previous century, in 1896, he helped to create the Irish Socialist Republican Party. While it was really only Dublin based, with less than 100 members, it did contest local elections. It also published its own newsheet, The Workers’ Republic, which called for an independent republic long before Sinn Féin found itself able to.

Connolly, even as a full-time organiser, found it difficult to make headway. He even managed to anger a small number of the activists who had been attracted into the party. They in turn sought to create the Irish Socialist Labour Party. Neither vehicle survived past 1904 when Connolly left Ireland for economic reasons, returning in 1910.

What did upset the apple cart was the little local difficulty of the Easter Rising. This may have had limited political effect, if it had not been for how the British Government reacted to the event. The summary executions of the leaders of The Rising evoked huge public sympathy. The political reaction became even more pronounced as British spokespersons and politicians attributed the nous behind the rebellion to a shadowy Sinn Féin involvement.

It was a huge back-handed compliment. What existed of Sinn Féin had had no involvement in The Rising. The suggestion that it had been was a huge credibility boost. It revitalised what had been a moribund organisation and introduced new membership, while pointing to a political route to pursue.

The British establishment mistook being outside the system for radicalism. Even at that stage Sinn Féin had not committed itself to defining what kind of Ireland it aspired to in the event of independence being achieved. The surviving leaders of The Rising joined the party, giving it some revolutionary cachet. Then, at its 1917 Ard Fheis, newly admitted member Éamon de Valera became the party’s new President. A compromise motion was adopted, through which the Irish people would become free to choose their own government by referendum; and with that, Sinn Féin Mark II was born.

A series of by-elections provided an opportunity to test the extent to which the Irish political landscape was changing. The first such by-election was in November 1916. Sinn Féin did not participate in the West Cork by-election. It was a more traditional Irish parliamentary by-election between John Redmond’s Irish Party and William O’Brien’s All for Ireland League. This had been an O’Brienite seat. The party ended up having both an official and an unofficial candidate. William O’Brien endorsed Frank Healy, who had been imprisoned at the Frongogh internment camp in Wales for the crime of having ‘associated’ with Sinn Féin. He had not been endorsed by Sinn Féin because he did not intend to abstain his seat should he be successful. O’Brien’s endorsement of Healy had caused difficulty for his local members, one of whom ran as an independent.

The by-election was won by the Irish Party’s Daniel O’Leary with a margin of fifty-six votes, due to his opponent’s vote splitting. The non-involvement of Sinn Féin was complacently seen by the Irish political establishment as thinking the effects of the Easter Rising would not be so pronounced.

In February 1917 a by-election was held in North Roscommon. Sinn Féin had a greater presence, but it remained an unofficial one. George Plunkett, father of Joseph Mary Plunkett (an executed leader of the Easter Rising), announced his intention to contest. He was a papal knight, giving him a right to style himself a count. Despite having impeccable revolutionary credentials, Plunkett ran as an independent. His election literature made no reference to Sinn Féin. One potential reason for being reluctant in seeking or taking an endorsement, was a supposed animus that existed between him and Arthur Griffith.

The implied support was deemed to be sufficient. Plunkett won comfortably, shocking the Irish Party in the process. Once elected he announced his intention to become an abstentionist MP, something he had not referred to at all during the campaign. Later that year he joined Sinn Féin.

The first of these by-elections to have a fully fledged, official Sinn Féin presence was the South Longford by-election of May 1917. It was a campaign that was not without controversy. The result was marred by accusations of intimidation. The returning officer at first announced the election of the Irish Party candidate. He was then called upon to examine a bundle of votes that may or may not have been counted.

The method of persuasion was unusual. The writer and journalist Tim Pat Coogan, in his biography on Michael Collins, quotes then Sinn Féin activist Alasdair MacCába as saying: ‘I jumped up on the platform, put a .45 to the head of the returning officer, clicked back the hammer and told him to think again.’ This produced the result of Joseph McGuinness becoming the first directly elected Sinn Féin MP, by a margin of thirty-seven votes.

Later 1917 by-elections in Clare East and Kilkenny City were won comprehensively and without controversy by Éamon de Valera and W.T. Cosgrave respectively. In 1918 the Irish Party seemed to stem the tide by winning three by-elections in a row. In March party leader John Redmond died and was replaced by John Dillon.

Sinn Féin began to campaign successfully on the issue of being against conscription. This helped the party win the remaining two by-elections before the general election, the last of which in East Cavan saw Arthur Griffith being elected as the successful candidate.

The general election in December 1918 gave Sinn Féin a number of advantages. The eight-year gap between elections had seen the infrastructure of the Irish Party wither away in many parts of the country. As a result twenty-five Sinn Féin candidates were elected without being opposed. Ultimately seventy-three Sinn Féin MPs would be elected. Winning seventy-three seats out of a total of 105 MPs has been described as a Sinn Féin landslide. Drilling into the results the election is less emphatic than it has subsequently been portrayed.

