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Learn how you can help combat micro and macroaggressions against socially devalued groups with this authoritative new resource Microintervention Strategies: What You Can Do to Disarm and Dismantle Indivdiual and Systemic Racism and Bias, delivers a cutting-edge exploration and extension of the concept of microinterventions to combat micro and macroaggressions targeted at marginalized groups in our society. While racial bias is the primary example used throughout the book, the author's approach is applicable to virtually all forms of bias and discrimination, including that directed at those with disabilities, LGBTQ people, women, and others. The book calls out unfair and biased institutional policies and practices and presents strategies to help reduce the impact of sexism, heterosexism, ableism, and classism. It provides a new conceptual framework for distinguishing between the different categories of microinterventions, or individual anti-bias actions, and offers specific, concrete, and practical advice for taking a stand against micro and macroaggressions. Microintervention Strategies delivers the knowledge and skills necessary to confront individual and institutional manifestations of oppression. Readers will also enjoy: - A thorough introduction to the major conceptual distictions between micro and macroaggressions and an explanation of the manifestations, dynamics, and impact of bias on marginalized groups. - An exploration of the meaning and definition of micorinterventions, including a categorization into three types: microaffirmations, micorprotections, and microchallenges. - A review of literature that discusses the positive benefits that accrue to targets, allies, bystanders, and others when microinterventions take place. - A discussion of major barriers to acting against prejudice and discrimination. Perfect for undergraduate and graduate students taking courses in psychology, education, social work, and political science, Microintervention Strategies will also earn a place in the libraries of psychologists, educators, parents, and teachers, who hope to do their part to combat microaggressions and other forms of bias and discrimination.

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MICROINTERVENTION STRATEGIES

WHAT YOU CAN DO TO DISARM AND DISMANTLE INDIVIDUAL AND SYSTEMIC RACISM AND BIAS

DERALD WING SUE

CASSANDRA Z. CALLE

NAROLYN MENDEZ

SARA ALSAIDI

ELIZABETH GLAESER

Teachers College, Columbia University

This edition first published 2021

© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Derald Wing Sue, Cassandra Z. Calle, Narolyn Mendez, Sarah Alsaidi and Elizabeth Glaeser to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Sue, Derald Wing, author.

Title: Microintervention strategies : how to disarm and dismantle individual and systemic racism and bias / Derald Wing Sue [and four others].

Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.

Identifiers: LCCN 2020037753 (print) | LCCN 2020037754 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119769989 (epub) | ISBN 9781119769972 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119769965 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119769965q(paperback) | ISBN 9781119769972q(pdf) | ISBN 9781119769989q(epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Microaggressions. | Discrimination. | Racism.

Classification: LCC BF575.P9 (ebook) | LCC BF575.P9 S84 2021 (print) | DDC 305.8--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020037753 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020037754

Cover image: The Light of the Gospel Rekindled by the Reformers, Courtesy of Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg

Cover design by Wiley

Set in 10/14.5pt Palatino by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India

Dedication

George W. Ashburn 1868

Emmett Till 1955

Rev. George Lee 1955

Lamar Smith 1955

Willie Edwards Jr. 1957

Mack Charles Parker 1959

Herbert Lee 1961

Cpl. Roman Ducksworth Jr. 1962

Medgar Evers 1963

Virgil Lamar Ware 1963

Louis Allen 1964

Henry Hezekiah Dee 1964

Charlies Eddie Moore 1964

James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, Michael Schwerner 1964

