Metal Failures E-Book

Arthur J. McEvily

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 660

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

One of the only texts available to cover not only how failure occurs but also examine methods developed to expose the reasons for failure, Metal Failures has long been considered the most definitive and authoritative resources in metallurgical failure analysis. Now in a completely revised edition, this Second Edition features updates of all chapters plus new coverage of elastic behavior and plastic deformation, localized necking, the phenomenological aspects of fatigue, fatigue crack propagation, alloys and coatings, tensors and tensor notations, and much more.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Chapter 1: Failure Analysis

I. Introduction

II. Examples of Case Studies Involving Structural Failures

III. Summary

References

Problems

Chapter 2: Elements of Elastic Deformation

I. Introduction

II. Stress

III. Strain

IV. Elastic Constitutive Relationships

V. State of Stress Ahead of a Notch

VI. Summary

References

Appendix 2-1: Mohr Circle Equations for a Plane Problem (1)

Appendix 2-2 Three-Dimensional Stress Analysis

Appendix 2-3: Stress Formulas Under Simple Loading Conditions

Problems

Chapter 3: Elements of Plastic Deformation

I. Introduction

II. Theoretical Shear Strength

III. Dislocations

IV. Yield Criteria for Multiaxial Stress

V. State of Stress in the Plastic Zone Ahead of a Notch in Plane-Strain Deformation

VI. Summary

For Further Reading

Appendix 3-1: The von Mises Yield Criterion

Problems

Chapter 4: Elements of Fracture Mechanics

I. Introduction

II. Griffith's Analysis of the Critical Stress for Brittle Fracture

III. Alternative Derivation of the Griffith Equation

IV. Orowan-Irwin Modification of the Griffith Equation

V. Stress Intensity Factors

VI. The Three Loading Modes

VII. Determination of the Plastic Zone Size

VIII. Effect of Thickness on Fracture Toughness

IX. The R-Curve

X. Short Crack Limitation

XI. Case Studies

XII. The Plane-Strain Crack Arrest Fracture Toughness, KIa, of Ferritic Steels

XIII. Elastic-plastic Fracture Mechanics

XIV. Failure Assessment Diagrams

XV. Summary

References

Problems

Chapter 5: Alloys and Coatings

I. Introduction

II. Alloying Elements

III. Periodic Table

IV. Phase Diagrams

V. Coatings (9)

VI. Summary

References

Problems

Chapter 6: Examination and Reporting Procedures

I. Introduction

II. Tools for Examinations in the Field

III. Preparation of Fracture Surfaces for Examination

IV. Visual Examination

V. Case Study: Failure of a Steering Column Component

VI. Optical Examination

VII. Case Study: Failure of a Helicopter Tail Rotor

VIII. The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

IX. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

X. Replicas

XI. Spectrographic and Other Types of Chemical Analysis

XII. Case Study: Failure of a Zinc Die Casting

XIII. Specialized Analytical Techniques

XIV. Stress Measurement by X-Rays (4)

XV. Case Study: Residual Stress in a Train Wheel

XVI. The Technical Report

XVII. Record Keeping and Testimony

XVIII. Summary

References

Problem

Chapter 7: Brittle and Ductile Fractures

I. Introduction

II. Brittle Fracture

III. Some Examples of Brittle Fracture in Steel

IV. Ductile-Brittle Behavior of Steel

V. Case Study: The Nuclear Pressure Vessel Design Code

VI. Case Study: Examination of Samples from the Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic (6)

VII. Ductile Fracture

VIII. Ductile Tensile Failure, Necking

IX. Fractographic Features Associated with Ductile Rupture

X. Failure in Torsion

XI. Case Study: Failure of a Helicopter Bolt (12)

XII. Summary

References

Problems

Chapter 8: Thermal and Residual Stresses

I. Introduction

II. Thermal Stresses, Thermal Strain, and Thermal Shock

III. Residual Stresses Caused by Nonuniform Plastic Deformation

IV. Residual Stresses Due to Quenching

V. Residual Stress Toughening

VI. Residual Stresses Resulting from Carburizing, Nitriding, and Induction Hardening

VII. Residual Stresses Developed in Welding

VIII. Measurement of Residual Stresses

IX. Summary

References

Appendix 8-1: Case Study of a Fracture Due to Thermal Stress

Problems

Chapter 9: Creep

I. Introduction

II. Background

III. Characteristics of Creep

IV. Creep Parameters

V. Creep Fracture Mechanisms

VI. Fracture Mechanism Maps (6)

VII. Case Studies

VIII. Residual Life Assessment

IX. Stress Relaxation

X. Elastic Follow-up

XI. Summary

References

Problems

Chapter 10: Fatigue

I. Introduction

II. Background

III. Design Considerations

IV. Mechanisms of Fatigue

V. Factors Affecting Fatigue Crack Initiation

VI. Factors Affecting Fatigue Crack Growth

VII. Analysis of the Rate of Fatigue Crack Propagation