Unionist candidates won one in every four of the votes cast. Irish Party candidates one in every five. In an election that had been cast as a referendum on national sovereignty, Sinn Féin candidates won less than half the contested vote (47 per cent). If the vote had been contested in the other twenty-five constituencies a probability existed of the Sinn Féin vote exceeding 50 per cent. Nevertheless, it was because of the ‘first past the post’ electoral system that this election gave the appearance of being a landslide.

What the results also showed was the extent to which partition had taken root in Ireland. Most of the Unionist vote and a substantial part of the Irish party was gained in Ulster. Five of the Irish Party’s six seats were won there. The only other Irish Party seat came in the Redmondite stronghold of Waterford, where Captain William Redmond won the seat with a margin of less than 500 votes.

Only 6 per cent of the vote in this election was attributed to ‘other’ – those other than Sinn Féin, the Irish Party or Unionists. The Labour Party had decided/been encouraged not to contest this election. A number of Belfast activists did not support this policy. They decided to contest several constituencies, being successful in electing three MPs. Each described themselves as Labour Unionists.

The breakaway first Dáil met in Dublin’s Mansion House in January 1919. No Unionist or Irish Party MP attended. Twenty-seven of the seventy-three Sinn Féin MPs, now named TDs, were in attendance. Twenty-seven ‘others’ were listed as either being imprisoned or expelled by foreign powers. These TDs went on to propose, debate, then approve a democratic programme.

This programme was drafted with the help of the Labour Party leader, Thomas Johnston, none of whose members would be present to approve its contents due to not contesting the 1918 election. The numbers present and the prior attention given to it attached some element of controversy to the programme. No subsequent Irish government has shown any commitment to its contents.

On the same day as the first Dáil met, the Soloheadbeg ambush took place in County Tipperary. It resulted in the deaths of two RIC policemen. This event was seen as the opening salvo in the Irish War of Independence.

The final pre-independence engagement of Sinn Féin with election to the Westminster parliament took place in March 1919. The party contested the North Londonderry by-election. Its candidate was Patrick McGilligan, later to be a government minister. He was not successful.

The political response of the British government was to produce a number of pieces of legislation designed to undermine the legitimacy of Sinn Féin hegemony in Irish politics. The first of these was the Local Government (Ireland) Act of 1919. This allowed for elections to take place in January 1920 for urban areas, followed by elections in June for rural councils. The elections took place under a new voting system, that of the Single Transferable Vote/Multi-Member Constituency system.

These elections offered the first opportunity for political diversity to be practised under the new and impending dispensation. The triad that had contested the 1918 Westminster election – Sinn Féin, the Irish Party and the Unionists – were now joined in contest by the Labour Party and independent candidates.

The Labour Party performed well, particularly in urban areas. The remnants of the Irish Party performed best in the six Northern Ireland counties. The election saw many independent candidates being elected. Of around 1,800 council seats that were available, Sinn Féin won around one-third of these seats. Labour held about one-fifth, marginally more than the Unionists (whose vote was very concentrated in the six Northern counties). Irish Party/Nationalists won about 15 per cent of seats, again mainly in Northern Ireland. A similar amount of independent/non-aligned councillors were elected.

An interesting feature of these elections was the existence of a number of councils that would soon fade from being. In the Greater Dublin area alone, separate councils existed in Blackrock, Dalkey, Killiney Ballybrack, Pembroke and Rathmines and Rathgar. The last two of these, Pembroke and Rathmines and Rathgar, returned Unionist majorities in 1920.

The second piece of British government legislation was the Government of Ireland Act in 1920. This entrenched partition, confirming two separate home rule parliaments for Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. Elections for these parliaments were also to be held under the STV system.

Sinn Féin decided to participate in these elections but not to recognise any home rule parliament. The party chose to see this process as elections to the Second Dáil of an independent Ireland. The elections were held in May 1921. In the twenty-six counties, other than the Dublin University constituency where four Unionist candidates were nominated, all other nominations were of Sinn Féin candidates, leading to no votes being cast.

In Northern Ireland an election did take place. This was dominated by the Unionists. Irish Party/Nationalists won six seats as did Sinn Féin. Five of the successful Sinn Féin candidates had also been nominated/elected in other constituencies in the Southern twenty six-counties.

The Second Dáil would then consist of 125 members, all representing Sinn Féin. In June of 1920 a truce was proposed to bring about an end of hostilities in the Irish War of Independence. This truce came into effect in July. This allowed the Second Dáil to sit in August. The main business conducted was the progressing of the selection of a delegation to negotiate with the British government. As part of this process the Dáil voted to enhance the office held by Éamon de Valera, promoting him from Head of Government to that of Head of State, to allow the ensuing negotiations to be portrayed as occurring between two distinct nations.

The negotiating team returned with an agreed but controversial treaty for the next session of the Dáil held in December. A month of bitter debate followed until a close majority approved the treaty in January. A later formal sitting of the House of Commons for Southern Ireland was convened to formally ratify the Treaty. This one and only sitting was boycotted by anti-Treaty TDs. As a result the Treaty was passed unanimously.

