Nanotechnology-based Sustainable Agriculture E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Provides detailed guidance on harnessing nanotechnology for sustainable agriculture, combines theoretical frameworks with actionable strategies
Nanotechnology-based Sustainable Agriculture offers an in-depth exploration of how nanotechnology is revolutionizing agricultural practices to enhance crop productivity and environmental sustainability. Addressing key challenges in conventional agriculture, this volume presents the cutting-edge roles of various nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes and quantum dots, in boosting efficiency and reducing environmental impact.
Emphasizing practical solutions, ranging from nano biofertilizers and nanobioremediation to innovative pest control strategies, an expert panel of authors provides a roadmap for integrating nanotechnology into sustainable agricultural systems. In-depth chapters describe both the fabrication of nanomaterials and their application in soil quality assessment, pollutant remediation, and crop disease management. Throughout the text, the authors highlight opportunities and address challenges to ensure the safe and effective adoption of these technologies.
Enhancing crop productivity and environmental health through innovative solutions, Nanotechnology-based Sustainable Agriculture:
- Explores a wide range of nanotechnologies for use in agriculture, including plant-based nanomaterials, chitosan nanoparticles, and silver nanoparticles
- Presents strategies for minimizing environmental and health impacts while maximizing crop productivity
- Incorporates the latest developments in nanobiotechnology, phytonanotechnology, and nano-bioremediation
- Discusses the challenges and potential risks of nanomaterial-based chemicals in agricultural systems
- Examines diverse case studies and strategies to achieve food security and sustainable agriculture on a global scale
Nanotechnology-based Sustainable Agriculture is essential reading for advanced students, researchers, and professionals in environmental science, material science, and agriculture. It is well-suited as a textbook for graduate and postgraduate courses in sustainable agriculture or nanotechnology, as well as a reference for professionals in research and development, policymaking, and industry.
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Seitenzahl: 897
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Fabrication of Nanomaterials and Their Potential Advantage for Sustainable Agriculture
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fabrication Techniques for Nanomaterials
1.3 Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials
1.4 Nanomaterials as Controlled Delivery System for Actives and Sustainable Agriculture
1.5 Challenges and Future Outlook
1.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 2: Effect of Nanocomposites on Sustainable Growth of Crop Plants and Productivity
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of NCs and Its Uptake Through Roots and Leaves in Plants
2.3 Application and Effects of NCs in Plant Development and Productivity
2.4 Adverse Effects of NCs on Crop Productivity and Sustainability
2.5 Challenges and Future Prospects in Application of NCs on Crop Plants
2.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
Author Contribution
References
Chapter 3: Role of Nanofertilizers in Sustainable Growth of Crop Plants and Production
3.1 Introduction
3.2 NFs, Its Types, and Synthesis Methods
3.3 Mode of Action
3.4 Contribution Toward Sustainable Agriculture
3.5 Customization of NFs
3.6 NFs’ Integration with Precision Agriculture
3.7 Ethical, Regulatory, and Safety Issues
3.8 Advantages and Limitations
3.9 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
Chapter 4: Nanotechnology is an Emerging Tool for Stress Management in Crop Plants
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Synthesis and Characterization of Nanomaterials
4.3 Characterization of Nanomaterials
4.4 Applications of Nanotechnology in Managing Abiotic Stress
4.5 Environmental Implications: Case Studies and Recent Plant Research
4.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 5: Impacts of Nanomaterials on Soil Microbial Communities
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Types of Nanomaterials and Their Agricultural Applications
5.3 Soil Microbial Communities: Role in Agriculture
5.4 Effect of NPs on Microbial Diversity
5.5 Ecotoxicology of NPs on Soil Microbial Community
5.6 Assessment and Monitoring of NM Impacts
5.7 Mitigation Strategies and Future Directions
5.8 Regulatory and Policy Considerations
5.9 Future Research Prospects and Knowledge Gaps
5.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6: Silver Nanoparticles’ Emerging Roles in Enhancing Crop Plant Growth and Yield
6.1 Introduction
6.2 AgNPs: Synthesis and Characterization
6.3 Antimicrobial Properties of AgNPs
6.4 Seed Treatment With AgNPs
6.5 Nutrient Uptake and Transport Enhancement
6.6 Stress Tolerance Improvement
6.7 Promotion of Photosynthesis and Biomass Accumulation
6.8 Root Development and Soil Interaction
6.9 Sustainable Agriculture Applications
6.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Effect of Nanomaterials on the Physiological Status of Crop Plants
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of NPs
7.3 Synthesis and Characterization of NMs
7.4 Physiological Effects on Crop Plants
7.5 Molecular and Biochemical Responses
7.6 Case Studies and Experimental Findings
7.7 Practical Applications and Future Prospects
7.8 Environmental and Safety Considerations
7.9 Conclusion
7.10 Future Prospects
References
Chapter 8: Chitosan Nanoparticles as Nanosorbent for Potential Removal of Pollutant from the Soil
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Chitosan
8.3 Nanotechnology and Soil Remediation
8.4 Chitosan Nano Adsorbent for Soil Remediation
8.5 Key Research Studies
8.6 Advantages and Limitations
8.7 Future Perspective and Research Directions
8.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Plant-based Nanomaterials for Remediation of Heavy Metal Pollution in Soil
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sources and Effects of HM Pollution in Soil
9.3 Effects of HMs on Plants
9.4 Conventional Remediation Techniques of Heavy Metal Soil Pollution
9.5 Role of NPs in Soil Remediation
9.6 Plant-based Nanomaterials (PBNPs) for Soil Remediation
9.7 Limitations of PBNPs
9.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Carbon Quantum Dots for the Efficient Degradation of Organic Contaminants
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Synthesis Method
10.3 Organic Contaminants and Their Impacts on Plants and the Environment
10.4 CQDs Application in Detection of Agrochemical Residues
10.5 Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Contaminants Using CQDs
10.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 11: Carbon-based Nanomaterials: A Promising Tool for Sensing Toxic Metal Ions from Degraded Soil
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Carbon-based Nanomaterials for Sensing the Purpose of a Sensing Tool
11.3 Sensing Mechanisms of Toxic Metal Ions by Nanomaterials
11.4 Applications Related to Metal Ion Detection by Carbon-based Nanomaterials
11.5 Challenges Associated with the Usage of Carbon-based Nanomaterials
11.6 Future Prospects of Carbon-based Nanomaterials
11.7 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 12: Breaking Barriers of Conventional Disease Protection: Impact of Nanopathology
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Evolution of Nanotechnology in the Agriculture Field
12.3 Key Characteristics and Aspects of Nanotechnology
12.4 Nanopathology
12.5 Challenges and Considerations
12.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Role of Nanoparticles in Plant Disease Management
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Types of NPs used in Plant Disease Management
13.3 Plant Disease Management Through NPs
13.4 Emerging Strategies for Mitigating Plant Diseases via NPs
13.5 Mitigation Strategies for Addressing NP-related Risks
13.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 14: Challenges and Risk Assessment of Nanomaterial-based Chemicals Used for Sustainable Agriculture
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Nanofertilizers – Types
14.3 Risk Assessment
14.4 Uncertainties
14.5 Risk Management
14.6 Regulations and Safety Measures
14.7 Ethical and Safety Concerns of Nanofertilizers and Nanopesticides
14.8 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Different approaches (chemical, physical, and biological) for synthe...
Figure 1.2 Architectural three-dimensional components of PAMAM dendrimer.
Figure 1.3 Nanomaterials as controlled delivery systems for nutrients, herbicid...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Contribution of biotic and abiotic factors to crop losses (%) and th...
Figure 2.2 The indiscriminate application of conventional agrochemicals results...
Figure 2.3 Types of nanocomposites.
Figure 2.4 Uptake of nanoparticles through the roots and leaves of plants.
Figure 2.5 Application of nanocomposites for sustainable crop production.
Figure 2.6 Positive effects of nanocomposites on plant growth and development.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Role of nanofertilizers in sustainable agriculture.
Figure 3.2 (a) Method of application of nanofertilizers, (b) NPs’ release...
Figure 3.3 Factors of regulation framework involved in the commercialization of...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Illustration of different approaches for the synthesis of nanoparticles.
Figure 4.2 Illustration of different nanoparticle applications for the mitigati...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Silver nanoparticles’ characterization techniques.
Figure 6.2 Application of silver nanoparticles in agricultural yield enhancement.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Importance of studying the physiological effects of crop plants. The...
Figure 7.2 Categories of signaling pathways associated with plant’s interaction...
Figure 7.3 Translocation and bioremediation potential of different nanomaterial...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Overview of (a) sources of heavy metal (HM) pollutants in soil and (...
Figure 9.2 Schematic representation of the synthesis of plant-based nanoparticl...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Properties and potential application of carbon quantum dots.
Figure 10.2 Different methods for synthesis of carbon quantum dots.
Figure 10.3 Impact of different organic contaminants on the ecosystem.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 When heavy metals are ingested by the human body, they cause serious...
Figure 11.2 Illustration showing the detection of metal ions and anions by diamo...
Figure 11.3 An inverted metallurgical microscope real image (Nikon) of the solid...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Nanopathology help plants to fight with the pathogens and help in gr...
Figure 12.2 Different species of
Trichoderma
used for the biological synthesis o...
Figure 12.3 Potential use of nanotechnology for plant disease diagnosis.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Various types of nanoparticles offer numerous advantages, including ...
Figure 13.2 Mechanism of metallic nanoparticles’ (Mt-NPs) action as nanofungicides.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Classification of nanofertilizers.
Figure 14.2 Application and benefits of nanofertilizers.
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 List of nanoformulations (nanofertilizers, nanocides, and nanosensor...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Positive effects of nanocomposites on the growth and productivity of...
Table 2.2 Adverse effects of nanocomposites on plant growth and development.
Table 2.3 Challenges and future prospective in the application of nanocomposites.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Effect of various nanofertilizers application in sustainable growth ...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Different nanoparticles and their impact.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Production and application of greener nanomaterials (NMs) based on 1...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Types of nanoparticles, physiological effects, and the plant species...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Role of functional groups of chitosan.
Table 8.2 Characterization techniques for chitosan nanoparticles.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 List of some heavy metals (HMs), their permissible limits, utility, ...
Table 9.2 Successful examples of PBNPs in HM remediation from soil.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Nanoparticle (NP) types and their roles in disease resistance.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Mechanism of NPs’ action in plants conferring tolerance against bact...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 The advantages and disadvantages of the nanofertilizer.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Nanotechnology-based Sustainable Agriculture
Edited by
Pardeep Singh
University of Delhi
New Delhi, India
Ankit Kumar Singh
Lalit Narayan Mithila University
Bihar, India
Vipendra Kumar Singh
Indian Institute of Technology Mandi
Himachal Pradesh, India
Vijay Kumar
University of Delhi
New Delhi, India
Editors
Prof. Dr. Pardeep Singh
University of Delhi
PGDAV College
New Delhi
India, 110065
Prof. Dr. Ankit Kumar Singh
Lalit Narayan Mithila University
Darbhanga, Bihar
India, 846004
Dr. Vipendra Kumar Singh
Indian Institute of Technology Mandi
Mandi, Himachal Pradesh
India, 175005
Dr. Vijay Kumar
University of Delhi
New Delhi
India, 110019
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Basius77/Shutterstock
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© 2025 Wiley-VCH GmbH, Boschstraße 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
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Print ISBN: 9783527354559
ePDF ISBN: 9783527849932
ePub ISBN: 9783527849925
oBook ISBN: 9783527849949
List of Contributors
Arjun Kumar Mehara
Department of Botany
Lalit Narayan Mithila University
Darbhanga
Bihar
India
Anuradha Kumari
Department of Botany
Lalit Narayan Mithila University
Darbhanga
Bihar
India
Neeraj K. Verma
CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
Abhishek Rai
University Department of Chemistry
Lalit Narayan Mithila University
Darbhanga
Bihar
India
Prachi Marwaha
Department of Home Science
Lalit Narayan Mithila University
Darbhanga
Bihar
India
Mayank Kumar Singh
The National Dendrimer and Nanotechnology Center
Mount Pleasant, MI
USA
Central Michigan University-College of Medicine
Mount Pleasant, MI
USA
Ankit Kumar Singh
University Department of Botany
Lalit Narayan Mithila University
Darbhanga
Bihar
India
Katina Chachei
Analytical Environmental and Chemistry Laboratory (AECL)
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
Uttar Pradesh
India
Sonali Ranjan
Chemical Engineering and Technology
Indian Institute of Technology
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
Uttar Pradesh
India
Kirpa Ram
Analytical Environmental and Chemistry Laboratory (AECL)
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
Uttar Pradesh
India
Ram Sharan Singh
Chemical Engineering and Technology
Indian Institute of Technology
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
Uttar Pradesh
India
Aaradhya Pandey
School of Biotechnology
Gautam Buddha University
Greater Noida
Uttar Pradesh
India
Pragya Tiwari
School of Biotechnology
Gautam Buddha University
Greater Noida
Uttar Pradesh
India
Eti Sharma
School of Biotechnology
Gautam Buddha University
Greater Noida
Uttar Pradesh
India
Mohd Anas
Interdisciplinary Nanotechnology Centre
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh
India
Mohammad Umar
Institute of Plant Genetics and Biotechnology
Plant Science and Biodiversity Centre
Slovak Academy of Sciences
Nitra
Slovakia
Abdul Razzak
Institute of Forest Ecology
Slovak Academy of Sciences
Technical University in Zvolen
Zvolen
Slovakia
Nisha Kumari
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Bihar Agricultural University Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Abhishek Tiwari
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Bihar Agricultural University Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Ingle Sagar Nandulal
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Bihar Agricultural University Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Sai Parasar Das
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Bihar Agricultural University Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Bhabani Prasad Mondal
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Bihar Agricultural University Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Bipin Bihari
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Bihar Agricultural University Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Pritam Ganguly
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Bihar Agricultural University Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Chandini
Department of Agronomy
Bihar Agricultural University Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Randeep Kumar
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Bihar Agricultural University Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Anuradha Kumari
School of Environmental Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi
India
Anumanchi Sree Manogna
SASTRA Deemed University
Thanjavur
Tamil Nadu
India
Prabhat Kumar
School of Environmental Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi
India
Ilora Ghosh
School of Environmental Sciences
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi
India
Akanksha Rout
Department of Biological Sciences
BITS Pilani
K. K. Birla Goa Campus
Goa
India
Komal Jalan
Department of Botany
University of Delhi
Delhi
India
Pradipta Banerjee
Department of Surgery
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, PA
USA
Abirami Geetha Natarajan
Department of Chemical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Sriperumbudur
India
Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering
Schulich School of Engineering
University of Calgary
Calgary
Canada
Kripa V
Department of Chemical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Sriperumbudur
India
Jothi Ganesan M
Department of Chemical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Sriperumbudur
India
Philip Bernstein Saynik
Department of Chemical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Sriperumbudur
India
Swagata Lakshmi Dhali
Department of Genetics and Microbiology
Faculty of Science
Charles University
Prague
Czech Republic
Moumita Pal
Department of Biosciences and Biomedical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Indore
Indore
India
Vikky Kumar Mahto
University Department of Botany
Lalit Narayan Mithila University
Darbhanga
Bihar
India
Ved Prakash
Ecotoxicology Laboratory
Regulatory Toxicology Group
CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research
Lucknow
Uttar Pradesh
India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)
Ghaziabad
India
Vipendra Kumar Singh
School of Biosciences and Bioengineering
Indian Institute of Technology Mandi
VPO Kamand
Mandi
Himachal Pradesh
India
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine
The George Washington University
Washington
DC
USA
Vikas Kumar Singh
Department of Science and Humanities
Supaul College of Engineering
Supaul
Bihar
India
Poorna Sneha M
Kusuma School of Biological Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
New Delhi
India
Mohit Biju
School of Biological and Marine Sciences
University of Plymouth
Plymouth
UK
Aishwarya Thomas
Department of Biotechnology
CMS College Kottayam (Autonomous)
Kottayam
India
Parvathi Balachandran
Department of Biotechnology
CMS College Kottayam (Autonomous)
Kottayam
India
Puja Kumari
Department of Plant Pathology
Bihar Agricultural University
Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
ICAR-National Research Centre on Litchi
Mushahari
Muzaffarpur
Bihar
India
Sawant Shraddha Bhaskar
Department of Plant Pathology
Bihar Agricultural University
Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Jeetu Narware
Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology
IAS
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
Uttar Pradesh
India
Abhijeet Ghatak
Department of Plant Pathology
Bihar Agricultural University
Sabour
Bhagalpur
Bihar
India
Umesh Kumar
Laboratory of Ecotoxicology
Department of Botany
Institute of Science
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
India
Prince Kumar Singh
Laboratory of Ecotoxicology
Department of Botany
Institute of Science
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
India
Parvati Madheshiya
Laboratory of Ecotoxicology
Department of Botany
Institute of Science
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
India
Indrajeet Kumar
Department of Botany
Government Degree College
Pawanikala
Sonbhadra
India
Ranjani Ravikumar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Sriperumbudur
India
Jayavardhini M
Department of Chemical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Sriperumbudur
India
Sai Sidharth A
Department of Chemical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Sriperumbudur
India
Vikky Rajulapati
School of Science and Technology
Örebro University
Örebro
Sweden
Preface
Due to poor agricultural production, deterioration of natural resources, significant post-harvest wastes, lack of or low-value inclusion, and population growth, establishing food security in poor or developing countries is challenging. Researchers have endeavored to integrate modern technology in the last few years to heighten supply and reduce the gap between demand and supply. Nanotechnology is one of the most reliable technologies that could improve agricultural productivity by augmenting nanofertilizers, utilizing more effective pesticides and herbicides, modulating soil properties, and spotting diseases. Nanotechnology can benefit sustainable agricultural practices by minimizing the negative impacts of agricultural practices on human health and the environment. It also increases agricultural productivity and food security and nurtures economic and social equity. Taking this idea as a fundamental part of our work, we would like to introduce nanotechnology-based sustainable agriculture on a large scale by displaying their general scientific basis and considerable interconnections. The subsequent chapters have inspired ideas and supplied the reader with a better understanding of the subject. This is an escorted tour of the discovery of nanotechnology and sustainable agriculture, which we hope will trigger the reader’s interest so that they can be more thorough with the subject.
In the last few years, we have spotted a tidal wave for fabricating nanoparticles for sustainable agriculture directly associated with nanotechnology. Therefore, the basic ideas have been addressed, and a brief blueprint is illustrated in Chapter 1. Nanocomposites have emerged as favorable materials for increasing crop plants’ sustainable productivity and growth. These materials, which integrate nanoparticles with other structures or compounds, can provide enhanced plant defense mechanisms, sustained delivery of nutrients, and decreased negative environmental impacts, contributing to sustainable agricultural practices. General snapshots of these ideas have been illustrated in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 describes nano-biofertilizers’ formulations, characterization, and fabrications and their role in global food security. We have entered the nano era, which is highly recognized as an essential tool for stress management in crop plants. By increasing plants’ ability to cope with different environmental stressors such as salinity, heavy metals, toxicity, and drought, nanotechnology supports more adaptable crop production and sustainable agricultural practices covered in Chapter 4.
In Chapter 5, the authors have introduced the interaction of nanomaterials with microbes and plants to improve crop productivity for sustainable agriculture. Specific nanomaterials, such as nanofertilizers, can enhance nutrient accessibility to plants and laterally soil microbes, such as oxides of iron and zinc oxide nanoparticles can provide micronutrients and promote plant growth, which in turn helps a more vital and different microbial community in the rhizosphere. Silver nanoparticles have recently gathered attention in agriculture for their ability to increase crop growth and yield. The latest applications of silver nanoparticles in sustainable agriculture are given in Chapter 6. It provides a snapshot of emerging roles and distinct mechanisms by which silver nanoparticles enhance plant productivity. In Chapter 7, the rapid increase in the concentration of inorganic and organic contaminants due to growing human interference revealed a threat to the ecosystems. This chapter deals with the impacts of nanomaterials on the physiology of various crop plants, molecular and biochemical responses, enzymatic activity, and stress responses. It also deals with gene expression, signaling pathways, and case studies. Chapter 8 provides a detailed look at nano-bioremediation and its significance as a sustainable soil remediation and detoxification solution. Nanoparticles of Chitosan have become one of the most efficient nanosorbents for detoxifying different pollutants from the soil, offering an auspicious, eco-friendly solution for soil improvement. Nanoparticles of chitosan are highly efficient for pollutant adsorbent and removal due to high reactivity, surface area, and pollutant-binding potential. Chapter 9 deals with applying nanotechnology as an efficient and effective solution for the remediation of numerous heavy metals. Because plant-based nanomaterials display a creative and eco-friendly route for remediating heavy metal-polluted soils derived from biowastes, plant extracts, and other plant-based biomolecules, these nanomaterials can successfully immobilize, adsorb, and decrease the bioavailability of harmful heavy metals such as chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), and mercury (Hg). Plant-derived nanomaterials offer many benefits due to their minimal environmental toxicity, excellent biocompatibility, and renewability compared to conventional materials.
Chapter 10 describes the urbanization and industrialization that resulted in a heavy load of organic contaminants in fertile agricultural land. In the last few years, carbon quantum dots have sought attention due to their excellent potential for the degradation of various organic contaminants, such as insecticides, pesticides, dyes, and other industrial chemicals.
Chapter 11 explains that carbon quantum dots are one of the most reliable and sustainable tools for sensing several toxic metals in agricultural soils. Their ease of functionalization, excellent sensitivity, and biocompatibility make them a better candidate for various environmental monitoring applications. With constant research into enhancing their stability and performance, carbon quantum dots can be crucial in managing and detecting soil pollutants, thus providing more constructive monitoring and environmental remediation. Chapter 12 looks at the impact of nanopathology on breaking barriers for conventional disease protection. Chapter 13 has described the use of different types of nanoparticles in plant disease management and other emerging strategies for mitigating different plant diseases.
Nanomaterials-based chemicals are gradually being utilized in sustainable agriculture to increase crop production, condition soil health, and decrease the environmental effects of synthetic and other conventional chemicals in agricultural practices. However, using nanomaterials in sustainable agriculture also introduces risks and challenges, requiring careful inspection and risk assessment to verify their effective and safe use. Therefore, Chapter 14 has discussed the challenges and possible risks associated with chemicals containing nanomaterials to improve crop productivity for sustainable agriculture.
The advancement in nanotechnology and the emergence of a new class of nanomaterials open opportunities for potential applications in sustainable agriculture. Nanotechnology has attracted scientific communities and gained momentum in agriculture during the last few decades, but there is still a significant knowledge gap among scientific communities. Therefore, nanotechnologies, such as phyto-nanotechnology, nanobiotechnology, nanoremediation, nanofertilizer, agro-nanobiotechnology, pest control, and crop productivity, are described in different chapters. Undoubtedly, this book provides holistic coverage of recent advancements in nanotechnology-based sustainable agriculture. It is an updated and ideal book for undergraduate or postgraduate students and researchers or scientists involved in improved crop production, preservation, nanotechnology, remediation technologies, and human and environmental health without hampering sustainable development goals. Nanotechnology is a crucial turning point in our understanding of sustainable agriculture. Such technology has its pros and cons, or, in other words, of a notable imaginary character: every technology has its dark side. However, our future goals of sustainable agriculture depend on how we use the novel nanomaterials and what risks they bring to sustainable agricultural productivity and our environment.
The primary aim of this book is to provide a thorough knowledge of plant-derived nanomaterials to achieve the goals of sustainable agriculture. Illustrating a different cluster of studies, this book provides precious assets for researchers, professors, policymakers, stakeholders, and others devoted to constructing a more sustainable agriculture. The insights and strategies illustrated in this book provide a comprehensive roadmap for harnessing the power of nanomaterials, providing actionable solutions to the most pressing challenges of conventional approaches. By embracing plant-derived nanomaterial approaches, we can work towards creating a sustainable and prosperous future for all, where environmental stewardship and social equity go hand in hand.
Chapter 1Fabrication of Nanomaterials and Their Potential Advantage for Sustainable Agriculture
Arjun Kumar Mehara1, Anuradha Kumari1, Neeraj K. Verma2, Prachi Marwaha3, Abhishek Rai4, Mayank Kumar Singh5,6, and Ankit Kumar Singh1
1University Department of Botany, Lalit Narayan Mithila University, Darbhanga, Bihar, India
2CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
3Department of Home Science, Lalit Narayan Mithila University, Darbhanga, Bihar, India
4Department of Chemistry, Lalit Narayan Mithila University, Darbhanga, Bihar, India
5The National Dendrimer and Nanotechnology Center, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
6Central Michigan University-College of Medicine, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
1.1 Introduction
The current global population is anticipated to be 8.12 billion and is increasing day by day. The developed countries with highly advanced economies and highly developed technological infrastructure grow food in surplus, while developing countries, because of unawareness of farming technology and harsh environmental impacts, lead to food crises. To overcome this food shortage or to feed such a huge population, there’s no other way than intensifying the growth of agricultural products and improving food processing and distribution. Earlier, traditional or chemical fertilizers were used in agriculture for optimizing crop growth and productivity. Fertilizers, once indispensable for boosting food, fodder, and fuel production, have become a double-edged sword in modern agriculture, contributing to environmental challenges (Bhardwaj et al. 2022). The excessive and prolonged use of conventional fertilizers has led to severe environmental hazards, such as emission of greenhouse gases, groundwater contamination, eutrophication of water bodies, soil degradation, and harmful for the beneficial organisms (Meena et al. 2017; Chaitra et al. 2021). The inefficient utilization of fertilizer nutrients by plants hampers the pursuit of sustainable agriculture practices. The rapid release of nutrients from chemical fertilizers often exceeds plant uptake, leading to nutrient losses and reduced bioavailability. To address the environmental consequences of traditional fertilizers and improve nutrient use efficiency, there is a critical need for innovative, eco-friendly fertilizer solutions with minimal leaching potential (Alkhader 2023; Van Eerd et al. 2018). This can be achieved by introducing new technologies in the field of agriculture. Among several modern technologies (biotechnology, industrial, information, nanotechnology [NT], etc.), NT, although an evolving one, is the one with immense potential to transform the system of food production. With having some unique properties, such as small size and high surface area to volume ratio, enhanced physical strength, improved electrical conductance, distinctive optical characteristics, stability, heightened reactivity, and notable magnetic properties, nanoparticles (NPs) are currently offering interesting innovative solutions for sustainable agricultural production, such as nanopesticides, nano-fungicides, nanofertilizers (NFs), and nanosensors, to enhance crop growth, quality, and protection (Periakaruppan et al. 2023). The development of NPs through green synthesis methods using plants and microorganisms has emerged as a more sustainable and eco-friendly approach, as fabricated NPs through physical and chemical methods have had an adverse impact on the ecosystem and enhanced input efficiency in agriculture (Gupta et al. 2023). These NPs, including nanosensors and nanobarcodes, have significantly contributed to modern agricultural practices by elevating crop yield, nutrient utilization, and disease resistance, along with minimizing waste production (Bhandari et al. 2023; Yasmine et al. 2023). By utilizing NT in agriculture, we can deal with the challenges caused by population explosion, environmental damage, and food security concerns, paving the way for a more efficient and sustainable agricultural system (León-Silva et al. 2018). Hence, NT offers a promising approach to enhance horticulture crop production by utilizing NFs, nanopesticides, and nano-biofertilizers to support overall plant growth via higher uptake and bioavailability and lower rain-fastness. These innovative solutions address the growing food demand while promoting sustainability through reduced resource consumption and environmental impact (Feregrino-Perez et al. 2018).
1.1.1 Shortcomings of Conventional Agriculture
The soil microbiome supports multiple ecosystem processes. Plant growth-promoting bacteria (or PGPB), such as Azospirillum, Bacillus, and Rhizobium, as well as soil fungal communities, including mycorrhizal fungi and super-parasites, can be found in the rhizosphere, on the root surface, or associated with it. They stabilize the soil microbiome and aid in biogeochemical cycles and bioremediation. They are also capable of enhancing the growth of plants by processes such as biological nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, and stress alleviation, including countering salt stress in crops through the modulation of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase expression and production of phytohormones and siderophores, while also protecting them from diseases and abiotic stresses (Frąc et al. 2022; Del Carmen Orozco-Mosqueda, Glick, and Santoyo 2020). In walnut trees, it has been observed by Bai et al. (2020) that the use of chemical fertilizers for long duration results in excess ammonium–nitrogen and available phosphorus. The excess of causes soil acidification and altered bacterial communities, while available phosphorus diminishes fungal diversity. In contrast, nonfertilized soils have higher organic matter, nitrate-nitrogen, total nitrogen, pH, and total phosphorus levels than fertilized soils, and naturally grown walnut trees foster beneficial bacteria like Burkholderia, Nitrospira, and Pseudomonas, along with fungi such as Trichoderma, Phomopsis, and Chaetomium, which enhance nutrient mobilization and plant growth (Bai et al. 2020). Lin et al. (2024) investigated the presence and diversity of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the soil and rhizosphere of maize and found that chemical fertilization led to lower but more diverse ARGs compared to straw-return while promoting mobile genetic elements (MGEs) in the rhizosphere. Metagenomic analysis identified Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and Streptomyces as key biomarkers for ARG accumulation. A total of 509 isolates belonging to these three genera from the rhizosphere showed high multiresistance, especially in Pseudomonas. The co-occurrence of specific ARGs and class I integrons (LR134330, LS998783, CP065848, and LT883143) in Pseudomonas sp. contigs suggests a complex link between chemical fertilization and antibiotic resistance. Overall, the chemical fertilizers may influence the resistance of the maize rhizosphere, potentially increasing the risk of multidrug-resistant bacteria that could impact animal and human health.
Pesticides play a critical and indispensable role in agriculture to enhance crop production and controlling weeds and pests. They are classified as fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, and rodenticides. However, pesticide use has created environmental contamination in the long term as their residues can persist in the environment and agricultural crops through processes like leaching, adsorption, and runoff. These pesticide residues can disrupt the stability of ecosystems and produce potential health risks to humans and animals. For example, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), an organochlorine compound, known for their high toxicity, bioaccumulation, and slow degradation, build up in the tissues and also harm the different ecosystems. The contaminants of soil and water resources, chlorpyrifos and its metabolites such as TCP (3,5,6-trichloropyridinol), pose potential health risks to human health, especially as endocrine disruptors (Tudi et al. 2021). Pesticides also impact agrobiodiversity as less than 1% of them reach their target pests, while most target nontarget organisms like honeybees, earthworms, parasitoids, and predators, crucial to the functioning of agricultural ecosystems (Elhamalawy, Bakr, and Eissa 2024). The use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers on a large scale for better yield and productivity in agriculture has put tremendous pressure on the environment, questioning its sustainability in the near future. The synthetic fertilizers and pesticides can enhance crop yields in the short term, but in the long term, they may degrade soil and water, disrupt local ecosystems, impact human health, and also contribute to the development of pesticide-resistant pests, creating a cycle of dependency on them.
1.2 Fabrication Techniques for Nanomaterials
NPs can be fabricated by different methods, such as biological, chemical and physical techniques (Figure 1.1). These methods come under two prominent approaches (Top-down and Bottom-up) utilized for the synthesis of nanomaterials. The top-down approach downscales bulk material into nano-sized material mechanically. The physical methods are termed as top-down approaches. The bottom-up approach self-assembles themselves to create nano-sized material. Biological and chemical methods are some methods of bottom-up approach (Mabrouk et al. 2021).
Figure 1.1 Different approaches (chemical, physical, and biological) for synthesis of nanomaterials.
1.2.1 Top-down Approaches
The top-down/physical/destructive methods reduce the larger bulk molecule into the smaller molecule. These smaller molecules are further fragmented to form NPs. Some of the techniques of top-down/destructive methods are mechanical milling or ball milling, laser ablation, sputtering, thermal decomposition methods, lithography, and arc-discharge methods (Mekuye and Abera 2023).
1.2.1.1 Mechanical Milling or Ball Milling
Mechanical milling is the most inexpensive and simplest mechanical method for producing nano-metric scale particles from bulk materials. The purpose of milling is to break particles into smaller sizes and allow their blending in next phases. The efficiency of the milling and alloying process hinges on the energy transferred from the ball to powder particles. The energy transferred is influenced by various parameters, such as type of mill, milling speed, dry or wet milling, the powder used, temperature, and duration of milling (Baig, Kammakakam, and Falath 2021).
The predominant factors like cold-welding, plastic deformation, and fracture play a key role in high-energy ball milling process. In the deformation stage, the particle’s shape is changed. The cold-welding initiates an increase in size, while fracture causes decrease in the particle’s size. The three-staged process results in the making of alloying particles, which are finely dispersed in a grain-refined matrix. The mechanical milling method is leveraged in the synthesis of different types of oxide, aluminum/copper/magnesium/nickel-based nanoscale alloys, aluminum alloys strengthened by oxide and carbide particles, wear-resistant spray coatings, and numerous types of nano-composite materials (Namakka et al. 2023; Ratso et al. 2021; Liu et al. 2023). Carbon nanomaterials formed through the ball milling technique are utilized in environmental remediation, energy storage, and conversion (Kovalev, Kochetov, and Chuev 2021). Nagesha et al. ball milled powder of iron, nickel, and cobalt with an impact of 48% speed of ball milling (Nagesha et al. 2023). The mechanical/ball milling is a simple, eco-friendly, cost-effective, and high yield method (Wang et al. 2023).
1.2.1.2 Nanolithography
Nanolithography is another fabrication method utilized for creating nano-metric scale structure. Lithography on the basis of use of mask/template is categorized into two types. One is mask lithography, which utilizes mask/templates/molds to transfer nano-patterns over exposed large surface areas of wafers, resulting in the synthesis of high-throughput devices. Some of the examples of mask lithography are nanoimprint lithography and photolithography (Sharma et al. 2022; Salem et al. 2022). Another is maskless lithography, which creates nano-patterns without using masks. Such methods generate patterns in a serial manner. It causes ultrahigh-resolution patterning of different shapes having feature size smaller than a few nanometers. Nevertheless, the amount of material passing through this system is limited due to its leisurely serial nature. In maskless lithography, a small area of wafers is exposed in one step resulting in low throughput. And this low throughput removes any possibility of mass production. Some examples of maskless lithography are scanning probe, focussed ion beam, and electron beam lithography (EBL; Sharma et al. 2022; Paras et al. 2022). Panikar et al. (2023) assembled 30 nm Au NPs using simple stamping method upon EBL substrate. McMullen et al. developed a 5–40 nm wide electrode pair using a single step of EBL (McMullen, Mishra, and Slinker 2022). Nanosphere lithography is one of the recent advancements in the world of interfacial technology. Recently, using nanosphere lithography, polystyrene nanoscale meshes were created (Sharma et al. 2023). The meshes were shaped in honeycombed structures. Maskless lithography is inexpensive and easy to use (Brady et al. 2019).
1.2.1.3 Laser Ablation Method
Laser ablation technique of top-down approach synthesizes nanomaterial by utilizing laser beams as an energy source. In laser ablation, a high-intensity laser beam is focused on target material. This high-intensity laser beam increases the temperature of the irradiated spot, and the target material or precursor gets vaporized, resulting in the formation of plasma (Altammar 2023). This laser-induced plasma is produced because of haphazard collisions among nearby molecules, clusters, and atoms (Kim et al. 2017). The laser ablation technique does not use any toxic or hazardous chemicals or stabilizing agents (Ijaz et al. 2020). This method is used to produce different kinds of NPs, such as metallic NPs, metallic oxide NPs, semiconductor quantum dots, nanowires, and nanocarbons (Su and Chang 2017; Baig et al. 2021). Laser ablation is a simple, laboratory safe, and environmentally friendly method and has the ability to synthesize nanomaterials with complex stoichiometry, high purity (∼90%), and uniform size distribution (Meidanchi and Jafari 2019).
1.2.1.4 Thermal Decomposition
Thermal decomposition method is an endothermic process in which the chemical bond of the molecule is decomposed by heat (Zeng, Xuan, and Li 2023). The temperature at which the molecule gets fragmented or decomposed is termed as decomposition temperature (Ealia and Saravanakumar 2017). The rate at which chemical bonds of the molecule get decomposed for NP production is measured by thermogravimetric analysis (Odularu 2018). Ahab et al. (2016) used thermal decomposition technique and synthesized NPs of gadolinium oxide. Zinc dehydrate acetate, along with ethylene glycol, was thermally decomposed at a temperature of 500 °C for 240 minutes to fabricate 35.4 nm-sized NPs of ZnO2, as reported by Rathore and Kaurav (2022), and its fabrication was confirmed by conducting X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and field emission scanning electron microscopy analyses. Tomar and Jeevanandam (2022) used thermal decomposition method and synthesized NPs of zinc ferrite (ZnFe2O4). Che et al. (2022) fabricated NPs of 99.92% pure CuO. The thermal decomposition technique is favorable for the fabrication of NPs used in cancer treatment (Odularu 2018), the utilization and storage of solar energy (Zeng et al. 2023), and the formation of nanoscale electrodes and catalysts (Yu et al. 2023), among others.
1.2.1.5 Sputtering Method
Sputtering is a nanofabrication method, in which tiny clusters of atoms are expelled off from the target surface by bombarding with high-energy gas or plasma particles (Inoue et al. 2023; Wirecka et al. 2022). The deposition of nanoscale particles is followed by the process of annealing. Substrate, temperature, thickness of layer, and annealing time help in determining the shape and size of nanoscale particles (Ijaz et al. 2020). Pleskunov et al. (2021) employed single-step plasma-based method for the fabrication of NPs. For the production of tantalum oxynitride NPs, direct current (DC) reactive magnetron sputtering techniques were used. The structural characteristics of platinum layer were modified using conventional magnetron sputtering technique at varying argon pressure (0.3–3.2 Pa; Sandhya et al. 2021). Sputtering technique is fascinating because it is cheaper than EBL and also because the sputtered nanomaterials’ make-up is akin to the target material and has less impurity (Baig et al. 2021).
1.2.1.6 Arc-discharge Method
Arc-discharge is the classical method of fabrication of NPs. This is one of the most fascinating methods to develop carbon-based NPs, such as few-layer graphene, carbon nano-horns, fullerenes, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs; Kafle 2019; Zhang et al. 2019). In this method, carbon rod vaporization is produced by an electric arc between two graphite rods. The graphite rods are enclosed in a closed chamber filled with helium. The pressure of helium in the enclosed chamber is maintained as availability of oxygen prevents fullerene formation (Baig et al. 2021). The yield of nanoscale material fabricated is greatly influenced by the factors such as the distance between the graphite rods, its diameter, and the medium in which the rods are immersed. Other than these factors, pressure, temperature, voltage, and current also affect the yield of the synthesized nanomaterial (El-Khatib et al. 2018). As the growth mechanism of carbon-based nanomaterials differs from each other, their position of collection is different in the arc-discharge method. Karpov et al. (2019) studied the effectiveness on residual stress by the technological parameter during the fabrication of NPs and also established its correlation with voltage of arc plasma generator and NP magnetization on gaseous mixture pressure. They developed a single-step process in low-pressure arc-discharge to synthesize copper oxide NPs. Utilizing the arc-discharge methods, 19.60 and 32.97-nm-sized nanoscale particles of copper and argon were formed and analyzed using XRD, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) methods (El-Khatib et al. 2018). Tseng et al. (2018) developed Ag+ and AgO nanoscale particles by submerged arc-discharge method.
1.2.2 Bottom-up Approach
The Bottom-up approach, also termed as constructive method, progressively builds atoms into clusters and subsequently to NPs. This method includes both chemical and biological/green synthesis methods. Some of the chemical and biological methods are sol–gel method, spinning method, hydrothermal method, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and biological synthesis by plant.
1.2.2.1 CVD Method
CVD method involves congealment of a thin coating of gaseous reactants on the surface of substrate in a reaction chamber. At an ambient temperature, chemical reaction ensues when combining gas and heated substrate collide with each other (Ijaz et al. 2020). The thin coating of the product accumulated on the substrate as a result of the reaction, was recovered, and then used. The substrate temperature greatly affects the CVD process. Lumen et al. (2021) utilized CVD method for the synthesis of porous silica NPs. This method circumvents the requirement of a highly pure monocrystalline silicon substrate as an initial material. In case of CVD-based synthesis of graphene, multilayer graphene is produced using Co and Ni catalysts, whereas monolayer graphene is produced by Cu catalyst (Baig et al. 2021). Ideal CVD precursors are volatile, pure, stable, inexpensive, nonhazardous, and long-lasting. CVD is a fascinating approach as it fabricates high-quality pure nanoscale particles that are homogeneous and stiff (Machac et al. 2020).
1.2.2.2 Sol–Gel Method
Sol–gel method is a simple, eco-friendly, and most preferred wet-chemical method for fabrication of NPs (Won et al. 2023; Solunke et al. 2023). In the word “sol–gel,” sol is a colloidal dispersion consisting of solid particles suspended within a continuous liquid phase and gel is a dispersion of liquid within a solid matrix. In the sol–gel method, metal alkoxide and chloride used as precursors results in a stable solution that is thermally decomposed, condensed, and hydrolyzed (Altammar 2023). The precursor is distributed uniformly in host liquid by sonication, shaking, or stirring. The resultant solution is carried out and phase separation is performed by utilizing different techniques like filtration, sedimentation, and centrifugation (Ijaz et al. 2020). The morphology and size of nanoscale particles are controlled by optimizing the process parameters like solution pH, gelation/calcination temperature, and precursor concentration (Alabada et al. 2023). The flexibility in adjusting morphological characteristics makes sol–gel synthesis a highly effective technique for synthesizing photocatalysts (Habte et al. 2019). This method, processed at low temperature, provides uniform quality NPs and easily produces complex nanomaterials (Araoyinbo et al. 2018).
1.2.2.3 Spinning Method
The fabrication of nanoscale particles, using the spinning method, is processed by utilizing a spinning disc reactor (SDR). A rotating disc, consisting of stainless steel or copper with smooth and polished surface, is housed within a chamber/reactor where temperature, rotation speed, and other physical parameters can be regulated (Mekuye and Abera 2023). SDR is capable of continuous production of commercial amounts of the solid product. The morphological characteristics of nanoscale particles fabricated via SDR are influenced by several parameters, including disc surface properties, liquid-to-precursor ratio, disc rotation speed, feed location, and flow rate of liquid (Ijaz et al. 2020). The key factors that make SDR technology successful and more efficient are optimal heat and mass transfer, exceptional liquid–liquid mixing facilitating efficient micro-mixing, the ability to operate continuously, and suitability for gas–liquid reactions (Chianese, Picano, and Stoller 2021).
1.2.2.4 Hydrothermal Method
Fabrication of NPs by hydrothermal technique is the most widely used solution-reaction-based method. The synthesis of NPs by hydrothermal process is carried out at a wide range of temperature, i.e. from room temperature to significantly elevated temperature and pressure (Gan et al. 2020). The size and morphology of the NP synthesized by the hydrothermal process are maintained by controlling variable parameters such as pH, pressure, reactant concentration, temperature, and additives (Li et al. 2016). Chang et al. (2020) synthesized versatile nanostructures of ZnO like one-dimensional nanorods, two-dimensional nanoplatelets, and three-dimensional multi-branched flower-like particles utilizing hydrothermal processes and maintaining the pH of the precursor. Fabricated ZnO NPs were analyzed using selected area electron diffraction (SAED), XRD, and TEM. Zhongguan et al. (2023) fabricated graphene oxide by one-pot hydrothermal process. Okada, Kuno, and Yamada (2023) using microwave-assisted hydrothermal technique fabricated monoclinic vanadium dioxide (VO2). Hydrothermal techniques serve as a versatile tool for enhancing other fabrication techniques (Yaghoobi, Asjadi, and Sanikhani 2023) and producing magnetite (Silva et al. 2023). There are several advantages of this process that makes it more attractive: less hazardous, environment friendly, low cost, use of simple equipment, etc.
1.3 Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials
In recent years, there has been a surge in research to develop eco-friendly methods for the synthesis of well-characterized NPs. Green/biological synthesis is one such method. The NP fabrication technique “green synthesis” employs biological entities, such as prokaryotes, complex eukaryotes, organic acid, primary or secondary metabolite, and enzymes, to reduce metallic ion to their elemental form (Kumari, Dhand, and Padma 2021; Parveen, Banse, and Ledwani 2016). This method is favored over conventional physical and chemical NP fabrication methods owing to its economic viability, reduced environmental impact, and enhanced safety for humans and the environment. It’s also inexpensive, eco-friendly (Jiang et al. 2022), and prevents the use of toxic and hazardous chemicals. Besides, it has several other advantages: it’s readily adaptable to mass production, produces highly stable products, and reduces processing time (Malhotra and Alghuthaymi 2022).
1.3.1 Nanomaterial Synthesis Using Microorganism
Biological synthesis of green NPs using microorganisms, like bacteria, fungi, and yeast, have emerged as prominent platforms. Due to certain properties like rapid growth rate, ease in cultivation, and ability to adapt in ambient conditions made these microorganisms a potential source of green synthesis (Ali et al. 2020). The wide variety of microorganisms can act as potential biofactories for the synthesis of several metallic NPs, such as copper, zinc, silver, gold, and iron. NPs prepared by Magnetotactic bacteria (found on the ocean floor) are specialized for synthesis of Magnetic NPs (10 to 20 nm). However, synthesis of Au NPs by photosynthetic bacteria, and Ag NPs by Fusarium oxysporum are some of the examples of green nanomaterial fabricated using microbes (Mekuye and Abera 2023).
1.3.2 Nanomaterial Synthesis Using Bacteria
In recent times, the primary focus of research has been on utilizing prokaryotes for metallic NPs production (Omran 2020). The synthesis of nontoxic, biologically derived NPs by utilizing bacteria is gaining attention due to their unique and superior properties, such as ubiquity, adaptation to harsh environments, ease of growth, ease of cultivation, and inexpensiveness, which make them ideal for biomedical applications. Nanomaterial synthesized by bacteria can utilize extracellular or intracellular methods (Marooufpour et al. 2019).
The extracellular mechanism involves the nitrate reductase synthesis method. This nitrate reductase enzyme is either secreted by the cell or is present in the cell wall and is responsible for the reduction of metal ions (Yusof et al. 2019). Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)-dependent reductase catalyzes the bioreduction of silver ions into Ag NPs. Electrons donated by NADH are oxidized to NAD+ during the process. The enzyme undergoes simultaneous oxidation as silver ions are reduced to nanosilver (Prathna et al. 2010). Some of the bacterial species, such as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus lichenformis, Ochrobactrum anthropi, Pseudomonas stutzeri, and actinobacter, are utilized for the production of Ag NPs (Dikshit et al. 2021). Rauf et al. (2017) in their study stated that Staphylococcus aureus via extracellular biosynthesis mechanism can produce ZnO NPs. The bacterial electrokinetic potential and alkalinity of the solution play a key role in the reduction of metal ions. For the reduction of metal ions, several extracellular enzymes act as electron shuttles. Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, Geobacter fermentans, and Shewanella oneidensis are some bacteria that release such enzymes, which act as electron shuttles and reduce Fe3+ ions (Priya et al. 2021).
The intracellular mechanism for the synthesis of nanomaterial is different from the extracellular mechanism of microorganism. The production of NPs through an intracellular mechanism involves three steps: trapping, bioreduction, and capping. The intracellular synthesis of nanomaterial involves the targeted transport of specific ions through negatively charged cellular environments. This process is influenced by biomolecules, enzymes, and coenzymes, which facilitate the reduction of metal ions into NPs (Slavin et al. 2017). Król et al. (2018) produced ZnO nanocomposite via intracellular biosynthesis mechanism utilizing Lacticaseibacillus paracasei bacterial strain and precursor Zn nitrate. Magnetite NPs were produced intracellularly by sulfate-reducing bacterial strain Desulfovibrio magneticus, which grows and respires in the presence of fumarate. Gold NPs were fabricated via an intracellular mechanism using Lactobacillus kimchicus DCY51T (Markus et al. 2016).
