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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH GmbH
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- Sprache: Englisch
Gives a comprehensive description on the biological model, basic physical models, fabrication/characterization of bioinspired materials and their functions.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction of Nature‐Inspired Functional Structural Surface
1.1 Advanced Materials Boosted by Bionics
1.2 Definition and Classification of NIFSS
1.3 Typical Prototypes with Structural Surfaces
References
2 Characterization, Analysis, Modeling, and Fabrication of NIFSS
2.1 Characterization Techniques and Analysis Methods of NIFSS
2.2 Modeling and Simulation Methods for Bionic Design of NIFSS
2.3 Design Principles and Fabrication Methods of NIFSS
References
3 Bioinspired Light‐Trapping Structural Surfaces
3.1 Definition and Classification of Light‐Trapping Structure
3.2 Ultraviolet Light‐Trapping Structures Derived from
Parnassius
Butterfly Wings
3.3 Light‐Trapping Surfaces for Visible Light Inspired by Butterfly Wings
References
4 Transparent Antireflective (AR) Surfaces Inspired by Cicada Wings
4.1 High Transparent Antireflective (AR) Surfaces of Original Cicada Wings
4.2 Accurate Fabrication of Cicada‐Inspired AR Surfaces
4.3 Large‐Area Preparation of Cicada‐Inspired AR Surfaces
4.4 Intelligent AR Cicada‐Inspired Structures
References
5 Bioinspired Antifogging (AF) Surfaces
5.1 Wettability‐induced AF Theories
5.2 Dynamic Wettability: Contact Angle Hysteresis and Sliding Angles
5.3 Definition and Classification of AF Surfaces
5.4 AF Surfaces Inspired by Butterfly Wings
5.5 AF Surfaces Inspired by Mayfly Compound Eyes
References
6 Structural Color Surfaces Inspired by Butterfly Wings
6.1 Definition of Structural Color Surfaces
6.2 Structural Color Surfaces on Butterfly Wings
6.3 Fabrication of the Butterfly‐Inspired Structure Color Materials
6.4 Applications of the Structural Color Materials
References
7 Bioinspired Oil–Water Separation Materials
7.1 Definition and Classification of Oil–Water Separation Materials
7.2 Oil–Water Separation Materials Inspired by Butterfly Wings
7.3 Oil–Water Separation Materials Inspired by Fish Scales
References
8 Underwater Bioinspired Superhydrophobic Multifunctional Surface
8.1 Underwater Writable and Heat‐Insulated Superhydrophobic Paper
8.2 Bioinspired, Superhydrophobic, and Paper‐Based Strain Sensors for Wearable and Underwater Applications
8.3 Underwater Superhydrophobic Air Film Reduction Resistance
References
9 Bioinspired Responsive Surfaces Toward Multiple Organic Vapors
9.1 Responsive Performance of
Morpho
Butterfly Wings
9.2 Fabrication of Butterfly‐Inspired Structural Responsive Surfaces
9.3 Characterizations of Butterfly‐Inspired Structural Responsive Surfaces
9.4 Responsive Performance of NIFSS Toward Multiple Organic Vapors
References
10 Prospects and Outlook
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Typical examples of structure–function correspondence in biologic...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Bio‐templates, target materials, and fabrication routes.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Typical biological surfaces with unique AR structures and intrigu...
Table 4.2 Test materials and chemical reagents used.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Different butterflies with colorful wings in the nature.
Figure 1.2 Transparent cicada wings with antireflective nanostructure arrays...
Figure 1.3 SEM images of the
Attacus atlas
moth eye showing the compound eye...
Figure 1.4 SEM images of compound eyes. (a) The compound eyes are ellipsoida...
Figure 1.5 Complex hierarchical micro‐/nanostructures of the compound eyes o...
Figure 1.6 (a)
Gerris remigis
lives at the water surface in a highly humid e...
Figure 1.7 The dorsal surface of the scorpion. (a) Scanned data using a lase...
Figure 1.8 Gecko setae and apparatus for force measurement. (a) Photo of the...
Figure 1.9 Scale structure on a shark.
Figure 1.10 The wing feather of the eagle owl. (a) The rachis of the feather...
Figure 1.11 The water‐capturing surface of the fused‐over wings (elytra) of ...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 (a) A photograph of an intact male
Papilio palinurus
butterfly ex...
Figure 2.2 FESEM images of
Morpho
butterfly wings demonstrating feature stru...
Figure 2.3 (a) The cross‐sectional images of cover scales of butterfly wings...
Figure 2.4 (a) XRD spectrum of multiscale hierarchical pagoda structures pre...
Figure 2.5 The elastic modulus distribution of the
basitarsal compound slit
...
Figure 2.6 The reflectance spectra of five
Parnassius
butterflies confirmed ...
Figure 2.7 (a) The major elements included are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxy...
Figure 2.8 (a) FTIR spectra of original (black line) and treated (blue line)...
Figure 2.9 Schematic of two typical contact states between water droplets an...
Figure 2.10 The models proposed for elucidating the potential mechanism of d...
Figure 2.11 Effect of surface structure on the wetting behaviors of solid su...
Figure 2.12 Shear and normal forces in isolated gecko setal arrays on a glas...
Figure 2.13 3D single‐scale models of (a) shelf structure and (b) quasi‐hone...
Figure 2.14 Bionic modeling of desert scorpion back. (a) Convex pattern; (b)...
Figure 2.15 Micro‐molding manufacturing process of the microstructures.
Figure 2.16 (a, b) Preparation of
chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol
(
CTS/PVA
)/wing ...
Figure 2.17 SEM images of biomimetic butterfly wing scales.
Figure 2.18 Biomimetic fabrication process using the dipping method.
Figure 2.19 (a) ZrO
2
biomimetic wing scales with structural colors. Source: ...
Figure 2.20 Schematic illustration of preparation of ARS surfaces.
Figure 2.21 FESEM images of
Graphium sarpedon
(a, c, e) butterfly wing and (...