De Valera resigned as President, being replaced by Arthur Griffith. The Second Dáil had done its work. Its impact would be felt for generations. Elections for the Third Dáil would take place in June 1922 to be followed by more turbulence in the form of a bloody eleven-month Civil War.

1

Towards Government in Ireland

The 1922 General Election to the Third Dáil can be considered to be the first example of a pluralistic election of the new Irish State. The vehicle of Sinn Féin was now subdivided into two parts, not on ideological grounds, but instead on a vexed area of political strategy. Other than the Labour Party, there were interest groups organising themselves politically and presenting candidates to the electorate.

The largest of these was the Farmers Party, the political arm of the Farmers Union. On a smaller scale a Businessmen’s Party (otherwise known as the Business and Professional Group) stood five candidates in Dublin and in Cork. Twenty independent candidates, hardly an influx, presented themselves for election.

Seven constituencies which between them carried thirty-four seats were uncontested in this election. These were the constituencies of Clare, Donegal, Kerry/Limerick West, Leitrim/Roscommon North, Limerick City/Limerick East, Mayo North and West and Mayo South/Roscommon South. The seats were equally divided between the pro- and anti-treaty factions as per an agreement between Éamon de Valera and Michael Collins. The Dublin University constituency was also uncontested, as was tradition.

Ninety-four of the 128 seats were won by the competing factions of Sinn Féin. Fifty-eight of these were won by pro-treatyites, thirty-six by the anti-treaty faction. Labour, in its first Irish parliamentary election, had a very successful campaign. The party stood eighteen candidates in half of the twenty-eight constituencies, winning seventeen seats. The party won two seats in four constituencies – the eight-seat constituency of Cork Mid, North, South, South-East and West; Kildare-Wicklow; Waterford-Tipperary East and Wexford. Its Dublin North West candidate, John James O’Farrell, was the only Labour candidate who failed to be elected. The 21 per cent of the total national vote won by the party would long remain its high-water mark in Irish parliamentary elections.

The Farmers Party succeeded in having seven TDs elected in what was its first parliamentary election. Like Labour it took a targeted approach. It stood thirteen candidates in eight constituencies, securing its seven seats. It could have but did not secure an eighth seat in the Cavan constituency. Its candidate, Patrick Baxter, was the second of four candidates in this three-seat constituency. He was 400 votes short of the quota after the first count. The other candidates were pro-treatyites led by the poll topper Arthur Griffith, who won more than two quotas and easily helped elect a second candidate. The third pro-treaty candidate was also brought over the line, having been 5,000 votes behind the Farmers’ candidate on the first count. This was the first successful use of effective vote management under the new voting system.

The first Farmers Party parliamentary party consisted of party leader Denis Gorey, elected in Carlow/Kilkenny; John Dineen in Cork East and North East; Daniel Vaughan in the omnibus constituency of Cork Mid, North, South, South East and West; John Rooney in Dublin County; Richard Wilson in Kildare/Wicklow; Daniel Byrne in Waterford/Tipperary East and Michael Doyle in Wexford.

The Business and Professional Group, trading as the Businessmen’s Party, succeeded in having one TD elected. He was Michael Hennessy, elected for the Cork East and North East constituency. He was not that effective a flag bearer, as by the time of the following election he had become a candidate for another political party.

Nine independent TDs were elected. Five of these were from the two University constituencies. Four others were from three Dublin constituencies, two from the one constituency of Mid Dublin.

Each of these four independent TDs carried interesting stories. Saddest of these was Darrell Figgis, who topped the poll in the Dublin County constituency with a personal vote that was twice the quota. Up to a month before the 1922 election Figgis had been a prominent and active member of the pro-treaty faction of Sinn Féin. During the War of Independence a serious rift developed between Michael Collins (then Minister for Finance in the Provisional Government) and Figgis, centred around remuneration for Oireachtas members, particularly for members of the government. Despite this, Figgis continued to have a high profile within Sinn Féin. He was vice chair to Michael Collins’s chair of the Constitution Committee established in January 1922 to agree a draft constitution, but ended up being its effective chairman as Collins only attended its first meeting.

After the approval of the Treaty, Figgis (who was strongly opposed to the Collins–de Valera Pact) launched a personal initiative to encourage the Farmers Party and the Businessmen’s Party not to contest certain constituencies so anti-treaty candidates might be prevented from being elected. The leadership of Sinn Féin, still hopeful of maintaining a unified party after the election, moved to expel Figgis. He was successful, but not as successful, in being elected to the Fourth Dáil, after which his personal life took several tragic turns.

Myles Keogh was elected an independent TD for the Dublin South constituency. A physician and a surgeon, he was an enthusiastic supporter of John and Willie Redmond. Over the next fifteen years he would have a varied career in Irish politics.

The two independent TDs elected for the Mid Dublin constituency shared the distinction of holding the office of Lord Mayor of Dublin over a period of sixteen years between them. The poll topper, and incumbent Lord Mayor since 1917 was Laurence O’Neill. His time in Dáil Éireann would be brief, but he would go on to to hold other public office in the Free State Senate and later Seanad Éireann.