VIII. Fatigue Failure Analysis

IX. Case Studies

X. Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue

XI. Cavitation

XII. Composite Materials

XIII. Summary

References

For Further Reading

Problems

Chapter 11: Statistical Distributions

I. Introduction

II. Distribution Functions

III. The Normal Distribution

IV. Statistics of Fatigue; Statistical Distributions

V. The Weibull Distribution (1)

VI. The Gumbel Distribution (3)

VII. The Staircase Method

VIII. Summary

References

Appendix 11-1: Method of Linear Least Squares (C. F. Gauss, 1794)

Problems

Chapter 12: Defects

I. Introduction

II. Weld Defects

III. Case Study: Welding Defect

IV. Casting Defects

V. Case Study: Corner Cracking during Continuous Casting

VI. Forming Defects (6)

VII. Case Studies: Forging Defects

VIII. Case Study: Counterfeit Part (8)

IX. The Use of the Wrong Alloys; Errors in Heat Treatment, etc.

X. Summary

References

Problems

Chapter 13: Environmental Effects

I. Introduction

II. Definitions

III. Fundamentals of Corrosion Processes

IV. Environmentally Assisted Cracking Processes

V. Case Studies

VI. Cracking in Oil and Gas Pipelines

VII. Crack Arrestors and Pipeline Reinforcement

VIII. Plating Problems

IX. Case Studies

X. Pitting Corrosion of Household Copper Tubing

XI. Problems with Hydrogen at Elevated Temperatures

XII. Hot Corrosion (Sulfidation)

XIII. Summary

References

Problems

Chapter 14: Flaw Detection

I. Introduction

II. Inspectability

III. Visual Examination (VE)

IV. Penetrant Testing (PT)

V. Case Study: Sioux City DC-10 Aircraft (2)

VI. Case Study: MD-88 Engine Failure (3)

VII. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

VIII. Case Study: Failure of an Aircraft Crankshaft

IX. Eddy Current Testing (ET)

X. Case Study: Aloha Airlines

XI. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

XII. Case Study: B747

XIII. Radiographic Testing (RT)

XIV. Acoustic Emission Testing (AET)

XV. Cost of Inspections

XVI. Summary

References

Problems

Chapter 15: Wear

I. Wear

II. The Coefficient of Friction

III. The Archard Equation (1)

IV. An Example of Adhesive Wear

V. Fretting Fatigue

VI. Case Study: Friction and Wear; Bushing Failure

VII. Roller Bearings

VIII. Case Study: Failure of a Railroad Car Axle

IX. Gear Failures (10, 11)

X. Summary

References

Problems

Concluding Remarks

Solutions to Problems

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Chapter 15

Name Index

Subject Index

Cover image: background, © Michael Rutkowski; circle images, © courtesy of the author

Cover design: Michael Rutkowski

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

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Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

McEvily, A. J.

Metal failures : mechanisms, analysis, prevention / Arthur J. McEvily. – 2nd edition.

p. cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-16396-2 (cloth); ISBN 978-1-118-41939-7 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-42116-1 (ebk)

1. Metals–Fracture. 2. Fracture mechanics. I. Title.

TA460.M382 2013

620.1′66–dc23

2012039445

To

Preface

As result of using the first edition in the teaching of courses on Failure Analysis in the United States, Europe, and Asia, it is clear that students need more background in fundamental areas such as elasticity and plasticity, phase diagrams, fatigue, and statistics in order to deal comfortably with the subject matter, and in this second edition, additional material has been presented to provide this background. In addition, new topics such as the staircase method in fatigue have been included and a few subjects, such as discussion of the stresses developed in crane hooks, have been omitted.

In addition, more homework problems have been included that are directly related to failure analysis so that the applicability of subjects such as fracture mechanics to real-world situations is more clearly understood. In this regard, Prof. Leon Shaw, formerly of the University of Connecticut and now with the lllinois Institute of Technology has been a valued contributor.

Further, as an aid to those readers who tackle the homework problems on their own, a section containing the solutions to these problems can be found at the end of the book.

One of the objectives of this second edition is to correct the typos and errata of the first edition. It is hoped that this objective has been met.

Finally, a special thank-you to Dr. Jirapong Kasivitamnuay of Chulalongkorn University for his input to this second edition. I would also like to thank Profs. Tul and Tawee of Chulalongkorn University, Prof. F. Kennedy of Dartmouth University, and Profs. S. Ishihara, M. Endo, A. Otuska, and Y. Mutoh of Japan for their assistance and encouragement.