1.3.3 Nanomaterial Synthesis Using Actinomycetes
Actinomycetes, while understudied, have emerged as a promising group of organisms for metal NP synthesis (Golinska et al. 2014). It has the ability to produce varieties of secondary metabolites during their saprophytic existence. Actinomycetes synthesize NPs characterized by good polydispersity, excellent stability, and broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties (Mabrouk, Elkhooly, and Amer 2021). It can serve as bio-nanofactories for the fabrication of various NPs (Aswani, Reshmi, and Suchithra 2019). Species of Streptomyces like Streptomyces zaomyceticus and Streptomyces pseudogriseolus by both extracellular and intracellular mechanisms produces CuO NPs of size 78 and 80 nm, respectively (Hassan et al. 2019). Silver NPs of size 30 and 60 nm were synthesized using strains of Streptomyces rimosus and Streptomyces chrestomyceticus for the control of phytopathogens (Zwar et al. 2022). Some of the actinomycetes, such as Nocardia farcinica, Streptomyces viridogens, Streptomyces hygroscopicus, Rhodococcus sp., and Thermoactinomycetes sp., were identified for producing silver NPs.
1.3.4 Green Synthesis of NP Using Fungi
Mycotechnology is another biological approach, which is used in the synthesis of various NPs. Fungi are considered as an ideal organism for synthesizing metal and sulfide-based NPs due to their abundant intracellular enzymes, mycelial structure, potential for large-scale cultivation, ease of handling, superior tolerance of heavy metal, and economic viability benefits (Ahmed et al. 2022). It was observed that Ag+ ions are trapped on the mycelial surface via electrostatic interaction with anionic carboxyl groups, facilitated by enzymes present in the mycelial cell wall (Altammar 2023). These enzymes then further reduced the trapped Ag+ ion to Ag+ bionanomaterial. Fungus-based nanomaterials can be synthesized both via extracellular and intracellular mechanisms. It was observed that the fabrication of NPs by fungi was influenced by several factors. The age of the culture affects the count of NPs, change in pH results in change in the shape of nanomaterial, and increase in temperature results in higher growth rate and accumulation of NPs of gold (Ma et al. 2017). Silver NPs of size 20–55 nm were produced extracellularly by different strains of Penicillium aculeatum. This fungal strain can be used as a potential bioresource for eco-friendly and cost-effective production of silver NPs. Chatterjee et al. (2020) fabricated 20 to 40 nm-sized superamagnetic Fe3O4 NPs by utilizing Aspergillus niger isolated from mangroves. Vijayanandan and Balakrishnan (2018) used the strain of Aspergillus nidulans and developed NPs of cobalt oxide. Another species of Aspergillus, A. niger with excellent antimicrobial properties were used in the synthesis of zinc oxide NPs. Researchers have observed varieties of filamentous fungal strains for the production of metallic NPs, such as AuO, AgO, and FeO of required shape, size, and ionic charge. Some of these observed fungal species are Hormoconis resinae, Humicola sp., A. niger, F. oxysporum, Phoma sp. Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pestalotiopsis sp., Trichoderma sp., and Penicillium sp. (Rai et al. 2021).
1.3.5 Nanomaterial Synthesis Using Plant Extract
NPs can also be synthesized using different parts of plants, like roots, leaves, barks, flowers, shoots, fruits, and their extracts (Aboyewa et al. 2021; Mekuye and Abera 2023). Plants are the most eco-friendly resource and inexpensive to grow as well as available in abundance. The synthesis involves combining plant extracts and metal salt solution at room temperature to create NPs. The plant extract contains several phytochemicals, such as organic acids, quinones, and flavones, which work as natural reducing agents in the synthesis of NPs. NPs of palladium and platinum were fabricated using plant extracts of various plants, such as Ocimum sanctum, Curcuma longa, Pulicaria glutinosa, Anogeissus latifolia, Glycine max, and Diospyros kaki (Siddiqi and Husen 2016). Utilizing the extracts of Pelargonium graveolens and Medicago sativa, different shapes of gold NPs were fabricated (Mekuye and Abera 2023). Armendariz et al. (2004) were the first to report the biosynthesis of rod-shaped NPs using biomaterials. They characterized the Au NPs synthesized from wheat biomass using a 0.3 mM potassium tetrachloroaurate solution at pH levels ranging from 2 to 6 and at room temperature. Ag NPs of approximately 58 nm were fabricated from leaves of Polyalthia longifolia (Kumar et al. 2016). Gardea-Torresdey et al. (2002, 2003) first documented the intracellular biosynthesis of Au and Ag NPs within living plants. The extracts of sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and Brassica juncea were used to fabricate Co, Zn, Cu, Ni, and Ag NPs. Rate of synthesis of NPs from plants is influenced by several factors, such as plant extract type, its concentration, metal salt concentration, temperature, pH, and reaction duration (Ali et al. 2020).
1.4 Nanomaterials as Controlled Delivery System for Actives and Sustainable Agriculture
NT has revolutionized the agriculture sector by offering sustainable solutions for precision agriculture and providing us eco-friendly and resource-efficient technologies. Nanomaterials have immense potential to deal with crop productivity, the requirement of nutrients and fertilizers, soil health, plant disease, detection of pathogens and pests responsible for the disease, pesticide delivery, etc. by synthesizing the essential nanomaterials. Nanomaterials fabricated in the range of 1–100 nm are utilized for sustainable agriculture in the form of NFs, nanocides (nanopesticides, nano-bacteriocides, etc.), nanosensors to improve land and crop productivity, to detect and cure pathogenic disease, to site-specific and controlled release of fertilizers and pesticides, to improve soil health, etc. This section deals with NPs used in the form of NFs, nanocides, and nanosensors for improved, efficient, and productive agriculture.
1.4.1 Carrier-based Nanomaterials
The current methods of biomolecule delivery systems in agriculture and plants face various limitations, like low delivery efficiency, complex procedures, and dependence on specific plant species. In order to address challenges related to environmental and global food security issues, NT has revolutionized genetic engineering in plants and agricultural sectors (delivery of active biomolecules [herbicides/insecticide], including proteins, RNA, and DNA into plants) with improved delivery efficiencies, biocompatibility, and plant regeneration (Zhang, Ying, and Ping 2021).
A man-made, spheroidal nanomaterial known as “Dendrimer” has gained attention due to its multifunctional, three-dimensional structure, typically ranging from 1 to 10 nm in size. These dendrimers can be mathematically designed and synthesized (Figure 1.2). Structurally, they consist of a central core, an interior cavity, and surface functional groups. The interior cavity is capable of entrapping guest molecules, while the surface groups offer customizable sites for various physical or chemical interactions allowing for tailored applications across fields, such as medicine, biotechnology, materials science, and agriculture. Historically, Tomalia-type poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers are recognized as the first dendrimer family to be synthesized and become commercially available (https://www.sigmaaldrich.com).
Figure 1.2 Architectural three-dimensional components of PAMAM dendrimer.
Source: Graphic provided by NanoSynthons (i.e. Dendrimer Nanotechnology Company located in Mount Pleasant, MI, USA).
However, a second commercial family of dendrimers was developed by Tomalia (2005), while managing Starpharma’s Dendritic Nanotechnologies Inc. (DNT) at Mount Pleasant, Michigan, USA. This family is called Priostar®