The second independent TD elected in that constituency would begin an even longer political lineage. Alfie Byrne carried a direct link to the Irish Party. He was elected to the House of Commons, after a 1915 by-election, as an Irish Party MP. He continued in that office until the 1918 general election. He would go on to be active in Irish political life for over forty years, being most associated with being the Lord Mayor of Dublin, an office he held for nine years in succession. Through reputation and strength of personality, rather than the holding of any policy positions, he created something of a micro political party. Three of Alfie Byrne’s sons would also become members of Dáil Éireann.

None of those elected in June 1922, no more than anyone else in the country, would have a very enjoyable year. Little more than a week after the election, the Provisional government (encouraged by the British government) had decided to act against an anti-treaty force that had been occupying the Four Courts building since the previous April.

There followed many skirmishes throughout the country, with the most intense fighting occurring in the first few months. The imposition of martial law, with military tribunals given the right to approve the execution of seventy-seven anti-treaty fighters, raised anger levels among the opposition. Greater firepower helped the Free State government achieve eventual military success. Victory is a term that could not be applied in these circumstances.

In parallel, the political process continued. The anti-treaty TDs elected in June would not recognise the Dáil as being legitimate. They would be abstentionist TDs. Their absence would give the pro-treaty elements a majority in the new assembly.

A nuanced exception to republican abstention was the presence of Laurence Ginnell, who sought to sign the members register, but refused to take his seat in a parliament that had been defined by the government of a foreign country. He found himself formally removed from the chamber.

Ginnell had already had an interesting political history. First elected as an Irish Party MP in 1906, he was expelled for having enquired too intensely into the party’s finances. He subsequently stood as an independent nationalist, being elected on that ticket in 1910. He acquired a reputation as a campaigning MP. He strongly opposed the British government on its war policy. The reaction to the 1916 Rising he argued was counter-productive. These stances moved him closer towards Sinn Féin. He joined the party as part of the 1917 intake.

In the 1918 Westminster general election he contested and was elected for the Westmeath constituency. In 1921 he was part of the Sinn Féin slate that comprised the Second Dáil. He was opposed to the treaty and was given responsibility by de Valera to represent the anti-treaty cause in the US and South America. He returned to participate in the 1922 election, succeeding in being elected. After that he headed to the US again and died in Washington DC in April 1923.

The new Dáil met for the first time on 9 September 1922. The sitting took place after a month in August, where events occurred that would dramatically alter the course of Irish politics. It was ten days that shook the country. On 12 August, Arthur Griffith died. Ten days later Michael Collins was assassinated. Promoted to fill their absence was W.T. Cosgrave.

The first business of the Third Dáil was the election of the President of Dáil Éireann, into which Cosgrave was assumed in an acting position. The debate which accompanied the motion showed a parliament unsure of its purpose or how it was supposed to proceed. Born from a desire to create a modern, independent nation, its workload was being determined by processing legislation created and approved by a ‘mother’ parliament in London.

A feature of the debate was how non-Sinn Féin TDs were contributing to the discourse. Active in this debate were Thomas Johnson of the Labour Party, Denis Gorey of the Farmers Party and the independent Darrell Figgis. The record of the sitting states that the motion electing W.T Cosgrave was approved, but did not say which deputies were in support. Within the debate Thomas Johnson declared his intention, and that of the Labour Party, to call a division, and with that his willingness not to support the motion.

On 25 October in the Dáil the Constitution for the Irish Free State/Saorstát Éireann was adopted. The debate on the Constitution had been wide ranging. There were questions on whether there should be a constitution at all and whether then was the time to adopt a constitution, given the turmoil in which the country was finding itself. Many of those who had been elected did not participate in its consideration.

The Third Dáil’s adoption of the Constitution was itself dependent on the British parliament doing the same. This was done in December 1922, after which the provisions of the Constitution took effect. These saw the Irish Free State being given dominion status (as existed with Canada and Australia) within the British Empire. The British King would be Head of State, to be represented in Ireland by the office of Governor General. This would be former Irish Party MP and Parnell bête noir, Tim Healy.

The uncertain political environment, into which the evolving Irish State was being created, was underscored by the assassination of pro-treaty TD Sean Hales as he left the Dáil on 7 December. This was stated to be an act of reprisal for the execution of anti-treaty prisoners by the government.

The most commented upon feature of the new constitutional set-up was the requirement for members of the Dáil to undertake an Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown. This was to continue to be a reason for republican abstention from the parliament. It was also to be the reason behind the first defection from the Labour Party’s Dáil representation.

Patrick Gaffney had topped the poll for the Carlow/Kilkenny constituency by a considerable margin. In his wake came the soon to be head of government W.T.Cosgrave, as well as the leader of the Farmers Party, Denis Gorey. Gaffney had participated early in the life of the Third Dáil, but refused to accept the taking of the oath, becoming an abstentionist TD. In doing so he removed his affiliation from the Labour Party, which had remained in the Dáil, then delared himself to represent the interests of the Communist Party of Ireland.