A. J. McEvilyAugust 2013

Chapter 1

Failure Analysis

I. Introduction

Despite the great strides forward that have been made in technology, failures continue to occur, often accompanied by great human and economic loss. This text is intended to provide an introduction to the subject of failure analysis. It cannot deal specifically with each and every failure that may be encountered, as new situations are continually arising, but the general methodologies involved in carrying out an analysis are illustrated by a number of case studies. Failure analysis can be an absorbing subject to those involved in investigating the cause of an accident, but the capable investigator must have a thorough understanding of the mode of operation of the components of the system involved, as well as knowledge of the possible failure modes if a correct conclusion is to be reached. Since the investigator may be called upon to present and defend opinions before highly critical bodies, it is essential that opinions be based upon a sound factual basis and reflect a thorough grasp of the subject. A properly carried out investigation should lead to a rational scenario of the sequence of events involved in the failure as well as to an assignment of responsibility, either to the operator, the manufacturer, or the maintenance and inspection organization involved. A successful investigation may also result in improvements in design, manufacturing, and inspection procedures that preclude a recurrence of a particular type of failure.

The analysis of mechanical and structural failures might initially seem to be a relatively recent area of investigation, but upon reflection it is clear that the topic has been an active one for millennia. Since prehistoric times, failures have often resulted in taking one step back and two steps forward, but often with severe consequences for the designers and builders. For example, according to the Code of Hammurabi, which was written in about 2250 BC (1):

If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and cause the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to death. If it cause the death of a son of the owner of the house, they shall put to death a son of that builder. If it destroy property, he shall restore whatever it destroyed, and because he did not make the house which he built firm and it collapsed, he shall rebuild the house which collapsed at his own expense.

The failure of structures such as bridges, viaducts, and cathedrals resulted in better designs, better materials, and better construction procedures. Mechanical devices such as wheels and axles were improved through empirical insights gained by experience, and these improvements often worked out quite well. For example, a recent program in India was directed at improving the design of wheels for bullock-drawn carts. However, after much study, it was found that improvements in the design over those that had evolved over a long period of time were not economically feasible.

An example of an evolved design that did not work out well is related to the earthquake that struck Kobe, Japan, in 1995. That area of Japan had been free of damaging earthquakes for some time but had been visited frequently by typhoons. To stabilize homes against the ravages of typhoons, the local building practice was to use a rather heavy roof structure. Unfortunately, when the earthquake struck, the collapse of these heavy roofs caused considerable loss of life as well as property damage. The current design codes for this area have been revised to reflect a concern for both typhoons and earthquakes.

The designs of commonplace products have often evolved rapidly to make them safer. For example, consider the carbonated soft-drink bottle cap. At one time a metal cap was firmly crimped to a glass bottle, requiring a bottle opener for removal. Then came the easy-opening, twist-off metal cap. These caps were made of a thin, circular piece of aluminum that was shaped by a tool at the bottling plant to conform to the threads of the glass bottle. If the threads were worn, or if the shaping tool did not maintain proper alignment, then the connection between cap and bottle would be weak and the cap might spontaneously blow off the bottle while sitting on a shelf in a supermarket. Worse than that, there were a number of cases where, during the twisting-off process, the expanding gas suddenly propelled a weakly attached cap from the bottle and caused eye damage. To guard against this danger, the metal caps were redesigned to have a series of closely spaced perforations along the upper side of the cap so that as the seal between the cap and bottle was broken at the start of the twisting action, the gas pressure was vented and the possibility of causing an eye injury was minimized. The next stage in the evolution of bottle cap design has been to use plastic bottles and plastic caps. In a current design, the threads on the plastic bottle are slotted so that, as in the case of the perforated metal cap, as the cap is twisted the CO2 gas is vented, and the danger of causing eye damage is reduced.

Stress analysis plays an important role both in design and in failure analysis. Ever since the advent of the Industrial Revolution, concern about the safety of structures has resulted in significant advances in stress analysis. The concepts of stress and strain developed from the work of Hooke in 1678 and were firmly established by Cauchy and Saint-Venant early in the nineteenth century. Since then, the field of stress analysis has grown to encompass the strength of materials and the theories of elasticity, viscoelasticity, and plasticity. The advent of the high-speed computer has led to further rapid advances in the use of numerical methods of stress analysis by means of the finite element method (FEM), and improved knowledge of material behavior has led to advances in development of constitutive relations based upon dislocation theory, plasticity, and mechanisms of fracture. Design philosophies such as safe-life and fail-safe have also been developed, particularly in the aerospace field.