Figure 2.22 Sample fabrication. (a) Deposition of polystyrene colloids on a ...
Figure 2.23 (a) Schematic of the mechanism of the color's reversible change:...
Figure 2.24 SEM images of the SiO
2
inverse structure replica. (a) Overview o...
Figure 2.25 Overview of the synthetic design and fabrication strategies of N...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the geometric light‐trapping structure.
Figure 3.2 Principle diagram of reflected light interference.
Figure 3.3 The appearance and the reflectance spectra of the original butter...
Figure 3.4 SEM and TEM images of two kinds of butterflies (
Parnassius apollo
Figure 3.5 A schematic illustration for the fabrication process of the inver...
Figure 3.6 Images of the SiO
2
inverse replica of the UV‐ARS wing scales. (a)...
Figure 3.7 The appearance of the front (a), back (b), and optical microscope...
Figure 3.8 The four‐minute discoloration process after (a) 0 seconds, (b) 0 ...
Figure 3.9 The macroscopic morphology of the butterfly wings and the reflect...
Figure 3.10 Field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) images of th...
Figure 3.11 3D single‐scale models of (a) shelf structure and (b) quasi‐hone...
Figure 3.12 (a) The film between air and substrate leads to two reflections,...
Figure 3.13 (a) The diagrammatic sketch of multiple reflections. Source: Rep...
Figure 3.14 Fabrication process from the original nanostructured template of...
Figure 3.15 FESEM images of the SiO
2
negative replica. (a) Lower magnificati...
Figure 3.16 The macroscopic appearance and FESEM images of the PDMS positive...
Figure 3.17 (a) FTIR spectrum of the PDMS positive replica surface. (b) XRD ...
Figure 3.18 The reflectance curves of the flat plate and negative replica....
Figure 3.19 Reflectance spectra of the chitin, flat PDMS film, and PDMS posi...
Figure 3.20 The 3D models: (a) original prototype, (b) prepared SiO
2
negativ...
Figure 3.21 The 3D models: (a) The quasi‐honeycomb structures distributed on...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 High reflection‐reducing surface of cicada wings and their self‐c...
Figure 4.2 SEM images of surface microstructures of cicada (
Megapomponia int
...
Figure 4.3 AFM observation and analysis of morphology distribution of cicada...
Figure 4.4 EDS analysis of cicada (
Megapomponia intermedia
) wings.
Figure 4.5 FTIR spectra of cicada (
Megapomponia intermedia
) wings and chitin...
Figure 4.6 The macroscopic morphology of cicada wings: (a) A digital photogr...
Figure 4.7 Cicada
Megapomponia intermedia
wing. (a) Digital photograph of ci...
Figure 4.8 The FDTD simulation results of the cicada wings and their antiref...
Figure 4.9 (A) Artificial compound eyes. (a–f) Fabrication process. (g) SEM ...
Figure 4.10 (a) Reversible AR surfaces. Source: Reprinted with the permissio...
Figure 4.11 The morphology of the original prototype. (a) The image and enla...
Figure 4.12 The 3D model of the nanostructures on cicada wings. (a) Their ar...
Figure 4.13 Schematic diagram of rebuilding biomimetic replica, showing cica...
Figure 4.14 The characteristic results of SiO
2
negative replica. (a) The mod...
Figure 4.15 The characteristic results of PMMA positive replica. (a) Digital...
Figure 4.16 The performances of the positive PMMA replica. (a) Reflectance s...
Figure 4.17 The reflectivity curves of the antireflective film with differen...
Figure 4.18 (a) Schematic diagram of the light pathway through the different...
Figure 4.19 The model of the nanostructures on PMMA positive replica.
Figure 4.20 Schematics of mechanism for antireflection of the cicada wing....
Figure 4.21 Six porous AAO template structures. (a and b) AAO template refle...
Figure 4.22 Process flowchart of large‐area controllable preparation of bioi...
Figure 4.23 Cyclic stability of AAO template. (a) Comparison of surface morp...
Figure 4.24 Six NOA61 biomimetic antireflection structures and their physica...
Figure 4.25 Surface composition of large‐area bioinspired AR material based ...
Figure 4.26 Optical performances of the replicas. (a) Specular reflectivity ...
Figure 4.27 Antireflection performance of the curved AR surfaces. (a) Schema...
Figure 4.28 Angle‐dependent antireflection properties of different structure...
Figure 4.29 Surface electric field intensity distribution diagram of six bio...
Figure 4.30 Three kinds of array structures and their antireflection mechani...
Figure 4.31 Multiple optical behaviors of structured surfaces of different s...
Figure 4.32 Preparation process of the intelligent AR surfaces
Figure 4.33 The morphologies of the AAO template and prepared AR arrays. (a ...
Figure 4.34 Bioinspired reversible AR surface composition determination. (a)...
Figure 4.35 The DSC results of the SMP AR material.
Figure 4.36 Specular transmission spectra and angle‐dependence of the materi...
Figure 4.37 Total transmittance and haze of (a) flat surface, (b) bioinspire...
Figure 4.38 (a) Water CA of flat substrate and type I–VI replicas. (b) Impro...
Figure 4.39 Light‐trapping performance of the arrays. (a) Schematic illustra...
Figure 4.40 (a) Photographs showing the structured replica covered with gold...
Figure 4.41 Light absorption and photothermal conversion of the Au‐plated AR...
Figure 4.42 Stress–strain response of bioinspired reversible AR conductive m...
Figure 4.43 Stability of bioinspired reversible reducing reflective conducta...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 (a) Young model; (b) Wenzel model; (c) Cassie–Baxter model.
Figure 5.2 (a) Dynamic sessile drop method to measure
θ
A
and
θ
R
. (...
Figure 5.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the valence band of CeO
2
forming an...
Figure 5.4 (a) FESEM images of surface and cross section and shapes of water...
Figure 5.5 (a) SEM images of the ZP‐MN surface: Top view and side view. (b) ...