A Communist Party was set up in Ireland in 1921. It was a successor to the Socialist Party of Ireland, which itself had been an offshoot of attempts by James Connolly around the turn of the century. These socialists/communists saw themselves as trying to pursue a deeper form of socialism than that being promoted by the Labour Party.

Roddy Connolly, son of James, preferred the deeper socialism. He had developed close contacts with the new communist regime in Russia. Through this he became convinced of the need for a communist party in Ireland. The defection of Patrick Gaffney should have been seen as something of a coup, as an epoch-making moment. It does not seem to have been so. It should be noted that the current incarnation of the Communist Party of Ireland makes no reference to Patrick Gaffney in its party history.

In the meantime the Civil War was winding towards its conclusion. A truce was called on 30 April 1923. The Third Dáil had been the protagonist in a civil war, elected a government and introduced a Constitution, but would soon have its own life shortened. On 9 August the proceedings of the Third Dáil were brought to an end and the election for the Fourth Dáil took place at the end of that month.

The Treaty vote brought an end to Sinn Féin ‘Mark 2’. De Valera seemed to recognise this and chose the name Cumann na Poblacthta-The Republican Party to contest elections to the Third Dáil. The Collins/DeValera Pact made this name change moot. Part of the national conversation at that time was about whether or not political parties themselves were necessary. The existence of other political parties, and the interest groups they sought to represent, made the need to organise more necessary.

In April 1923 W.T.Cosgrave launched Cumann na nGaedheal – a name used twenty years earlier by Arthur Griffith. This would be the party title used by pro-treatyites in future elections. Supporters of Éamon de Valera would be referred to as republicans but called themselves Sinn Féin, much to the annoyance of the pro-treatyites. The decision to hold on to the Sinn Féin name was in effect the establishing of a new political party. This would be Sinn Féin ‘Mark III’.

While Civil War hostilities had ceased, the atmosphere for these elections remained highly charged. The government continued to treat anti-treatyites as combatants. De Valera came out of hiding to campaign and found himself arrested and then interned. As a political tactic it proved unproductive. While the pro-treaty vote remained static, the republican vote increased by almost 6 per cent.

The Fourth Dáil increased in numbers by twenty-five members. Cumann na nGaedheal received five extra seats. The Republicans won another eight seats. The biggest winner was the Farmers Party which more than doubled its Dáil membership to fifteen seats. The Businessmen’s Party won two seats, which was the number also won by a sister party, the Cork Progressive Association. An additional four seats were won by independents.

The big losers were the Labour Party which saw its vote halve in percentage terms. The party failed to win any of the additional seats and its numbers reduced by three. This also meant that the party became smaller than the Farmers Party, and was no longer capable of calling itself the main opposition party.

The improvement in the Farmers Party performance could be put down to adopting a different electoral strategy. Other than the two university and two other Dublin constituencies, each constituency was contested by the party. Sixty-five candidates were run, several in many constituencies, with the transferred votes helping to win additional seats. Its unsuccessful candidate in 1922 from the Cavan constituency (in the absence of Arthur Griffith) topped the poll.

The second Farmers Party parliamentary party consisted of party leader Denis Gorey, elected in Carlow/Kilkenny; Patrick Baxter in Cavan; Conor Hogan in Clare; John Dineen in Cork East; Daniel Vaughan in Cork North; Timothy O’Donovan in Cork West; John White in Donegal; John Conlon in Kildare; Patrick Hogan in Limerick; Patrick McKenna in Longford/Westmeath; Patrick Mulvany in Meath; Michael Heffernan in Tipperary; Nicholas Wall in Waterford; Michael Doyle in Wexford and Richard Wilson in Wicklow.

John Rooney failed to hold the seat won previously in Dublin County. Daniel Byrne who had been elected a TD in 1922 for the Waterford/East Tipperary constituency, chose not to stand in 1923. This election was the high-water mark for the Farmers Party.

Michael Hennessy was elected for the Businessmen’s Party in 1922 but then defected to Cumann na nGaedhael, standing successfully on its behalf. In 1923 the Businessmen’s Party restricted itself to standing four candidates in three Dublin constituencies, with one further candidate standing in Tipperary. It succeeded in having two candidates elected – William Hewat in Dublin North and John P. Good in Dublin County. While the party did manage to double its representation, it did not manage to strengthen its support. Both Hewat and Good benefitted from Cumann na nGaedheal not being able to manage its vote in either constituencies. General Richard Mulcahy was the Cumann na nGaedheal poll topper in Dublin North. His vote equalled almost four quotas. In Dublin County, Kevin O’Higgins performed similarly well. In neither constituency did Cumann na nGaedheal win the number of seats its vote would have entitled it to. Hewat and Good were the beneficiaries. Good had previously been an unsuccessful Unionist candidate in the 1918 Westminster general election.

In Cork, a sister party of the Businessmen’s Party – the Cork Progressive Association – also won two seats in similar circumstances. Contesting the Cork Borough constituency the votes of Richard Beamish (from the noted brewing family) and Andrew O’Shaughnessy were between them slightly shy of a quota for a seat. O’Shaughnessy was particularly adrift, having amassed a first count total which was only 10 per cent of the vote he required. Both again were beneficiaries of a lopsided Cumann na nGaedheal ticket. Here poll topper J.J. Walsh had about two-and-a-half times the vote he needed, which was not effectively redistributed to his party colleagues.