Lt. Col. Lemuel Penn 1964

Jimmie Lee Jackson 1965

Oneal Moore 1965

Willie Brewster 1965

Malcolm X 1965

Johnathan Myrick Daniels 1965

Samuel Leamon Younge Jr. 1966

Vernon Ferdinand Dahmer 1966

Ben Chester White 1966

Wharlest Jackson 1967

Benjamin Brown 1967

Samuel Hammond Jr. 1968

Delano Middleton 1968

Henry Smith 1968

Martin Luther King Jr. 1968

Fred Hampton 1969

Ahmadou Diallo 1999

Kendra James 2003

Oscar Grant 2009

Aiyanna Stanly Jones 2010

Trayvon Martin 2012

Mohamed Bah 2012

Alesia Thomas

Shantel Davis 2012

Shelly Frey 2012

Rekia Boyd

Kyam Livingston 2013

Miriam Carey 2013

Kayla Moore 2013

Michelle Cusseaux 2014

Pearlie Golden 2014

Yvette Smith 2014

Eric Garner 2014

John Crawford 2014

Michael Brown 2014

Ezell Ford 2014

Dante Parker 2014

Laquan McDonald 2014

Tamir Rice 2014

Ruman Brisbon 2014

Jerame Reid 2014

Phillip White 2014

Aura Rosser 2014

Akai Gurley 2014

Gabriella Nevarez 2014

Meagon Hockaday

Natasha Mckenna 2015

Alexa Christian 2015

Samuel DuBose 2015

Jeremy McDole 2015

Tanisha Anderson 2014

Tony Terrell Robinson Jr. 2015

Anthony Hill 2015

Mya Hall 2015

Eric Harris 2015

Walter Scott 2015

William Chapman II 2015

Alexia Christian 2015

Victor Manuel Larosa 2015

India Kager 2015

Jonathan Sanders 2015

Freddie Carlos Gray Jr. 2015

Salvado Ellswood 2015

Sandra Bland 2015

Albert Joseph Davis 2015

Darrius Stewart 2015

Billy Ray Davis 2015

Samuel Duaose 2015

Michael Sabbie 2015

Christian Taylor 2015

Felix Kumi 2015

Keith Harrison McLeod 2015

Dominic Hutchinson 2015

Anthony Ashford 2015

Lavante Biggs 2015

Michael Lee Marshall 2015

Jamar Clark 2015

Nathaniel Harris Pickett 2015

Benni Lee Tignor 2015

Miguel Espinal 2015

Michael Noel 2015

Kevin Matthews 2015

Bettie Jones 2015

Quintonio Legrier 2015

Keith Childress Jr. 2015

George Mann 2015

Frank Swart 2015

Kisha Michael 2016

Janet Wilson 2016

Richard Perkins 2016

Joseph Mann 2016

Asshams Pharoah Manley 2016

Lamontez Jones 2016

Paterson Brown 2016

Richard Perkins 2016

Janet Wilson 2016

Randy Nelson 2016

Antronie Scott 2016

Wendell Celestine 2016

David Joseph 2016

Calin Roquemore 2016

Dyzhawn Perkins 2016

Marco Loud 2016

Peter Gaines 2016

Torrey Robinson 2016

Darius Robinson 2016

Kevin Hicks 2016

Demarcus Semer 2016

Willie Tillman 2016

Terrill Thomas 2016

Sylville Swth 2016

Alton Sterling 2016

India Beaty 2016

Symone Marshall 2016

Jessica Williams 2016

Korryn Gaines 2016

Deborah Danner 2016

Philando Castile 2016

Terence Crutcher 2016

Kionte Spencer 2016

Mary Truxillo 2016

Christopher Davis 2016

Junior Prosper 2017

Alonzo Smith-Tyree Crawford 2017

Alteria Woods 2017

Jordan Edwards 2017

Aaron Bailey 2017

Ronell Foster 2018

Stephon Clark 2018

Botham Jean 2018

Brendon Glenn 2018

Ronell Foster 2018

Stephon Clark 2018

Antwon Rose II 2018

Pamela Turner 2019

Dominique Clayton 2019

Atatiana Jefferson 2019

Christopher Whitfield 2019

Christopher McCorvey 2019

Eric Reason 2019

Michael Lorenzo Dean 2019

Brian Keith Day 2019

Shukri Abdi 2019

Matthew Ajibade 2019

Breonna Taylor 2020

Ahmaud Arbery 2020

Tony Mcdade 2020

George Floyd 2020

Layleen Polanco 2020

Nina Pop 2020

Monika Diamond 2020

Dominique “Rem’mie” Fells 2020

Riah Milton (2020)

Robert Fuller (2020)

Rayshard Brooks (2020)

… and many more who are unnamed and have been brutalized and murdered at the hands of police, White supremacists, hate mongers, anti-Blackness and systemic oppression.

… and to any and all other victims who are subject to discriminatory based violence due to their minoritized, oppressed identities or allyship.

… #SayTheirNames

Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

CHAPTER ONE: Taking Responsibility to Address Bias and Discrimination

The Failure to Act

The Relationship between Macroaggressions and Microaggressions

Macroassaults in Institutional Policies and Practices

Macroaggressions as Systemic Racism

Macroaggressions in Standard Operating Procedures

The Need to Take Action: People of Color, White Allies, and Bystanders

Targets

White Allies

Bystanders

CHAPTER TWO: What Are Microinterventions?

Distinguishing Microinterventions from Macrointerventions

Three Forms of Microinterventions: Strategies and Tactics

Microaffirmations

Microprotections

Microchallenges

CHAPTER THREE: Psychological Benefits of Microinterventions vs. the Psychological Costs of Inaction

Active Anti-racist Interventions: Benefits and Costs

For Targets

For Significant Others

For White Allies

For Bystanders

Prosocial Norms and Contexts

Psychosocial Costs of Racism to Whites: Perpetrator Constriction vs. Liberation

Cognitive Costs to Perpetrators

Affective Costs to Perpetrators

Behavioral Costs to Perpetrators

Spiritual and Moral Cost to Perpetrators

Perpetrator Liberation and Benefits

CHAPTER FOUR: Barriers to Combatting Micro- and Macroaggressions

Being Oblivious, Innocent, and Naïve

Minimizing the Harm

Maintaining Harmony and Avoiding Conflict

Fearing Repercussions

Isolation

Loss of Position and Power

Attacks on Character

Psychological Stress and Burnout

Violent Threats and Physical Harm

Being Paralyzed and Feeling Impotent

CHAPTER FIVE: Overcoming Silence, Inaction and Complicity

Learn to Recognize and Decode Hidden Expressions of Bias

Become Aware of the Toxicity and Harmful Impact of Micro/Macroaggressions

Create Norms that Counter Conflict Avoidance and Enhance Racial Dialogues

Appeal to Moral Values

Undertake Antibias Training

Create Fair and Just Societal and Organizational Policies and Practices

Raising Race-Conscious Children

Seek Social Support and Allies

Obtain Skills and Tactics to Respond to Macroaggressions

CHAPTER SIX: Microintervention Strategy and Tactics to Make the “Invisible” Visible

Challenging Microaggressions

Tactic # 1 – Develop Perspicacity

Tactic # 2 – Disempower the Innuendo by “Naming” It

Tactic # 3 – Undermine the Meta-communication

Tactic # 4 – Challenge the Stereotype

Tactic # 5 – Broaden the Ascribed Trait to a Universal Human Behavior

Tactic # 6 – Ask for Clarification of a Statement or Action

Tactic # 7 – Make the Meta-communication Explicit by Restating/Rephrasing the Statement or Action

Tactic # 8 – Reverse, Redirect or Mimic the Statements or Actions of the Offender as If It Was Meant for the Perpetrator

Challenging Macroaggressions

Tactic # 1 – Monitor and Document

Tactic # 2 – Encourage Implementing Systems of Evaluation and Accountability

Tactic # 3 – Leverage Personal Power and Privileged Identities

CHAPTER SEVEN: Microintervention Strategy and Tactics to Educate Perpetrators and Stakeholders

Strategic Goal: Educate Perpetrators

Tactic # 1 – Help Microaggressors Differentiate between Good Intent and Harmful Impact

Tactic # 2 – Contradict the Group-Based Stereotype with Opposing Evidence by Personalizing It to Specific Individuals

Tactic # 3 – Appeal to the Offender’s Values and Principles

Tactic # 4 – Point Out the Commonalities

Tactic # 5 – Promote Empathy

Tactic # 6 – Point Out How They Benefit

Strategic Goal: Challenging Macroaggressions through Education

Tactic # 1 – Raise Critical Thinking

Tactic # 2 – Support Antibias Education and Training

Tactic # 3 – Highlight the Benefits of Diversity and Equity

CHAPTER EIGHT: Microintervention Strategy and Tactics to Disarm Microaggressions and Macroaggressions

Strategic Goal: Disarm Microaggressions

Tactic # 1 – Interrupt the Communication and Redirect It

Tactic # 2 – State Values and Set Limits

Tactic # 3 – Express Disagreement

Tactic # 4 – Describe What Is Happening

Tactic # 5 – Nonverbal Communication

Tactic # 6 – Use an Exclamatory Short Expression

Tactic # 7 – Remind Them of the Rules

Challenging Macroaggressions

Nonviolent and Violent Actions

Strategic Goal: Disarming Macroaggressions

Tactic # 1 – Protest and Persuade

Tactic # 2 – Engage in Civil Disobedience

Tactic # 3 – Challenge the Status Quo Through Media

Tactic # 4 – Enhance Collective Action

CHAPTER NINE: Microintervention Strategy and Tactics for Using External Support and Alliances

Strategic Goal: Seeking External Support/Validation in Fighting Microaggressions

Tactic # 1 – Alert Leadership

Tactic # 2 – Report Incident

Tactic # 3 – Seek Therapy/Counseling

Tactic # 4 – Seek Spirituality/Religion/Community Support

Tactic # 5 – Establish a Buddy System

Tactic # 6 – Establish or Join a Support Group

Microintervention Cautions

Strategic Goal: Seeking External Support in Fighting Macroaggressions

Tactic # 1 – Call on the Support of Human Rights Organizations

Tactic # 2 – Initiate Governmental Action

Tactic # 4 – Seek Community Support

CHAPTER TEN: Microinterventions – A Call to Action for Caretakers and Teachers

Prime Time for Developing Minds

Talking Race to Children

Microintervention Implications for Caretakers and Educators

Make the Invisible Visible

Educate Stakeholders

Disarm the Micro/Macroaggression

Seek External Support

Implications for Future Study

Conclusions

References

Name Index

Subject Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Differences between microaggressions and macroaggressions

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Micro and Macro Distinctions in Expressions of Bias and Antibias Inter...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Active Anti-racist Benefits and Costs of Inaction

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Barriers to Action and Solutions to Inaction

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Strategic Goal: Make the Invisible Visible

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Strategic Goal: Educate the Offender and Stakeholder

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Strategic Goal: Disarm the Micro/Macroaggression

Table 8.2 Communication Tools for Social Advocacy: Traditional Media, Social Med...

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Strategic Goal: Seek External Support and Alliances

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Cosmetic Changes or Real Changes: Results of Black Lives Matter Prote...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Types of Microinterventions.

Guide

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Table of Contents

Preface

Begin Reading

References

Name Index

Subject Index

End User License Agreement

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Preface

Microintervention Strategies: What You Can Do to Disarm and Dismantle Individual and Systemic Racism and Bias is a book aimed at organizing and providing a conceptual framework of antibias strategies and tactics that can be used by targets, parents/significant others, allies, and well-intentioned bystanders to counteract, challenge, diminish, or neutralize the individual (microaggressions) and institutional/societal (macroaggressions) expressions of prejudice, bigotry, and discrimination.

Since the murder of George Floyd on May 25, 2020, and the historical and continuing killing of many unarmed Black Americans, our nation has seemingly experienced a racial awakening of its racist historical past, and its continuing oppression, denigration, and silencing of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color. The COVID-19 pandemic has laid bare the existence of systemic racism that threatens the well-being of humankind as a whole, but differentially impacts communities of color. While experts and the general public initially believed that COVID-19 affected all individuals – regardless of race and SES, we have come to recognize how communities of color, especially African Americans, Latinx Americans, and Indigenous people, suffer from the virus at disproportionate high rates when compared to their White counterparts. Macroaggressions that exist in structural inequities, programs, policies, and practices become visible due to the discriminating impact of COVID-19.

The admonition “Do Something!” echoes the sentiment of many social justice advocates regarding the appalling worldwide silence and inaction of people in the face of injustice, hatred, and oppression directed toward socially marginalized group members. In the United States, the omnipresence of racial bias and bigotry has led many to question the reasons for their persistence in light of widespread public condemnation. In many cases, bias and discrimination go unchallenged because the behaviors and words are disguised in ways that provide cover for their expression and/or the belief that they are harmless and insignificant. Even when the biased intent and detrimental impact are unmasked, the possible actions to be taken are unclear and filled with potential pitfalls. The reasons for inaction appear particularly pronounced and applicable in the expression of racial microaggressions and racial macroaggressions.

In this book, we introduce a new concept, microinterventions, the everyday antibias actions taken by targets, parents, significant others, allies, and well-intentioned bystanders to counteract, challenge, diminish, or neutralize individual and systemic racism. Although we discuss and offer solutions to the many barriers to antibias actions, we focus upon a central feature of microinterventions: Arming social justice advocates with specific and concrete strategies and tactics to challenge racism, bias, and bigotry. There is strong consensus that in the face of interpersonal and systemic racism, microinterventions not only disarm and dismantle racism but also ward off the negative consequences of silence and inaction as well as promote positive outcomes associated with self-respect, self-efficacy, and self-worth. For targets, they defend one’s integrity, self-esteem, and self-worth; increase the repertoire of effective tools to take action; and contribute to a sense of control and empowerment. For significant others (parents, relatives, teachers, and neighbors), microinterventions offer opportunities to immunize targeted loved ones against the forces of racism, to communicate empathy and support, and to teach them functional survival skills. For allies, taking action transmits to targets and onlookers support and validation, but – more importantly – aligns with and reinforces their own values of social justice and equity. For bystanders, studies suggest that antiracism action is associated with personal satisfaction, self-pride rather than guilt, and the knowledge of behaving in harmony with equalitarian values.

This book is about developing a repertoire of microintervention strategies to combat bias and discrimination. Being motivated to help is simply not enough when well-intentioned individuals lack the necessary strategies and tools required for effective antibias actions. As a result, we hope to provide the knowledge, skills, and tactics that well-intentioned social justice advocates can use in their continuing efforts to disarm and dismantle racism and bias.

As our dedication page indicates, this book is dedicated to the memory of the many named and unnamed individuals who have been killed and brutalized by racism, bias, and bigotry. We cherish their memories in the hope that others will have the courage to step forward and become allies in the struggle for equal rights.

Derald Wing Sue (on behalf of all coauthors)

A NOTE TO THOSE WHO INSPIRE US

This book would not have been possible without the work of frontline community activists and grassroots’ organizations. To our thought leaders, community organizers, and local community members – we see you, we hear you, we are inspired by you, and we appreciate you. Your inspirational work has protected marginalized communities, demanded systemic change, and inspired others to engage in activism work at various levels.

We understand the way that knowledge is constructed in our society is based on larger systemic inequities. It was our goal to recognize the power dynamics that keep community-based activists from having a larger platform by highlighting the wisdom that has inspired us to do this work. Activists have modeled support in their own communities by sharing coping tools and response strategies that individuals can use when faced with systemic oppression and individual-level microaggressive experiences. As students in academia, we saw this wisdom and wanted to uplift these voices by compiling these resources and creating a framework for responding that can reach more people and larger institutions. We recognize that we have a platform because of our access to the “Ivory Tower” (academia) and professors and mentors such as Derald Wing Sue, and with this, we wanted to navigate these privileges to benefit marginalized communities and individuals. In order to ensure that we amplify activist voices and continue to support them: (1) we have cited all our sources in this book (from journal articles, books, and to forums and social media accounts) and (2) we will be donating our portion of the proceeds from this book to various activist organizations that continue to do this groundwork.

Activists, we thank you. Thank you for protecting, supporting, teaching, and inspiring us. No words can truly capture our gratitude. The work is never done, siempre adelante.

With gratitude,Sarah Alsaidi, Cassandra Calle,Lizzie Glaeser, and Narolyn Mendez

CHAPTER ONETaking Responsibility to Address Bias and Discrimination

We will have to repent in this generation not merely for the hateful words and actions of the bad people but for the appalling silence of the good people.

– Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

I am only one, but still I am one. I cannot do everything, but still I can do something; and because I cannot do everything I will not refuse to do the something that I can do.

– Helen Keller

These two quotes are reflective of attempts to answer several questions echoed in this chapter and throughout the rest of the book: (a) what makes it so difficult for people, whether targets of discrimination or those in the majority group to engage in antibias actions when prejudice, racism or xenophobia rear their ugly heads; (b) can the actions of a single person actually do any good in overcoming the immensity of racism; (c) what changes must occur in well-intentioned individuals to make them valuable social advocate allies; and (d) what are the tools and strategies that have proven effective in combatting racist expressions on individual and institutional levels? To answer these key questions, we must first understand the internal struggle and complex array of embedded or nested emotions that keep each of us from confronting the meaning of racism.

For White Americans, this confrontation and the fears it generates are eloquently expressed by Tatum (2002):

Fear is a powerful emotion, one that immobilizes, traps words in our throats, and stills our tongues. Like a deer on the highway, frozen in the panic induced by the lights of an oncoming car, when we are afraid it seems that we cannot think, we cannot speak, we cannot move…What do we fear? Isolation from friends and family, ostracism for speaking of things that generate discomfort, rejection by those who may be offended by what we have to say, the loss of privilege or status for speaking in support of those who have been marginalized by society, physical harm caused by the irrational wrath of those who disagree with your stance?

(pp. 115–116)

For people of color, the barriers to confronting biases are summed up in these narratives by a Latina and African American about the racism they experience.

“It seems to never end. ‘You’re different, you’re stupid. You don’t belong!’ You get angry but have to hold it in. How does it make me feel? It hurts a lot, especially if it comes from your friends and even your teachers. Explaining, doesn’t help. They will just say, ‘It wasn’t my intention.’ ‘Why are you always so sensitive?’ ‘Can’t you take a joke?’ And, I can’t say anything because I am so emotional. I don’t want them to see me cry or they’ll think I’m weak.” (Latina participant)

“I have to stop and think sometimes. ‘Are they being racist? Or, is that just how they act? Or, are they just not being friendly because they had a bad day?’ I feel like there’s nothing I can do. Show my anger or say something, I’ll get in trouble. I try to walk away sometimes, but it just eats away at you. Then you take it out on yourself, ‘Why didn’t you stand up for your rights?’ You begin to feel like a weak coward.” (African American participant)

Increasingly, scholars and practitioners in the fields of psychology and education have stressed the responsibility of all concerned citizens to address issues of interpersonal bias/discrimination and systemic oppression (APA, 2019c; Brown & Ostrove, 2013; Obear, 2017; Olle, 2018; Ratts, Singh, Nassar-McMillan, Butler, & McCullough, 2016; Sue, 2017b). The call to action was especially urgent when on May 25, 2020, a video of a Minneapolis police officer kneeling on the neck of George Floyd for nearly nine minutes surfaced. Floyd died from asphyxiation and four officers were arrested for participating in his murder. The event sent shock waves throughout the nation, sparked weeks of widespread protests, resulted in calls for police reform, energized the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement, and ignited public debate about individual and systemic racism. Unlike other unarmed killings of Black men, the George Floyd murder seemed different as it somehow pricked the conscience of the nation and the rest of the world. Ironically, despite the protests and renewed concern with police brutality, Jacob Blake, a Black man was shot seven times in the back that left him paralyzed by a White police officer on August 23, 2020.

For years, social justice advocates have underscored the social responsibility of everyone to (a) take action against prejudice and discrimination (Tatum, 1997); (b) develop the awareness, knowledge and skills necessary to confront individual and institutional manifestations of oppression (Spanierman & Smith, 2017a); and (c) actively promote conditions that allow for equal access and opportunities for marginalized groups in our society (Goodman, Wilson, Helms, Greenstein, & Medzhitova, 2018). Despite these pressing calls to combat bias and bigotry, many have noted the appalling silence and inaction that often accompanies an incident or expression of prejudice and discrimination in our everyday lives (Byrd, 2018; Potok, 2017; Sue & Spanierman, 2020). Because of their often-unintentional nature and invisibility, this seems particularly true for expressions that take the form of micro and macroaggressions (Nadal, Griffin, Wong, Hamit, & Rasmus, 2014; Torino, Rivera, Capodilupo, Nadal, & Sue, 2018).

Sue, Alsaidi, Awad, Glaeser, Calle, and Mendez (2019) have introduced the concept of “microinterventions” or interpersonal antibias strategies used by targets, allies and bystanders to disrupt, diminish, and terminate prejudice and discrimination arising from the actions of individual perpetrators. In their original formulation, they focused on interpersonal microinterventions directed toward offenders who deliver everyday affronts that communicate race-based “put-downs,” insults, and invalidations. These antiracism strategies were organized under four conceptual categories: (1) making the “invisible” visible, (2) disarming the microaggression, (3) educating the offender, and (4) seeking external support and intervention. The authors also called for the development of individual actions and tactics that would change, nullify or minimize the expression of macroaggressions (biased institutional policies, practices, structures, and social norms) as distinct from microaggressions (interpersonal slights).

In this book, we extend and expand the concept of microinterventions to include their role in nullifying the harmful impact of not only microaggressions but also macroaggressions directed toward marginalized groups in our society. Although we primarily use racial bias as an example, it is important to note that women, LGBTQ individuals, people with disabilities, and other socially devalued groups in our society can also experience micro- and macroaggressions in the form of unfair and biased institutional policies and practices. Many of these antibias strategies seem equally applicable to combat sexism, heterosexism, ableism, and classism as well.

In this chapter, we make a major conceptual distinction between micro- and macroaggressions, and explicate the manifestation, dynamics and impact of both forms on the lived experience of marginalized groups in our society. We reveal how microaggressions are often hidden in the implicit biases of individuals and describe how macroaggressions can be disguised in the customs and practices of institutions, the public policies of our society, and the racialized ideological beliefs of the general public.

In Chapter 2, we provide a new conceptual framework and working definition of microinterventions and organize them into three types: microaffirmations, microprotections and microchallenges. We explore how each uniquely immunizes targets against and/or nullifies and minimizes the negative impact of micro- and macroaggressions.

In Chapter 3, we review literature that discuss the positive benefits that often accrue to targets, significant others, allies, well-intentioned bystanders, and interestingly to our broader social norms when concerned individuals engage in microinterventions. In addition, we cite scholarly work that explicates the personal costs of inaction (to the target or onlooker) in the face of racially biased and unfair actions.

In Chapter 4, we identify major barriers to acting against prejudice and discrimination, and how they often force silence and complicity on targets, White allies, and bystanders into accepting the manifestation of bias. Among one of the major forces to overcome is the fear of personal and professional retribution.

In Chapter 5, we spend considerable time suggesting solutions for overcoming these challenges. Receiving and providing social support from like-minded individuals or groups may represent a major strategy in combatting racism. The old adage that there is strength and safety in numbers not only applies to individual, but to group action as well.

In Chapters 6–9, we add to the original conceptual framework of microinterventions, formulate new strategies associated with social advocacy principles, and provide examples of effective and functional antibias actions and tactics that can potentially be used by targets, parents, teachers, significant others, allies and bystanders. These chapters are organized around four strategic goals:

Chapter 6

– Make the “invisible” visible.

Chapter 7

– Educate perpetrators and stakeholders.

Chapter 8

– Disarm and neutralize micro- and macroaggressions.

Chapter 9

– Seek external help from authoritative individuals, groups and organizations.

Finally, in Chapter 10, we discuss the implications of microintervention work, summarize our findings, and provide suggestions and actions for caretakers, educators, and other concerned citizens and professionals.

THE FAILURE TO ACT

The notable quotes at the start of this chapter echo the sentiment of many social justice advocates regarding the appalling worldwide silence and inaction of people in the face of injustice, hatred and oppression directed toward socially marginalized group members (Freire, 1970; Potok, 2017; Tatum, 1997). In the United States, the omnipresence of racial bias and bigotry has led many to question the reasons for their persistence in light of widespread public condemnation. Social scientists have proposed a number of reasons for people’s failure to act: (a) the invisibility of modern forms of bias; (b) trivializing an incident as innocuous; (c) diffusion of responsibility; (d) fear of repercussions or retaliation; and (e) the paralysis of not knowing what to do (Goodman, 2011; Kawakami, Dunn, Karmali, & Dovidio, 2009; Latane & Darley, 1968; Scully & Rowe, 2009; Shelton, Richeson, Salvatore, & Hill, 2006; Sue, 2003).

These reasons apply equally to targets of discrimination, White allies, and “innocent” bystanders (Scully & Rowe, 2009; Sue, 2015a). In many cases, bias and discrimination go unchallenged because the behaviors and words are disguised in ways that provide cover for their expression and/or the belief that they are harmless and insignificant. Even when the biased intent and detrimental impact are unmasked, the possible actions to be taken are unclear and filled with potential pitfalls. The reasons for inaction appear particularly pronounced and applicable to the expression of racial microaggressions (Sue et al., 2007) and racial macroaggressions, a concept to be introduced shortly (Huber & Solorzano, 2014).

The bombardment of racial micro-/macroaggressions in the life experience of persons of color has been described as a chronic state of “racial battle fatigue” that taxes the resources of target groups (Smith, Hung, & Franklin, 2011). In the stress-coping literature, two forms of managing stress have been identified: emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The former is a strategy utilized by individuals to reduce or manage the intensity of the emotive distress (internal self-care) and tends to be more passive, while the latter is used to target the cause of the distress (external). Problem-focused strategies are more long-term solutions that are proactive and directed to altering, or challenging the source of the stressor. Although there is considerable scholarly work on general models of stress coping (Lazarus, 2000; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), there is less research that take into consideration how people of color cope with prejudice and discrimination (Brondolo, Brady Ver Halen, Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009). Even when race-related stress and coping are discussed, it seldom explores questions about what people of color can do to disarm, challenge and change perpetrators or institutional systems that oppress target populations (Mellor, 2004). Throughout this book, we anchor our proposed race-related coping strategies to the more active problem-focused strategies in navigating prejudice and discrimination, preserving well-being, and promoting institutional and societal equity.

Additionally, scholars have largely ignored the role that White allies and well-intentioned bystanders play in the struggle for equal rights (Scully & Rowe, 2009; Spanierman & Smith, 2017). Most research and training have attempted to identify how White Americans become allies, but there is an absence of work on the types of actions or strategies that can be used to directly combat racism (Sue, 2017b). In this chapter, we (a) distinguish between individual microaggressions that arise interpersonally and macroaggressions that arise on a systemic level, (b) highlight the importance of disarming and neutralizing harmful micro- and macroaggressions, and (c) discuss the unique challenges of targets, allies and bystanders to engage in microinterventions.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MACROAGGRESSIONS AND MICROAGGRESSIONS

The use of the term macroaggression is a relatively new one that is often confused, confounded or mistakenly differentiated from microaggressions (Pérez Huber & Solorzano, 2015; Sue et al., 2019). Although both are entirely different concepts, the confusion surrounds the misperception that microaggressions (a) refer to relatively small slights and possess minimal harmful impact, (b) are always unintentional acts outside the level of conscious awareness, and (c) do not include overt displays of bigotry such as voicing demeaning group-based epithets. White parents who forbid their sons or daughters from dating or marrying a Latinx, police who profile and shoot an unarmed African American suspect, or calling an Asian American a “Chink” or “Jap” hardly seem like micro acts but rather macro ones. For these behaviors, some have mistakenly referred to them as macroaggressions (Torino et al., 2018). Yet, it is important to note that intentionality, harmful impact, and overtness are criteria that do not necessarily distinguish one from the other.

Sue and colleagues (Sue et al., 2007) originally defined microaggressions as brief and commonplace daily verbal and behavioral interpersonal indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, which communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative slights, invalidations, and insults to an individual because of their marginalized status in society. Racial microaggressions are the everyday slights, insults, put-downs, invalidations, and offensive behaviors that people of color experience in daily interactions with generally well-intentioned White Americans who may be unaware that they have engaged in racially demeaning ways toward target groups. The taxonomy of microaggressions includes microassaults, microinsults and microinvalidations.

A microassault is an explicit racial derogation characterized primarily by a verbal or nonverbal attack meant to hurt the intended victim through name-calling, avoidant behavior, or purposeful discriminatory actions. Referring to someone as “Colored” or “Oriental,” using racial epithets, discouraging interracial interactions, deliberately serving a White patron before someone of color, and displaying a swastika are examples. Microassaults are most similar to what has been called “old-fashioned” racism conducted on an individual level. They are most likely to be conscious and deliberate, although it is generally expressed in limited “private” situations (micro) that allow the perpetrator some degree of anonymity. In other words, people are likely to hold notions of minority inferiority privately and will only display it publicly when they (a) lose control or (b) feel relatively safe to engage in a microassault. With the election of President Trump and the rise of right-wing groups, however, overt expressions of racism, sexism, and heterosexism have increased. For many, the public statements from the president and the Twitter expressions of racial bias have seemingly given permission for others to do likewise.

A microinsult is characterized by communications that convey rudeness and insensitivity and demean a person’s racial heritage or identity. Microinsults represent subtle snubs, frequently unknown to the perpetrator, but clearly convey a hidden insulting message to the recipient of color. When a White employer tells a prospective candidate of color that “I believe the most qualified person should get the job, regardless of race” or when an employee of color is asked “How did you get your job?,” the underlying message from the perspective of the recipient may be twofold: (a) people of color are not qualified and (b) as a minority group member, you must have obtained the position through some affirmative action or quota program and not because of ability. Such statements are not necessarily microaggressions, but context is important. Hearing these statements frequently when used against affirmative action makes the recipient likely to experience it as such. Microinsults can also occur nonverbally, as when a White teacher fails to acknowledge students of color in the classroom or when a White supervisor seems distracted during a conversation with a Black employee by avoiding eye contact or turning away (Hinton, 2004). In this case, the message conveyed to persons of color is their contributions are unimportant.

Microinvalidations are characterized by communications that exclude, negate, or nullify the psychological thoughts, feelings, or experiential reality of a person of color. When Asian Americans (born and raised in the United States) are complimented for speaking good English or repeatedly asked where they were born, the impact is to negate their American heritage and conveys that they are perpetual foreigners. When Blacks are told that “I don’t see color” or “We are all human beings,” the effect is to negate their experiences as racial/cultural beings (Helms, 1995). When a Latinx couple is given poor service at a restaurant and shares their experience with White friends, only to be told “Don’t be so oversensitive” or “Don’t be so petty,” the racial experience of the couple is being nullified and its importance is being diminished.

The two latter forms of microaggressions are generally outside the level of conscious awareness of the perpetrator but may vary in their degrees of consciousness. Microassaults, however, are frequently confused as macroaggressions because they are overt, intentional and have an obvious distressing impact. As stressed earlier, microassaults are most similar to blatant overt racism where no guesswork is involved in determining the conscious intent of the perpetrator. The overtness (name-calling) of microassaults, conscious intentionality (expressing racial inferiority), and harmful consequences (shooting an unarmed African American suspect) are forms of microaggressions, and calling them macroaggressions is a misnomer. Pierce (1974) first coined the term (micro) aggressions to mean everyday racism that are commonplace and delivered interpersonally by offenders. Microaggressions can and do result in macro harm to targets, but they are not macroaggressions.

How Macroaggressions Differ from Microaggressions

Macroaggressions are the active manifestation of systemic or institutional biases that reside in the philosophy, policies, programs, practices and structures of institutions and communities (Pérez Huber & Solorzano, 2015; Sue et al., 2019). Oftentimes, they may be codified into laws, such as gerrymandering, where voting districts are drawn up to favor a particular party or constituency. They are the primary culprits for creating disparities in education, employment, and health care, and result in harmful detrimental consequences to a socially devalued group’s standard of living and quality of life (Jones, 1997). There are three major differences between macroaggressions and microaggressions summarized in Table 1.1. First, while the manifestation of microaggressions resides in the biased attitudes and behaviors of an individual (the perpetrator), macroaggressions reside in the biased programs, policies, and practices of institutions, communities, and society (Sue et al., 2019). Second, microaggressions are generally directed toward a specific individual target, while macroaggressions are group-focused and affect an entire socially marginalized class of people. Third, although remedying microaggressions involves changing or neutralizing the bigotry of the person, combatting macroaggressions means altering institutional policies and practices that oppress and deny equal access and opportunity to marginalized groups.

Table 1.1 Differences between microaggressions and macroaggressions

SOURCE

TARGET

INTERVENTION

Microaggression

Reside in biased attitudes and behaviors of individuals

Directed toward an individual

Changing or neutralizing the bigotry of an individual

Macroaggression

Reside in biased programs, policies, practices and customs of institutions, communities, and society

Directed toward large classes of socially marginalized groups of people

Altering institutional policies and practices that oppress and deny equal access and opportunity to marginalized groups

Central to understanding the dynamism and distinction between racial macroaggressions and microaggressions is the multidimensional model of racism (MMR) proposed by Jones (Jones, 1972; Jones & Rolon-Dow, 2018b). The MMR describes three levels of racism analysis: individual racism, institutional racism, and cultural racism.

Cultural racism comprises the cumulative effects of a racialized worldview, based on belief in essential racial differences that favor the dominant racial group over others. These effects are suffused throughout the culture via institutional structures, ideological beliefs, and personal everyday actions of people in the culture, and these effects are passed on from generation to generations.

(Jones, 1997, p. 472)

From this definition, it is our contention that individual racism is the source of microaggressions; institutional/societal racism is the source of macroaggressions; and cultural racism is the overarching umbrella that gives rise to both through the expression and enforcement of a White supremacy doctrine. In other words, cultural racism is the individual and institutional expression of the superiority of one group’s cultural heritage over another (arts, crafts, language, traditions, beliefs, and values) with the power to impose and enforce these beliefs upon people of color and their communities (Sue, 2006). It is the glue that holds together an interlocking set of ideological beliefs and principles (White superiority and non-White inferiority) that justifies discrimination, segregation, and domination of people of color through individual actions of perpetrators (microaggressions) and through the practice of institutional/societal racism (macroaggressions). Micro- and macroaggressions are active manifestations of bias that detrimentally affect individual targets or whole classes of people. For microaggressions, the bias resides in the prejudicial beliefs, attitudes and behaviors of an individual, while macroaggression bias resides in societal social policies and standards of practice (SOP) in institutions.

It is important to note, however, that most active manifestations of macroaggressions are still individually mediated: people act as agents of institutions by practicing and applying their biased rules and regulations. Macroaggressions are most likely enforced by people in positions of power, authority or leadership: employers who decide who to hire, fire, retain and promote; judges who make judicial rulings about the fate of defendants; educators who administer school policies that affect curriculum and acquisition of knowledge; politicians who pass laws and social policies; and health-care providers who determine the quality and quantity of care for patients or clients (Sue, 2006). What makes biased decisions and actions especially deleterious is that they are backed by the full force and power of an institution or community. Like microaggressions, macroaggressions vary in terms of their visibility and conscious intentionality. Institutional and societal macroaggressions can be quite blatant or they can be hidden, considered fair, reasonable, and race-neutral in impact (Jones, 1997; Jones & Dovidio, 2018).

Macroassaults in Institutional Policies and Practices

Macroassaults are social or institutional policies and practices (laws, rules and regulations) that are highly visible, purposeful and relatively undisguised in their intended racial impact upon people of color. In our society, there is a long history of the deliberate use of societal philosophy, laws, and policies to oppress and to force compliance (assimilation), to treat people of color as lesser human beings (second-class citizens), to restrict or reduce their number in the United States (immigration policies), and to disempower them (restricting voting rights) (Cortes, 2013; Huber & Solorzano, 2014; Jones, 1997). There are numerous historical examples of macroaggressions that evolved from racist institutional and societal practices, often with devastating results: (a) the nineteenth-century philosophy of “manifest destiny” justified the forced removal of Native Americans from their lands; (b) the passage of state and local Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation in the South; (c) the laws and practice of slavery based on Black individuals being less than human and/or property; (d) the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 that forbid the immigration of Chinese to the United States because their presence led to “a race problem”; and (e) the internment of 110,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds were citizens by virtue of birth in the United States during World War II because they “posed a threat to national security.”

Ironically, history seems to be repeating itself in the present day. The proposed building of the southern border wall and the passage of a travel ban on individuals from Muslim majority countries are prime examples of macroaggressions (Potok, 2017). Passing strict voter ID laws that inconvenience and discourage voters of color, attempting to end the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) puts at risk some 700,000 immigrant children for deportation, creating policies to erode transgender rights (i.e. inability to serve in the military), and diverting educational funds from public to private schools all have catastrophic harmful impact upon those groups targeted (SPLC, 2018). Fortunately, with respect to DACA, the US Supreme Court ruled on June 18, 2020, that the President could not immediately end the program with the justification they provided. Especially harmful has been President Trump’s May 2018 “Family Separation Policy” for migrants attempting to escape persecution and violence in their own countries by entering the United States. It has resulted in the separation of thousands of children (including infants) from their parents and families under the guise of national security and disavowing the real reasons of bias and discrimination (Rhodan, 2018).

Macroaggressions as Systemic Racism

The COVID-19 crisis has created a threat to the physical well-being of humankind as a whole. The novel virus has spread throughout the globe and has created widespread panic and anxiety, killing hundreds of thousands and leaving uncertainty and fear. The level of panic and threat has unfortunately bred negative sentiments, more specifically anti-Asian sentiment and xenophobia toward this group (CDC, 2020). This response to pandemics and foreign agents is not a new sentiment or reaction; it mirrors the reaction to the AIDS epidemic when an early “diagnosis” named the disease as “gay-related-immune deficiency” (Hussain, 2020). Unfortunately, the effects have also laid bare the continuing existence of systemic racism in our society.

While experts and the general public initially believed that COVID-19 impacted all individuals – regardless of race and socioeconomic status equally, all have come to see how communities of color, especially African Americans, Latinx Americans, and Indigenous peoples, suffer from the virus at a disproportionate high rate when compared to their White counterparts (CDC, 2020; Dorn, Cooney, & Sabin, 2020; Jean-Baptiste & Green, 2020; Kaur, 2020). Macroaggressions that exist in structural inequities, programs, policies and practices become visible due to the discriminating impact of COVID-19. Systemic racism and the dangers associated with this societal virus span across various institutions (i.e. health care, education, justice system, employment, law enforcement, and housing). As stated by Laurencin and McClinton (2020), while COVID-19 itself does not discriminate, years of racial and economic disparities defined how the virus disproportionately impacted Black and Brown communities.

An important aspect of understanding how macroaggressions operate via systemic racism is to acknowledge how structural factors (inadequate health care, poverty, housing inequalities, etc.) prevented communities of color from practicing social distancing, obtaining access to personal protective equipment, avoiding use of public transportation, and so forth in the same manner as more privileged individuals (Dorn et al., 2020). When thinking specifically about the impact of COVID-19 in Black and Brown communities, there are three major systems/institutions to focus on: (a) healthcare, (b) housing, and (c) employment. According to the CDC (2020), Latinx individuals are three times as likely to be uninsured and Black individuals are almost two times as likely to be uninsured. In addition to this statistic, African Americans and Latinx Americans suffer from higher rates of preexisting conditions when compared to their White counterparts (Dorn et al., 2020). This medical fact makes them more vulnerable to infections and deaths. The disparities within the healthcare system in the United States have impacted Black and Brown communities for many years and the outcomes of COVID-19 have only highlighted this long-lasting disparity. Native American (and Indigenous) individuals also suffer from much higher levels of underlying conditions including diabetes and heart disease, which make individuals more susceptible to more dire symptoms of COVID-19 (Dorn et al., 2020).

Another major factor that has contributed to the differential impact of COVID-19 is housing inadequacies and discrimination experienced by communities of color, especially Black and Latinx Americans. According to the CDC (2020), housing plays a large role in outcomes of COVID-19 in communities of color due to the following reasons: (a) Marginalized individuals often live in densely populated areas due to housing segregation and discrimination against communities of color. This reality makes it more difficult for individuals to follow preventative care and social distancing. (b) African Americans and Latinx Americans often live in areas that are further away from grocery stores and medical facilities, which in turn make it increasingly difficult to seek care, and stock up on supplies that would allow them to isolate at home. (c) People of color more often live in multigenerational households, which therefore make it more difficult to socially distance and protect more vulnerable family members.

Finally, employment within Black and Brown communities is a major and important factor that has impacted how COVID-19 discriminates between groups. During the COVID-19 pandemic, essential workers have been on the frontlines, and therefore at the highest risk to virus exposure. While nurses and doctors have worked directly with COVID-19-positive patients, they have also received (for the most part) protective gear to lessen the possibility of becoming ill. On the other hand, other essential workers such as retail, grocery, food, agriculture, delivery, and cleaning workers typically do not have the same, if any, protective gear. Of course, this puts all essential workers at a higher risk than the average population, but there are important trends to highlight within the aforementioned essential workers. About 25% of employed Latinx and Black people work in service industry jobs as compared to 16% of their White counterparts (CDC, 2020). Additionally, Latinx workers make up about 17% of total employment in the United States but account for approximately 53% of agricultural workers. African Americans make up 12% of total employment in the United States but approximately 30% of licensed practical and vocational nurses (CDC, 2020). Other discriminating factors that unfairly impact people of color include lack of financial stability and economic resources, inability to work from home, and lack of paid sick leave within essential jobs (not including high-paying medical fields). With these employment trends, it becomes evident how Black and Latinx communities were at a higher risk of contracting COVID-19 in the first place. As concluded by Jean-Baptiste and Green (2020), “COVID-19 is illuminating disparities that have been long been denied, ignored, and continue exasperating a significant majority of the Black population,” as well as other communities of color.

Macroaggressions in Standard Operating Procedures