Figure 5.6 (a) Schematic diagram of condensation on the nanostructured super...
Figure 5.7 (a) Scheme of the reaction of Al with ammonia solution as well as...
Figure 5.8 FESEM images demonstrate the feature structures of the original c...
Figure 5.9 (a) XRD spectrum of MHPS presents its quasi‐PC structures and cor...
Figure 5.10 Biomimetic fabrication process of the MHPS‐based structural surf...
Figure 5.11 FESEM images of the fabricated MHPS‐based BMF under different ma...
Figure 5.12 (a, b) Water wettability of the glass substrate and BMF for comp...
Figure 5.13 Core components of the self‐built spray simulation system and tr...
Figure 5.14 Active antifogging behaviors of the MHPS‐based BMF. (a) Spatial ...
Figure 5.15 Collaborative effect of chemical compositions and MHPSs of the B...
Figure 5.16 SEM images of compound eyes. (a) The compound eyes are ellipsoid...
Figure 5.17 An optical microscope image of compound eyes of the sample (a) b...
Figure 5.18 A 3D schematic illustrating the point contact between ommatidia ...
Figure 5.19 The fabrication process of the bioinspired PDMS coupled with spr...
Figure 5.20 (a) The top view (left) and side view (right) of the MPA. This p...
Figure 5.21 CA and CAH measurements of three PF surfaces. The error bars den...
Figure 5.22 Bounce dynamics of a water droplet impacting the surface of SSAS...
Figure 5.23 (a) Antifogging of the three PFs is quantified by performing tim...
Figure 5.24 (a) Optical images showing the micro‐dynamic behavior of the fog...
Figure 5.25 (a) Optical images showing the macro‐dynamic process of the fog ...
Figure 5.26 The antifogging behaviors of the PF coupled with sprayed SiO
2
co...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 (a) An intact male
Papilio palinurus
butterfly showing brilliant ...
Figure 6.2 A miniature camera was placed at a fixed position (
r
,
ϕ
, 90°...
Figure 6.3 Measured reflectance spectra of the ORS characteristics possessin...
Figure 6.4 (a) The selected scale region of an original wing scale can conve...
Figure 6.5 Typical male
Morpho
butterflies.
Figure 6.6 The change in color of the
Morpho didius
butterfly wings observed...
Figure 6.7 (a) Digital image of the
Morpho
butterfly. Source: Reprinted with...
Figure 6.8 (a) An optical photograph of a male
Morpho peleides
butterfly. (b...
Figure 6.9 (a) Photograph of the
Morpho menelaus
butterfly. (b) SEM image of...
Figure 6.10 A schematic diagram of the isotropic reflection feature of the
M
...
Figure 6.11 (a) A selected wing scale as a bio‐template was cut from the ori...
Figure 6.12 (a) A single BCR with biomimetic structures showing brilliant st...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 (a) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the stainless st...
Figure 7.2 (a, b) The oil–water separation process based on the highly hydro...
Figure 7.3 (a) Schematic model of an SMF. (b) Schematic model of cubic 3D‐SM...
Figure 7.4 SEM images of the PAM hydrogel‐coated mesh prepared by a stainles...
Figure 7.5 (a) SEM images of the PDDA‐PFO/SiO
2
coating indicating plenty of ...
Figure 7.6 (a, b) Photographs showing the separation of a 50 : 50 v : v hexa...
Figure 7.7 (a) A schematic illustration of the preparation process of a surf...
Figure 7.8 Structural characteristics of original butterfly wings. (a) Scale...
Figure 7.9 Chemical composition analysis of original butterfly wings. (a) ED...
Figure 7.10 Wettability and self‐recovery anti‐oil‐fouling property of butte...
Figure 7.11 Water bouncing dynamics, oil spreading processes, and oil–water ...
Figure 7.12 Simplified illustrations of the active nonwetting skill of butte...
Figure 7.13 Bioinspired fabrication method of the MHDS‐based BMCM and the in...
Figure 7.14 Structural and chemical composition analyses of BMCM. (a)
Field
...
Figure 7.15 Water bouncing dynamics and oil spreading processes on BMCM and ...
Figure 7.16 Oil–water separation processes and self‐recovery anti‐oil‐foulin...
Figure 7.17 Anti‐oil‐fouling examination after oil contaminations. (a) Water...
Figure 7.18 Synergistic effect of chemical compositions and MHDSs of the BMC...
Figure 7.19 Surface structures of fish scales. (a) Optical image of the fish...
Figure 7.20 SEM images of raw (a) and GO‐coated (b–d) meshes with an average...
Figure 7.21 (a) UV‐visible absorption spectrum and a photograph (inset) of a...
Figure 7.22 (a) Photographs of the oil–water separation process. Hexane was ...
Figure 7.23 (a) Photographs of a water droplet on raw (left) and GO‐coated (...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Preparation process and characterization of the BSP. (a) Schemati...
Figure 8.2 Liquid repellent performances of the BSP for different beverages ...
Figure 8.3 Mechanical properties testing of the BSP. (a) WCAs of the BSP aft...
Figure 8.4 Heat‐insulation property of the BSP. (a) TGA test of the superhyd...
Figure 8.5 Writable underwater performance. (a) The BSP and conventional pap...
Figure 8.6 A paper‐based, superhydrophobic strain sensor inspired by a strat...
Figure 8.7 Morphology and performance characterization of the paper‐based st...
Figure 8.8 Sensing performance and superhydrophobic property of the paper‐ba...
Figure 8.9 Applications of the bioinspired paper–based strain sensor for rea...
Figure 8.10 Applications of the paper‐based strain sensor in real‐time detec...
Figure 8.11 Biomimetic superhydrophobic and underwater superaerophilic alumi...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1
In situ
vapor fast identification platform and its core device. (...
Figure 9.2 Optical response performance and wing surface morphologies of ori...
Figure 9.3 SEM images and 3D visual model of original hierarchical structure...