Thirteen independent TDs were elected, three of these for the Dublin University constituency. Of the independents elected in 1922, Laurence O’Toole did not re-contest. With O’Toole’s absence Alfie Byrne’s vote increased, seeing him easily being re-elected. Myles Keogh saw some slippage in his support but was also re-elected. Darrell Figgis almost suffered a fall from grace. Having been a poll topper in 1922 he now won the eighth of the eight seats in his constituency, his support having fallen by over 12,000 votes.

The seven new independent TDs were John Cole in Cavan; John Daly in Cork East (who ran as Independent Labour); Major James Sproule Myles, a poll topper in Donegal; Major Bryan Ricco Cooper in Dublin County; James Cosgrave in Galway; John Lyons in Longford/Westmeath (again as Independent Labour) and Captain William Redmond in Waterford.

John Cole’s election in Cavan would be his first in thirty-four years of contesting elections there, where he experienced as much failure as he did success. A member of the Orange Order, he served as Grand Master of its County Cavan branch. His success had been at the expense of his namesake, outgoing Cumann na nGaedheal TD, Walter Cole, who had been elected on Arthur Griffith’s coat tails in 1922. In Cork East John Daly was to begin a journey of riding several horses, a journey shared by several independents elected in the early years of the Dáil.

In Donegal Major James Sproule Myles’s poll topping would be a regular feature in successive elections. His military service had been during the Great War, during which he was awarded a Military Cross. He also had the distinction of having been an Irish international rugby player.

Of similar lineage was Major Bryan Ricco Cooper. He was born in India and was from a military family. Educated in Eton, he followed his father into a career in the British Army. In January 1910 he was elected as an Irish Unionist MP for South Dublin, losing that seat in the second election in December that year. During the Great War he served in Gallipoli. Among his supporters was the poet W.B. Yeats, who encouraged him to contest the 1923 election.

Like Cooper, James Cosgrave was also a part of the elite club of people who had been members of the British House of Commons and of Dáil Éireann. He had been elected on behalf of the Irish Party in a 1914 by-election, but had not defended the seat in the 1918 general election.

John Lyons was elected a Labour Party TD for the Longford/Westmeath constituency in 1922. He became the second person to distance himself from the Labour parliamentary party, when successfully contesting the 1923 election as an independent labour candidate.

Captain William Redmond was to become the fourth TD in the Fourth Dáil to have also served in the British House of Commons. Of the four candidates he was the one with the most impressive dynastic lineage. He was the son of John Redmond, leader of the Irish Party until his death in 1918. His parliamentary career began in 1910 when he was elected as an Irish Party MP for the East Tyrone constituency. In keeping with his father’s policy of encouraging army recruitment as a mean of ensuring Irish home rule, William served on the Western Front during the Great War. On the death of his father he resigned his East Tyrone seat to contest the Waterford by-election, in which he was successful. Nine months later he was again successful in the 1918 general election. He did not participate in the first Dáil, continuing to sit in the House of Commons. There he strongly criticised British military actions during the War of Independence. He continued to operate as an MP until the new constitutional arrangement had been agreed.

Holding 9 per cent of the national vote, independents were becoming a significant presence in Irish political life. Several trends were emerging from this presence. Electing independents was being seen as a preferred route for the Unionist minority to be represented. For isolated Irish Party politicians, it represented a route back. For those elected but unhappy with the parties they were representing it was an alternative, or at least a transitory, political space.

Relative proportionality, helpful for the election of independents and candidates of smaller parties, was being achieved through the existence of several large multi-seat constituencies. For this election there was a nine-seat Galway constituency, three eight-seat constituencies in Donegal, Dublin North and Dublin County and five seven-seat constituencies in Dublin North, Kerry, Sligo/Leitrim, Limerick and Tipperary.

One who had followed this third option was Patrick Gaffney, elected as a Labour Party TD for Carlow/Kilkenny in 1922. Despite a brief flirtation with the Communist Party of Ireland, Gaffney contested the 1923 election as a Republican Labour independent and polled 10,000 fewer votes.

The 1923 election also saw the appearance of a new political party. In 1922 a group called the Land League of Unpurchased Tenants had been established. This became the National Democratic Party. It stood four candidates in three constituencies, making it more local than national. Their collective performance, winning around 6,000 votes, did not convince it of the value of democracy much either. Formed to respond to what the party felt were unmet needs within farming communities, the success of the Farmers Party revealed that there was no particular space available. The party disbanded not long after the election.

One of its candidates was Patrick Belton. In 1922 he had stood unsuccessfully as an independent candidate for Longford/Westmeath. In 1923 his constituency was Laois/Offaly. He went on to have an eclectic electoral career, as well as siring a dynasty of several members, across a number of generations, each of whom would achieve some level of political success.

The fourth Dáil met for the first time on 19 September 1923. With the continued absence of anti-treaty TDs, W.T. Cosgrave was the only nominated candidate to be President of the Executive Council.

2

Towards a Normal Politics

Over a five-year period there had been four parliamentary elections and a set of local elections. From here there would be a pause in national parliamentary elections. However, there would be a larger number than usual of by-elections that would keep the evolving democracy on its toes. In the early days of the Fourth Dáil, by-elections caused by a number of deaths and resignations occurred. These were usually of Cumann na nGaedheal members, and were relatively easily held by the government.

In the year that followed the general election, ten by-elections were held. All were caused by changes within the Cumann na nGaedheal parliamentary party. The party won eight of these contests, with abstentionsist republicans (one of whom was future Taoiseach, Sean Lemass) winning the other two. A Businessmen’s Party candidate, Matthew Good, scored an impressive 9,000 votes in a by-election for the Dublin County constituency.

The biggest political crisis of 1924 was the Army Mutiny, brought about by the government’s handling of the standing down of a large part of the national army, then deemed surplus to requirements. The crisis created something of a power play within the Cosgrave government, with Cosgrave seeking to stay aloof while others in his cabinet, like Mulcahy and O’Higgins, adopted a more gung-ho approach.

Cosgrave’s caution failed to keep either his cabinet or his parliamentary party together. In October 1924 the government’s refusal to reinstate army officers brought about the resignation of nine Cumann na nGaedheal TDs. Included in their number was the then Minister for Industry and Commerce, Joseph McGrath.

This group became known as the National Group. Other than McGrath they included Sean Gibbons, Sean Milroy, Frank Cahill, Sean McGarry, Daniel McCarthy, Thomas Carter, Alex McCabe and Henry Finlay.

Along with the Army Mutiny, the National Group was also unhappy with the lack of perceived progress with the Boundary Commission (established to agree the border between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State), which some had hoped might provide a route map towards a United Ireland.

Armed with this two-item manifesto the National Group resigned en masse from Dáil Éireann. The intent was to create a mini general election in seven constituencies represented by the TDs (four of the TDs represented two constituencies). Those constituencies were Carlow/Kilkenny, Cavan, Dublin North, Dublin South, Sligo/Leitrim, Mayo North and Roscommon. The by-elections were held on 11March 1924.

The National Group was also referred to as the National Party, although it was difficult to sense any long-term political strategy in the bringing about of these by-elections. Only one of the nine, Sean Milroy, contested. Curiously, his candidacy was not for the Cavan constituency for which he had been elected, but instead he was put forward for the Dublin North constituency. Here he finished fifth of the five contesting candidates, with less than 5 per cent of the vote.

Cumann na nGaedheal won seven of the nine seats being contested. Republicans won the other two seats, both of which were in two constituencies (Dublin North and Sligo/Leitrim) where two seats were available. The biggest political casualty of these events, Joseph McGrath, went on to to found the Irish Hospital Sweepstakes, an act that ended up making him an extremely wealthy man.

Local elections occurred in 1925. These would be the first local elections held in the Irish Free State. The attitude of the Cumann na nGaedheal government to these units of local democracy was somewhat distrustful. Rural District Councils had been abolished, reducing the number of units of local government that existed.

Cumann na nGaedheal did not formally contest these elections. Party members contested as independents. Sinn Féin took a more proactive approach to these elections. While refusing to recognise Dáil Éireann, it strongly participated in local councils.

These contrasting approaches to local government by Cumann na nGaedheal and Sinn Féin fed the Cosgrave government’s distrust. This distrust was an obvious factor in the circumstances that led to the subsequent short-term removal of Dublin Corporation and Cork Corporation.

The first election for the Senate of the Irish Free State also took place in 1925. The original Senate had been put together in 1922 by a combination of nomination and election by an electorate that consisted of members of the Dáil and the newly nominated Senators. Among the nominated members was the poet and playwright, W.B. Yeats.

Of the sixty members of the 1922 Senate, forty-two Senators identified themselves as independent. Thirteen of these had been elected – Richard Butler, John Counihan, Edward MacLysaght, Éamonn Mansfield, George Nesbitt, William Barrington, Eileen Douglas, James Douglas, Alice Stopford Green, (Sir) John Griffith, John MacLoughlin, William Molloy and Maurice Moore.

Eamon Mansfield, an independent who had been supported by the Labour Party, was a Senator for five days. Elected on 7 December, he wrote a letter of resignation on 12 December. (He may have been persuaded by a threat issued by the republican side in the Civil War to assassinate any member of the new Senate.)

There were four female members of the 1922 Senate, two elected (Eileen Costello and Alice Stopford Green) and two nominated (Ellen Cuffe, the Countess of Desart, and Jennifer Wyse Power). Three of these were independent Senators; the fourth (Wyse Power) was an executive member of Cumann na nGaedheal, until when frustrated at the performance of the party in government, she sat as an independent in 1925.

Costello and Cuffe had been members of the Gaelic League, Cuffe having served as its President. Wyse Power had been active in Cumann na mBan. Cuffe had the distinction of being the only member of the Jewish community to sit in the Senate. Stopford Green was a noted historian who had been associated with the Howth Gun Running in 1914.