Figure 9.4 Biomimetic fabrication procedure and structure characterization o...
Figure 9.5 (a) Flat plate with dense random pores on the top of periodic par...
Figure 9.6 (a) Digital photo of the biomimetic film on a glass substrate wit...
Figure 9.7 (a) Smashed powders of the solidified gel. (b, c) Element maps of...
Figure 9.8 Experimental reflectance spectra of the NIFSS toward different or...
Figure 9.9 Responsive comparison of the target vapors. (a) The reflectance s...
Figure 9.10 Schematic of vapor‐trapping mechanism of the sandwich‐like struc...
Figure 9.11 Theoretical simulations of the sandwich‐like structure system wi...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Nature‐Inspired Structured Functional Surfaces
Design, Fabrication, Characterization, and Applications
Zhiwu Han
Author
Prof. Zhiwu Han
Jilin University
Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering
No.5988 Renmin Street Nanguan
130012 Changchun
China
Cover Image: © nono57/Getty Images
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Preface
In the long history of mankind, learning from the all-encompassing nature and drawing inspiration from the nature creatures has been an effective way for people to create new inventions and new things since ancient times. It is also a wise way for human beings to get rid of the predicament of survival and to develop forever. As a new and comprehensive interdisciplinary subject, bionics has maintained astrong vitality since its birth in the 1960s. It means that the people study the principle of the structure and function of living organisms, and invent new equipment, tools and technology according to these principles, and create advanced technology suitable for production, learning and living. In terms of engineering technology, bionics, based on the study of biological systems,provides new principles, methods and approaches for the design and construction of new technical equipment. The glorious mission of bionics is to provide the most reliable, the most flexible, the most efficient and the most economical technology system close to the biological system for the benefit of mankind.
Biological surface is the first interface between the organism and outside world. All the exchange and interaction of information and energy firstly occur on these surfaces. So, the evolution of organisms also firstly occurs on the surface of living organisms. As a result, the biological surfaces are endowed with nearly perfect multifunctional characteristics to adapt to their diverse harsh environments. For example, the lotus leaf rejects liquid adhesion through the hierarchical structures on its surface, which is known as the lotus leaf effect. The micro/nanostructures on surface of butterfly wings can interact with light and give some brilliant colors. The nanocone structures on surface of cicada wings can effectively inhibit the reflection of external visible light. The micro/nanocomposite structures of insect compound eyes can effectively reduce reflection and make it have excellent antifogging properties. It is not difficult to draw a conclusion from the above examples. The multifunctional characteristics of these insects are inseparable from its surface structures and material properties. Therefore, it can be conjecture the conclusion that there are almost no non-functional structures and no non-structural functions on the biological surface. In fact, research on nature-inspired structural surfaces is infull swing at home and abroad. The relevant achievements have sprung up. Nature-inspired functional surfaces are becoming new research hotspots in the field of bionic engineering and showing fire-new developments.
The scope of this book is introducing a wide variety of nature-inspired structured functional surfaces, taking several innovative, typical and major progresses finished by Bionic Engineering Research Team of Jilin University as examples. It includes seven kinds of nature-inspired surfaces with different structural features: structural antireflective surfaces, structural light trapping surfaces, structural antifogging surfaces, structurally colored surfaces, oil-water separationmaterials, underwater superhydrophobic surfaces and structural responsive surfaces toward multiple gases/vapors. It mainly focuses on the the oretical and technical progress about the basic principles, synthetic design and fabrication strategies, along with the advanced characterization methods and composition analysis techniques. These latest progress and technologies are playing important roles in inspiring science and technology innovation. Engineers inrelated fields can design and manufacture nature-inspired surfaces and materials to solve key engineering problems inspired by the biological structured functional surfaces. On the other hand, taking inspiration from the diversified biological surfaces in nature, they can start from the diversified engineering and technical problems faced by human beings, to reveal new principles, form innovative technologies, overcome major engineering technical problems, and finally benefit all of mankind.
It is hoped that this book will give the readers enough background information to begin to solve critical engineering and materials problems, or provide enough information and resources to spring board them to generate new theory, technologies, methods and equipment.
China, 25 February 2022
Luquan Ren
Acknowledgments
I am deeply indebted to many fundings and support toward the research in this book, including the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2018YFA0703300), the Foundation for Innovative Research Groups of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52021003), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51835006), and the Jilin University Science and Technology Innovative Research Team (No. 2020TD‐03).
On behalf of my research group, I would like to especially thank our academic mentor Prof. Luquan Ren for guiding us into the exciting and inspiring interdisciplinary area of bionics. He firstly established the subject of Bionic Science and Engineering and exploited the research field of terrain‐machine bionics. He proposed the Bionic Non‐Smooth Theory and Coupling Bionics Theory. I am grateful to the Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering (KLBE) of Ministry of Education, Jilin University, which provided a solid and broad academic platform as well as long‐term strong support for our research.
In addition, I would like to acknowledge the efforts of many postdoctoral research fellows and graduate students in my research group, including Drs. Zhengzhi Mu, Bo Li, Xiaoming Feng, Zhibin Jiao, Ze Wang, Hanliang Ding, You Chen, and Hao Xue for their initial editing. I also thank the efforts of many research staffs of KLBE, including Prof. Shichao Niu and Prof. Junqiu Zhang who contributed to the proofreading and revision of this book. Finally, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the help, patience, and encouragement provided by our editors from Wiley Press, Lifen Yang, Maceda, Katrina, N. Kiruthigadevi, and Yoganandh Rajadurai.
1Introduction of Nature‐Inspired Functional Structural Surface
1.1 Advanced Materials Boosted by Bionics
Learning from the all‐encompassing nature and drawing inspiration from natural creatures has been always an effective way for people to invent and create new things since ancient times. It is also a wise way for human beings to get rid of survival predicaments and to develop sustainably. After nearly four billion years of evolution and optimization, natural creatures have possessed many excellent properties that are far beyond human beings. The study of typical biometric organs and structures in the nature can not only help us understand nature better but also provide useful references and inspiration to solve current scientific puzzles and technical dilemmas [1–8]. As a new and comprehensive interdisciplinary subject, bionics has maintained strong vitality since its birth in the 1960s. In fact, the ideology of bionics has been existing in the world for thousands of years. The origin of bionics could be derived that nature has been the source of all kinds of technological ideas, engineering principles and major inventions since ancient times. In other words, bionics acts a bridge to link biology in the nature with technologies developed by human beings. As known to all, a wide variety of natural creatures can adapt to harsh environments through a long period of evolutionary processes, so that they can get survival and development. Surprisingly, some typical natural creatures possess outstanding properties that even precede humanmade delicate products in the fields of optics, mechanics, dynamics, and so on. Thus, taking inspiration from biology in the nature to develop new materials and technologies is a wise choice for scientists and engineers. It has flourished to this day and has gradually integrated into biology, materials science, mechanics, optics, and many other disciplines including electronics and electromagnetism. In recent years, with the rapid development of micro‐/nanomanufacturing technologies, related instruments and equipment, scientists and engineers have turned to high‐performance organisms in nature. They have been trying to reproduce the organisms by artificially copying the complex micro‐/nanostructures with excellent performance. With the performance of traditional materials gradually entering the plateau stage, a breakthrough is needed for the flourishing research of new functional materials. The introduction of bionics ideas will provide a new pathway to break the deadlock of functional materials research.
In fact, research on bioinspired structural surfaces is in full swing at home and abroad. The relevant achievements have sprung up. Bioinspired functional surfaces are becoming new research hotspots in bionic engineering and are showing fire‐new developments. At present, from the imitation of biological prototypes, the imitation objects range from biomolecules [9–11] (DNA molecules, RNA molecules, etc.), microorganisms [12–16] (viruses, bacteria, fungi, and algae) to plants [17, 18] (wood, leaves, etc.), animals [19–44] (beetles, butterfly wings, moth eyes, bird feathers, shells, teeth, marine life, gecko feet, mosquito, leeches, polar bear fur, etc.), and even the entire biological system [45–48], as shown in Table 1.1. Most of the imitation objects are concentrated on the creature's body surface, and the corresponding artificial replicas are the bioinspired structural surfaces. From the material point of view, the material types of bioinspired structural surfaces have gradually evolved from simple organic materials and inorganic materials to broad material systems such as hybrid materials and composite materials. Nature‐inspired functional structural surfaces (NIFSS) are present in a variety of different material states and structural forms. As expected, they also show remarkable functional characteristics.
Table 1.1 Typical examples of structure–function correspondence in biological systems.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [45]. Copyright © 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
Biology
Feature structures
Functions
Biomolecules
DNA
Nanostructures
Miniaturization
Microorganisms
Virus, bacteria, fungi, yeast
Various nanostructures
Self‐assembly, miniaturization
Algae (diatom, coccolithophore)
Periodic porous structures/hierarchical microstructures
Chemical energy conversion, particular optical functions
Plants
Wood
Periodic porous structures
High mechanical strength
Leaves
Hierarchical structures
Chemical energy conversion, superhydrophobicity, self‐cleaning
Animals
Insects (beetles, butterfly wings, etc.)
Periodic porous structures/hierarchical structures
Structural color, superhydrophobicity
Compound eyes
Periodic structures
Antireflection
Feathers
Periodic structures
Structural color, superhydrophobicity
Seashells, teeth
Periodic structures
Structural color, high mechanical strength
Marine animals (sea urchin exoskeleton)
Periodic structures
Particular optical functions
Gecko feet
Hierarchical structures
Strong adhesive force
Mosquito's legs
Hierarchical structures
Water‐supporting ability
Fur and skin of polar bear
Hollow structures
Thermal insulation
Biological systems
Self‐repair, self‐heating, sensory‐aid devices
Here are some typical examples. A series of multidimensional biomimetic silicon‐based nanocomposites were prepared by DNA origami [49]. Bioinspired photo‐controlled nanochannels based on DNA molecules can be used for drug sustained release, optical information storage, and logic networks [50]. The shell‐like ordered layered structure material exhibits ultra‐high mechanical properties [51]. By mimicking the unique topology of plant viruses, nano‐optical antennas can be prepared for molecular fingerprinting [52]. The membrane of bacteria Bacillus subtilis exhibits durability against liquid wetting and gas permeation and is expected to provide an example for the study of antibacterial and biomimetic drainage surfaces [53]. The natural photonic crystals with opal‐like structures of algae Cystoseira tamariscifolia cells can produce vivid structural colors by reversibly changing the stacking state of the internal structure in response to external environmental conditions, thereby exhibiting light manipulation ability in addition to visual signals [54]. By using the natural structure of wood anisotropy and the cellulose component therein, material scientists design and manufacture low‐cost, lightweight, and high‐performance structured “super wood,” all‐wood supercapacitors, “transparent timber” with mechanical and transparent properties [55–57]. A series of hydrophobic, oleophobic, and amphiphobic “lotus effect” inspired self‐cleaning surfaces [58–61] and so on. It can be seen that the surface structures of organisms and their excellent performance interdependent to form an integration of structure and function. It should be noted that structures lay the foundation for superior performance. Performance also reflects the extension of the structures. Therefore, excellent functional properties of biological surfaces are revealed. On this basis, the design and manufacture of the NIFSS that meet the requirements have become a hotspot and a challenge in bionic engineering.
Many unique functional properties of biology in nature are inextricably linked to ultrafine 3D micro‐/nanostructures. Taking the most common species of plants and animals as examples, studies have shown that the self‐cleaning effect of the lotus leaf, also known as the “leaf effect,” benefits from the convex‐packed structures densely distributed on leaf surfaces [62]. The magical phenomenon of continuous directed transport of liquid film on the surface of the Nepenthes alata rim is related to the multistage groove structures of the lip and the blind‐hole structures with a one‐way wedge angle in some grooves [63]. The gecko can freely climb on the vertical wall, which mainly relies on the rich microvilli structures of the sole to provide strong adhesion [64, 65]. Another similar case is the adhesion phenomenon of the sacral bristles of the ladybug Coccinella septempunctata to the rough surfaces [66]. The antireflective effect of the moth eye is closely related to the conical array of the outer surface of the eyes [64]. The directional water‐collecting effect of the spider silk is realized by its unique periodic spindle knots [63]. The single scale of the chafer Cyphochilus wings can be dazzling white, and the optical performance is closely related to the filamentous network microstructure of the wing scale surface [67, 68].
1.2 Definition and Classification of NIFSS
Bioinspired structured surfaces are referred to as NIFSS in this book. Due to the excellent functional properties of biological surfaces in many respects, materials scientists and engineers have long focused on biomimetic structures of biological surfaces and artificial reproduction of their excellent functions. The so‐called NIFSS is a general term for all kinds of artificial structural surfaces with various materials at different scale levels inspired by biological surfaces.
In this book, according to the different sources of the original micro‐/nanostructures of the biological surfaces, the NIFSS can be divided into two categories. One is biology‐based structure surfaces with similar or enhanced functional properties, which are designed and developed using the biological surface itself as a raw material or by chemical modification and physical evaporation. The other one is biology‐inspired structural surfaces with similar or enhanced functional properties, which are designed and developed in combination with existing micro‐/nanomanufacturing processes. The two types of NIFSS are explained one by one in the following text.
The NIFSS can be further subdivided into two subclasses: (i) the biological surface itself is an original structural material to get the desired functional surface with the natural functional characteristics. Various types of biological surfaces with excellent functional characteristics, previously reported, can be regarded as natural structural surfaces. Since the biological surfaces have been separated from the biological body, the excised biological surfaces themselves can be considered a special kind of NIFSS; (ii) denatured biomimetic structural surfaces based on biological surfaces are obtained by chemical modification. Since the main component of the biological surfaces itself is organic, it is still difficult to meet the stringent requirements for practical applications. Therefore, it has become a kind of modification and enhancement treatment of the natural structure surfaces.
NIFSS mainly refer to artificial biomimetic materials or devices that mimic the excellent functional properties of the biological surface or the internal mechanism, and the final realized functions can be similar to or different from original biological surfaces. The biology itself is only used as a source of inspiration and imitation, and it is not used as the original material to participate in the design and manufacture of the NIFSS.
1.3 Typical Prototypes with Structural Surfaces
1.3.1 Butterfly Wings
Among these outstanding research examples, butterfly is undoubtedly one of the most diverse and well‐known biological prototypes. A variety of butterflies is biologically and geographically diverse (Figure 1.1). The collection channel of butterfly samples is convenient, providing a stable sample source and a huge database of biological structures for in‐depth study of typical butterfly wings.
Figure 1.1 Different butterflies with colorful wings in the nature.
In recent decades, there have been numerous research cases based on the butterfly wings or inspired by the micro‐/nanostructures of the wing scales, and the research content is rich enough. For example, in a study related to the structures of butterfly wings, the main research content includes the microscopic characterization of the micro‐/nanostructures on the butterfly wing surface and the intrinsic formation mechanism of the brilliant structural colors [26,69–82]. A quantitative study on the contribution of single wing scales to interference and diffraction in the structures of butterfly wings was also carried out [83]. A bioengineering method of butterfly wing structural colors is also an emerging hotspot [84–90]. In terms of wettability research, related studies have shown that the micro‐/nanostructures of the butterfly wing scales endow the wing surface with higher roughness. They can regulate surface wettability and control the bounce behavior of droplets on the surface [91, 92]. Based on this, directional wet super‐slip fibers [93] and structured waterproof surfaces [94] are developed. In the study of responsive materials, the scales of the Morpho sulkowskyi make it selectively optically react to different vapors. This optical response is derived from the polarity gradient of the micro‐/nanostructure material itself and is superior to the performance of existing nanophotonic sensors [24, 95]. The micro‐/nanostructures of the Greta oto butterfly wing surface have piezoelectric response characteristics, which are expected to provide a reference for the development of new optoelectronic devices. It can be applied to the field of electro‐stealth [96]. Photonic crystal‐type micro‐/nanostructures and pigment‐type micro‐/nanostructures on the butterfly Polyommatus icarus can exhibit differential response characteristics to cold stress [97]. Photonic crystal structures of Papilio ulysses wing scales can follow the change in the external refractive index to produce a reversible thermochromic reaction [98]. Morpho wing scales can be slightly deformed by external thermal radiation. Inspired by this, researchers have proposed a new thermal imaging technology [99]. In catalytic research, the main research work includes photocatalysis induced by structural colors of butterfly wings [90] and chemical catalysis using butterfly or its imitation as support materials [100]. In addition, in the oil/water separation research, researchers have used butterfly wings as the osmosis membrane to imitate the artificial filter membrane for oil/water separation [101].
Butterfly wings have shown great research value and the application potential in various research fields, such as micro‐/nano‐optics, water transportation, sensing detection, optical catalysis, and even oil/water separation. They have very broad and potential application prospects.
1.3.2 Cicada Wings
Similarly, cicada is another typical biological prototype for bionic research. Especially, its wing has attracted intensive research interest in the field of antireflective materials. Cicada wings have typical periodic micro‐/nanostructure arrays. Huang et al. [102] characterized the micro‐/nanostructures of cicada wings by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and measured total reflectance of cicada wings in the wavelength range of 400–800 nm, which is as low as 1%. A three‐dimensional (3D) array model based on the micro‐/nanostructures of its wing surface was established. The simulation results were in good agreement with the experimental results (Figure 1.2). It has been confirmed that cicada wings have ultra‐low reflectivity and exhibit excellent antireflective properties.
1.3.3 Moth Eyes
In the insect world, compound eyes present an attractive physiological optical performance in terms of optical sensitivity and antireflection [103–105]. Compound eyes usually contain thousands of small eyes (ommatidia) [106], as shown in Figure 1.3. The eyes are usually neatly distributed along a spherical or hemispherical surface in a hexagonal pattern. The surface of these small eyes is not smooth. It is tightly covered by hemispherical nanoscale bumps, forming a grating that enhances the ability of small eyes to absorb light [107]. Taking nocturnal moths as an example, the cornea of the subwavelength structures has an optical antireflective function, which can provide stealth help for its nighttime activities [108, 109]. It has been confirmed that the antireflective function of the moth eye is caused by the micro‐/nanostructures, which makes a gradient change in the refractive index between the air and the cornea, achieving the inhibition of light reflection [64].
Figure 1.2 Transparent cicada wings with antireflective nanostructure arrays. (a) A cicada specimen was placed partially on a polished silicon wafer and a piece of Si nanotips. (b) Photographic image of a singing cicada wing. (c) SEM image of the cicada wing surface. (d) Comparison of measured and simulated total reflectance (total R%) spectrum as a function of wavelength for the cicada wing. (e) Schematics of reflectance reduction of biomimetic nanostructures with feature parameters compared to planar surfaces. Abbreviations: λ, incident wavelength; θ, angle of incidence; d, diameter; S, spacing; L, length; n, bulk refractive index; Si, silicon; Ge, germanium.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Liimatainen et al. [102]. Copyright © 2015 American Chemical Society.
Figure 1.3 SEM images of the Attacus atlas moth eye showing the compound eye structures. Scale bar: (a) 100 μm, (b) 5 μm, (c) and (d) 500 nm.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Wang et al. [106]. Copyright © 2011 The Royal Society.
Figure 1.4 SEM images of compound eyes. (a) The compound eyes are ellipsoidal, composed of hundreds of ommatidia. (b) Ommatidia are uniform and tightly arranged. (c) The upper part of ommatidia is spherical, and the lower is cylindrical, with a diameter of 20 μm or so. (d) There is no more tiny structure on the ommatidia surface.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Han et al. [110]. Copyright © 2014 Science China Press and Springer‐Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
1.3.4 Mayfly Eyes
Mayfly Ephemera pictiventris is a kind of insect that lives in the near water environment. Its compound eyes can still maintain a clear view in the environment where water vapor is concentrated [110]. The main component of the cornea of the compound eyes is chitin, whose intrinsic contact angle is about 100°. The eyes exhibit excellent superhydrophobic properties. The top of the small eye and the diameter of the base is not equal. The small eye can be seen as the upper and lower parts. The upper part is approximately spherical. The lower part is a truncated cone shape, which is closely arranged in a hexagonal shape. The overall height of the small eye is about 11 μm; the diameter of the base is about 22 μm. The upper spherical surface is straight. The compound eye size is consistent and closely arranged. Further enlargement results show that the surface of the small eye is relatively smooth and has no tiny nanoscale structures (Figure 1.4).
1.3.5 Mosquito Eyes
Other insects like mosquitoes Culex pipiens also exhibit excellent superhydrophobic properties [111], which keep mosquitoes live in extremely humid environments with clear vision. For mosquitoes, the complex hierarchical micro‐/nanostructures of the compound eyes provide a structural basis for the realization of this function as shown in Figure 1.5. Similarly, this compound eye is also composed of a large number of small eyes. On the one hand, the microlevel protrusion structure of the compound eye is uniformly arranged in close‐packed hexagons, which can effectively prevent larger droplets from staying in the gap of the small eyes. On the other hand, the nanosized mastoid in the small eyes plays a key role in avoiding small‐scale water vapor condensation. With the synergistic effect of these two features, hydrophobicity and anti‐fogging of the mosquito compound eye are finally realized.
Figure 1.5 Complex hierarchical micro‐/nanostructures of the compound eyes of mosquitoes. (a) SEM image of a single mosquito eye. (b) Numerous ommatidia forming a hexagonally close‐packed micro‐hemisphere. (c) Two neighboring ommatidia with nanonipple arrays. (d) Hexagonally non‐close‐packed nanonipples covering an ommatidial surface.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Tadepalli et al. [111]. Copyright © 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
1.3.6 Water Striders' Legs
It is well known that water striders can float on water surface and they can be propelled rapidly with their superhydrophobic hairy legs by transporting the momentum [112, 113] waves to propel themselves across the water surface [112,114–116]. Water strider Gerris remigis (Figure 1.6a) living at the water surface in a highly humid environment. Without any external force, tiny, condensed droplets in the range of femtoliters (fl) to microliters (μl) are removed from the strider's legs, owing to the presence of oriented conical setae. The leg of Gerris is a centimeter‐sized cylinder (of typical diameter 150 μm) decorated by an array of inclined tapered hairs (Figure 1.6b,c) characterized by micro X‐ray computed tomography (XCT) and SEM. Individual setae have a length L = 40–50 μm, a maximum diameter of ∼3 μm, and an apex angle of ∼5°. They make regular arrays with a mutual distance of 5–10 μm and are tilted by an angle β = 25–35° to the base of the leg (Figure 1.6b,c). In addition, longitudinal or quasi‐helicoidal nanogrooves are found on the setae surface, as shown in Figure 1.6c (inset).
Figure 1.6 (a) Gerris remigis lives at the water surface in a highly humid environment. (b, c) Micro‐XCT and SEM images of a water strider's leg showing typical hierarchical structures.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Wang et al. [112]. Copyright © 2015 National Academy of Sciences.
1.3.7 Scorpion Back
For creatures surviving in deserts, the abrasion of the body surface by wind and sand is main challenge. Abrasion is also undesirable, which can cause catastrophic failures in most industrial applications [117]. In nature, some animals such as desert lizards and scorpions live in a gas–solid mixed medium environment such as sand. They perform in this environment through the synergy of special surface morphology, internal microstructure, and biological flexibility. The back of the scorpion can resist abrasion and protect it from damage (Figure 1.7). Han and Zhang et al. [118–120] showed the erosion resistance mechanism of scorpion back, which is the result of multiple coupling effects. The surface morphology, material, and elasticity of the back of the desert scorpion are important biological coupling elements to resist the erosion. According to their analysis, the scorpion can form special protrusions and grooves on the back through adaptation to the living environment and its evolution, thereby changing the flow state of the surface boundary layer and reducing surface erosion. On the other hand, the elastic internodal membranes and side membranes play the role of energy release and help reduce erosion.
1.3.8 Gecko's Feet
Gecko is the largest animal known to support its weight by producing high (dry) adhesion [121]. The ability of geckos (Figure 1.8a) to climb on vertical walls has been noticed in ancient times. However, it was not until the invention of the electron microscope in the 1950s that it was possible to observe the skin on the gecko's feet (Figure 1.8b) and toes (Figure 1.8c). The observed skin has a complex fibrous structure composed of lamellae, setae, branches, and spatula (Figure 1.8d) [64,122–129]. This hierarchical structure allows the gecko to attach to or detach from the surfaces at will. One explanation for the gecko's ability to control adhesion is that it can adapt to surface roughness and achieve a very large actual contact area between its feet and the surface [64,125–130]. Also, compliance and adaptability of the setae contribute to high adhesion. This could inspire the innovative design of high‐sensitive sensors for force measurement (Figure 1.8e and f).
Figure 1.7 The dorsal surface of the scorpion. (a) Scanned data using a laser scanner. (b) The convex hull of scorpion back. (c) The groove of scorpion back. (d) Mechanism of the anti‐wear surface of the scorpion: the air is rotating in the groove channel, forming a stable low‐speed reverse flow zone.
Source: Adapted from Han et al. [118] with permission from the American Chemical Society.
Figure 1.8 Gecko setae and apparatus for force measurement. (a) Photo of the Tokay gecko (Gekko gecko). (b) SEM image of arrays of setae from a toe. (c) A single seta. (d) The finest terminal spatula of a seta. (e) Single seta attached to a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) cantilever capable of measuring force production during attachment parallel and perpendicular to the surface. (f) Single seta attached to an aluminum bonding wire capable of measuring force production during detachment perpendicular to the surface.
Source: Reproduced from Autumn et al. [64] with permission from Nature Publishing Group.
1.3.9 Underwater Animals
Underwater animals, such as carp and shark, can swim freely owing to their special surface structures. For carp, the fan‐shaped scales are covered by oriented nanostructured micropapillae (Figure 1.9), which not only has a drag reduction function but also has super lipophilicity in air and super oleophobicity in water [131, 132]. The surface of super‐oleophobic fish originates from the micro–nano hierarchical structure of the water phase. Sharkskin is a natural low‐resistance surface model. It is covered by very small individual tooth‐like scales called dermal denticles (little skin teeth), with prismatic longitudinal grooves (parallel to the direction of local water flow). These grooved scales reduce the formation of vortices present on a smooth surface, resulting in water moving efficiently over their surface [133, 134].
Figure 1.9 Scale structure on a shark.
Source: Bechert et al. [133].
Figure 1.10 The wing feather of the eagle owl. (a) The rachis of the feather. (b) The barbules grow in different directions. (c) The eagle owl flight noise measurement.
Source: Adapted from Chen et al. [135] with permission from Springer Nature.
1.3.10 Eagle Owl
Many species of owls can fly quietly. Acoustic measurements and microscopic observations on owls (Bubo bubo) [135] show that owls produce lower sound intensity and low‐frequency flight noise, and owls' wing feathers have greater sound absorption characteristics. The microscopic structures of three special characteristics of feathers help to improve the pressure fluctuation of turbulence boundary and suppress the generation of vortex noise (Figure 1.10).
1.3.11 Desert Stenocara Beetle
In areas with limited water resources, such as the Namib Desert, nature has developed elegant solutions to collect water from the atmosphere. The superhydrophobic pattern on the back of the Stenocara beetle in the Namib Desert is a good example of micro‐condensation of water [136]. The Stenocara beetle in the Namib Desert uses the hydrophilic/superhydrophobic patterned surface on its wings (Figure 1.11) to collect drinking water from the fog‐filled wind.
The back of this beetle is composed of hydrophilic hills and super‐hydrophobic channels. The former can collect water from the fog in the desert atmosphere, and the latter can help the collected water droplets flow into the beetle's mouth. After these small droplets converge into larger droplets, they roll into the beetle's mouth and provide a fresh breakfast drink for the beetle [136, 137]. Research has shown that the formation of these large droplets is due to the uneven surface of the insect, which is composed of alternating hydrophobic, wax‐coated and hydrophilic, non‐wax areas. This fog‐collecting structure design can be cheaply replicated on a commercial scale and can be applied to water‐collecting tents and building coverings [136]. Inspired by this wonderful natural design, Rubner and coworkers produced a superhydrophobic/hydrophilic patterned surface to mimic the structure of the beetle's back [137]. The water sprayed on the superhydrophobic pattern only forms small spherical water droplets, which are mainly concentrated on the hydrophilic pattern. Later, Garrod et al. also demonstrated the preparation of superhydrophobic/hydrophilic patterned surfaces to collect water [138]. The water collection capacity of different superhydrophobic/hydrophilic ratios on the surface has been studied in detail. Through the above examples, the application prospect of superhydrophobic/hydrophilic pattern coatings in actual water collection devices can be predicted.
Figure 1.11 The water‐capturing surface of the fused‐over wings (elytra) of the desert beetle Stenocara sp. (a) Adult female, dorsal view, peaks and valleys are evident on the surface of the elytra. (b) SEM image of the textured surface of the depressed areas. Scale bars: (a) 10 mm and (b) 10 μm.
Source: Adapted from Parker and Lawrence [136] with permission from Nature Publishing Group.
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