The Farmers Party succeeded in having one Senator elected in 1922, Thomas Linehan.

The 1925 election was for nineteen of the sixty Senate seats. Candidates could only be nominated through Dáil Éireann or by existing nominated members of the Senate. This led to seventy-six candidates being nominated. The entire country was treated as a single nineteen-seat constituency. In an added complication the electorate was restricted to voters over 30 years of age. These complications led to a turnout of less than one-quarter of the electorate.

As with the local elections Cumann na nGaedheal did not formally contest, encouraging ‘supporters’ to do so. In not attending Dáil Éireann, Sinn Féin chose not to nominate candidates, thus boycotting the election. Of the seventy-six candidates who were nominated, seven were nominees of the Farmers Party, three of whom were elected. These included Michael O’Hanlon (the General Secretary of the party), Thomas Linehan and James Dillon (not the future government minister).

The Labour Party nominated eight candidates, of whom three were elected. Cumann na nGaedheal supporting candidates won ten Senate seats. Twenty-five of the seventy-six candidates were non-aligned. Three of these succeeded in being elected – Henry Barniville, Sir Edward Bellingham and Sir Edward Bigger.

The final two by-elections of the Fourth Dáil occurred in February 1926. These were for the constituencies of Dublin County and Laois/Offaly. The Dublin County vacancy had arisen as a result of independent Darrell Figgis TD taking his own life in October 1925 – the final in a series of tragedies that dominated the closing years of his life.

A month previously he had sought, unsuccessfully, to change his mandate to become a member of the Irish Senate. He had been subject to political controversy through his membership of a committee examining radio broadcasting. The minister responsible for this area, J.J. Walsh (known himself to favour private rather than State ownership of any broadcasting company), accused Figgis of peddling influence, forcing Figgis’s resignation.

In November 1924 his wife Millie had taken her own life by shooting herself in the back of a taxi cab. A number of months later a new partner in his life, Rita North, died in the UK after a medical procedure. One of Figgis’s last actions was to attend and to give evidence at her inquest in London. A week later he was to take his own life there.

The Dublin County by-election was won by the Labour Party’s William Norton, who would later become leader of that party. Norton’s election was helped by transfers gained from an independent candidate, Patrick Belton, who had polled 8,975 votes. This vote was far in excess of the combined total of National Democratic Party votes won by four candidates (of whom Belton was one) in the 1923 general election.

Dublin County was the third constituency Belton had by now contested in a four-year period. Another interesting feature of the Dublin County by-election was the absence of a republican candidate, as Sinn Féin was experiencing financial difficulties. In Laois/Offaly Cumann na nGaedheal comfortably held the seat.

As elections to the Fifth Dáil neared, political activity became more fevered. Several new political parties were produced in 1926. January of that year saw the founding of Clann Éireann (Family/Party of the Irish). The main motivation in setting up that party was because of those who were unhappy with the findings of the Boundary Commission which maintained the existing border with Northern Ireland. This resulted in parts of Derry, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Armagh and Down – that had hoped to be brought into the Irish Free State – being left within the jurisdiction of Northern Ireland.

Those feeling unhappy included Cumann na nGaedheal TDs Professor William Magennis who represented the National University of Ireland, Pádraig O’Máille from Galway and Christopher Byrne from Wicklow. O’Máille had survived the December 1922 attack that had resulted in the killing of Sean Hayles TD.

While all three were participants in the Fourth Dáil, the new party dedicated itself to getting rid of the unpopular Oath of Allegiance. Some who had associated with the new party had been involved with the National Group formed in the Army Mutiny aftermath. The independent Republican TD, Dan Breen, seemed to have a similar relationship.

As a party leader, Maginness does not seem to have been ideally suited. Possessing a pompous personality, his obsessions with censorship and with protectionism rarely developed into a wider policy agenda. In late 1926 Clann Éireann absorbed the National Protectionist League, making the issue more central in its priorities.

The Boundary Commission report and the Oath of Allegiance were also the issues that were exercising Éamon de Valera as President of Sinn Féin. The copper-fastening of partition, with republicans deliberately choosing to remain aloof from the process, was proving deeply frustrating to de Valera. He resolved then sought to convince the Sinn Féin organisation of the necessity of a policy change on abstentionism.

Throughout 1925 Sinn Féin struggled with the issue. Some within the party even considered entering the Dáil on a one-off basis to vote down the Boundary Commission report. De Valera did not believe this to be a credible course. As the party prepared for its 1926 Ard Fheis, de Valera was determined he would seek a change of policy. Weighed against him were the traditionalists of the party who viewed abstentionism as a religious article of faith.

As if to emphasise the religiosity of the issue, an amendment to the motion de Valera and the Sinn Féin leadership were putting to the party’s conference was tabled by the party’s Vice President, Fr Michael O’Flanagan. The party gathered for its Ard Fheis on 9 March 1926 at the Rotunda Building in Dublin.

Debate on the motion carried into a second day: