Nutraceutical and Functional Food Processing Technology E-Book

Joyce I. Boye

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: IFST Advances in Food Science
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 728

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

For several years, the food industry has been interested in identifying components in foods which have health benefits to be used in the development of functional food and nutraceutical products. Examples of these ingredients include fibre, phytosterols, peptides, proteins, isoflavones, saponins, phytic acid, probiotics, prebiotics and functional enzymes. Although much progress has been made in the identification, extraction and characterisation of these ingredients, there remains a need for ready and near-market platform technologies for processing these ingredients into marketable value-added functional food and nutraceutical products. This book looks at how these ingredients can be effectively incorporated into food systems for market, and provides practical guidelines on how challenges in specific food sectors (such as health claims and marketing) can be addressed during processing.

Nutraceutical and Functional Food Processing Technology is a comprehensive overview of current and emerging trends in the formulation and manufacture of nutraceutical and functional food products. It highlights the distinctions between foods falling into the nutraceutical and functional food categories. Topics include sustainable and environmentally–friendly approaches to the production of health foods, guidelines and regulations, and methods for assessing safety and quality of nutraceutical and functional food products. Specific applications of nutraceuticals in emulsion and salad dressing food products, beverages and soft drinks, baked goods, cereals and extruded products, fermented food products are covered, as are novel food proteins and peptides, and methods for encapsulated nutraceutical ingredients and packaging. The impact of processing on the bioactivity of nutraceutical ingredients, allergen management and the processing of allergen-free foods, health claims and nutraceutical food product commercialization are also discussed.

Nutraceutical and Functional Food Processing Technology is a comprehensive source of practical approaches that can be used to innovate in the nutraceutical and health food sectors. Fully up-to-date and relevant across various food sectors, the book will benefit both academia and industry personnel working in the health food and food processing sectors.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series

Forthcoming titles in the IFST series

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: Current and Emerging Trends in the Formulation and Manufacture of Nutraceuticals and Functional Food Products

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Overview, Classification, and Benefits of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

1.3 Production of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

1.4 Current Formulation Trends and the Modern Marketplace

1.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Functional and Sustainable Food—Biophysical Implications of a “Healthy” Food System

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Background

2.3 Functional Food Footprint—The Case of Tomatoes

2.4 Summary

References

Chapter 3: Key Considerations in the Selection of Ingredients and Processing Technologies for Functional Foods and Nutraceutical Products

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Processing Technologies for Functional Food Bioactive Components and Nutraceutical Products

3.3 Delivery of Nutraceuticals in Food and Its Limitations

3.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 4: Quality Evaluation and Safety of Commercially Available Nutraceutical and Formulated Products

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Contents of Single Components in Formulated Products

4.3 Contents of Active Constituents of Ranges of Nutraceuticals of Complex Composition

4.4 Bioavailability

4.5 Other Indicators of Quality

4.6 Possible Contaminants in Nutraceuticals

4.7 Safety

4.8 Adverse Effects

4.9 Drug Interactions

4.10 Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Novel Health Ingredients and Their Applications in Salad Dressings and Other Food Emulsions

5.1 Current Developments and Emerging Trends in Food Emulsion Products

5.2 Emerging and Novel Ingredients in Food Emulsion Products

5.3 Factors Influencing Physical Characteristics of Salad Dressings and Other Food Emulsions

5.4 Novel Food Regulations of Salad Dressing and Mayonnaise Products

5.5 Processing of Salad Dressings and Other Food Emulsion Products

References

Chapter 6: Processing of Beverages for the Health Food Market Consumer

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Consumer Trends in Beverage Consumption and Functional Beverages

6.3 Taste Is the Prime Factor in Choosing Food and Beverages

6.4 Regulatory Considerations with Respect to Ingredients and Claims

6.5 Desired Functional Benefits and Bioactive Ingredients

6.6 Health Issues Addressable through Functional Beverages

6.7 Beverage Processing Technology

6.8 Packaging

6.9 Other Marketing Considerations

6.10 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Incorporation of Nutraceutical Ingredients in Baked Goods

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Bakery Products

7.3 Nutraceuticals and Nutraceutical– Incorporated Baked Goods

7.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: New Technologies in the Processing of Functional and Nutraceutical Cereals and Extruded Products

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Cereals and Their Food Applications

8.3 Novel Technologies in the Processing of Cereal-Based Products

8.4 Future Prospects

References

Chapter 9: Novel Approaches to Enhance the Functionality of Fermented Foods

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Starter Culture for Fermented Food Production

9.3 Functionality of Fermented Foods

9.4 Novel Approaches to Enhancing the Functionality of Fermented Foods

9.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 10: Impact of Processing on the Bioactivity of Functional and Nutraceutical Ingredients in Foods

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Thermal Processing

10.3 Non-Thermal Processing

10.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Encapsulation and Controlled Release Techniques for Administration and Delivery of Bioactive Components in the Health Food Sector

11.1 Introduction: Health Food Sector

11.2 Microencapsulation Technologies Applicable to Bioactive Functional Ingredients and Foods

11.3 Future Trends and Marketing Perspectives

References

Chapter 12: Role and Importance of Health Claims in the Nutraceutical and Functional Food Markets

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

12.3 Health claims

12.4 Conclusion

References

Index

Food Science and Technology Books

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Chart 2.1

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

Figure 8.4

Figure 8.5

Figure 11.1

Figure 11.2

Figure 11.3

Figure 11.4

Figure 12.1

List of Tables

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Table 1.3

Table 1.4

Table 1.5

Table 1.6

Table 1.7

Table 1.8

Table 1.9

Table 1.10

Table 1.11

Table 1.12

Table 1.13

Table 1.14

Table 1.15

Table 1.16

Table 1.17

Table 1.18

Table 1.19

Table 1.20

Table 1.21

Table 1.22

Table 1.23

Table 1.24

Table 1.25

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 3.3

Table 3.4

Table 3.5

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 5.3

Table 5.4

Table 5.5

Table 5.6

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Table 9.3

Table 9.4

Table 9.5

Table 10.1

Table 11.1

Table 11.2

Table 11.3

Table 11.4

Table 12.1

Table 12.2

Table 12.3

Table 12.4

Table 12.5

Table 12.6

Table 12.7

Table 12.8

Table 12.9

Nutraceutical and Functional Food Processing Technology

Edited by

Joyce Irene Boye

Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Canada

This edition first published 2015 © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Registered office: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Nutraceutical and functional food processing technology / edited by Joyce Irene Boye.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-50494-9 (cloth)

1. Food additives. 2. Functional foods. 3. Nutrition. 4. Food industry and trade. I. Boye, Joyce I.

TX553.A3N675 2015

641.3′08–dc23

2014034358

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover image: Juices © IngaNielsen /iStockphoto;

Fruit and Vegetables © Mfotophile /iStockphoto;

Composition with dietary supplement capsules and

container © Monticelllo /iStockphoto

About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series

The Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) is the leading qualifying body for food professionals in Europe and the only professional organisation in the UK concerned with all aspects of food science and technology. Its qualifications are internationally recognised as a sign of proficiency and integrity in the industry. Competence, integrity, and serving the public benefit lie at the heart of the IFST philosophy. IFST values the many elements that contribute to the efficient and responsible supply, manufacture and distribution of safe, wholesome, nutritious and affordable foods, with due regard for the environment, animal welfare and the rights of consumers.

IFST Advances in Food Science is a series of books dedicated to the most important and popular topics in food science and technology, highlighting major developments across all sectors of the global food industry. Each volume is a detailed and in-depth edited work, featuring contributions by recognized international experts, and which focuses on new developments in the field. Taken together, the series forms a comprehensive library of the latest food science research and practice, and provides valuable insights into the food processing techniques that are essential to the understanding and development of this rapidly evolving industry.

The IFST Advances series is edited by Dr Brijesh Tiwari, who is Senior Research Officer at Teagasc Food Research Centre in Ireland.

Forthcoming titles in the IFST series

Emerging Dairy Processing Technologies

, edited by Nivedita Datta and Peggy Tomasula

Emerging Technologies in Meat Processing

, edited by Enda Cummins and James Lyng

Utilising By-products from Food Processing

, edited by Anil Kumar Anal

List of Contributors

Joyce Irene Boye

, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Canada

Alberta Aryee

, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Canada

Meidad Kissinger

, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

Ashutosh Singh

, McGill University, Canada

Valérie Orsat

, McGill University, Canada

George Brian Lockwood

, University of Manchester, United Kingdom

Zhen Ma

, Shaanxi Normal University, China

Garima Goel Lal

, Private Consultant, United States

Mehmet Hayta

, Erciyes University, Turkey

Büşra Polat

, Erciyes University, Turkey

Lingyun Chen

, University of Alberta, Canada

Yixiang Wang

, University of Alberta, Canada

Fatemeh Bamdad

, University of Alberta, Canada

Emmanuel Y. Anom

, Perennia Food & Agriculture Inc., Canada

Chibuike C. Udenigwe

, Dalhousie University, Canada

Alexandra Dauz

, Cornell University, United States

Chang Lee

, Cornell University, United States; King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia

Kasipathy Kailasapathy

, University of Western Sydney, Australia; Taylor's University, Malaysia

Chapter 1Current and Emerging Trends in the Formulation and Manufacture of Nutraceuticals and Functional Food Products

Alberta N. A. Aryee and Joyce Irene Boye

Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Saint-Hyacinthe, Canada

1.1 Introduction

In the last few decades, emphases on the role of foods have shifted from substances consumed merely to quell hunger or to provide needed nutrients for normal cellular function to substances that can potentially promote health and wellness and, particularly, reduce risk of disease. These foods are frequently referred to as nutraceuticals and/or functional foods with various reported bioactive functions (e.g., immunomodulators, antihypertensives, osteoprotectives, hypocholesterolemics, antioxidatives, and antimicrobials). Nutraceuticals and/or functional foods are a fast-growing, multi-billion-dollar global industry that has been expanding annually. Strong market growths of these foods confirm their perceived nutritional benefits and, in some cases, provide a surrogate substantiation of their health claims. It also provides evidence of increasing product innovations, consumer acceptance of healthy-living lifestyles through nutrition, and a growing shift from pharmaceutically derived supplements. Consumers are interested in preventing and/or slowing the progression of illness and disability before they become irreversible and costly to quality of life. In response to this demand, food companies are developing technologies for processing health and wellness products that will improve the efficacy of these products, maximize the potential benefits to consumers, and be cost-effective for the industry's survival in a competitive marketplace.

1.2 Overview, Classification, and Benefits of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods

There is no universal definition of nutraceuticals and/or functional foods as it varies across countries and markets. All foods are generally functional because they provide nutrients and energy to sustain growth and support vital cellular processes. Functional foods, however, are generally considered to go beyond the provision of basic nutrients to potentially offer additional benefits such as reducing the risk of disease and/or promoting optimal health to the consumer (Hasler 2002). A study presented at the annual meeting of the American Institute for Cancer Research, in Bethesda (Maryland, United States) on November 7, 2013, showed a correlation between poor diets (high in sugar and saturated fats) and the risk of early death caused by inflammation-related health conditions (gastrointestinal [GI] tract cancers—i.e., cancers of the esophagus, stomach, colon, and rectum). The study sample included 10,500 people who were followed from 1987 through 2003 (The Weekly 2013). Of the 259 participants that had died at the end of the study period, 30 had died from GI tract cancers. The study showed that the participants who lived on poor diets were four times as likely to die from GI tract cancers as a result of poor diets that cause inflammation than those participants who consumed plant-based diets purported to be anti-inflammatory to GI tracts.

According to Health Canada (1998), the governmental authority that oversees the approval of food health claims in Canada, a functional food “is similar in appearance to, or may be, a conventional food that is consumed as part of a usual diet, and is demonstrated to have physiological benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions, i.e. they contain bioactive compounds.” The Institute of Medicine's Food and Nutrition Board defines functional foods as “any food or food ingredient that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains.” Other definitions of functional food are listed in Table 1.1. Health Canada (1998) further defines a nutraceutical as a “product isolated or purified from foods that is generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with foods. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease.” Zeisel (1999) deduced the definition of nutraceuticals from the description of dietary supplements (“ingredients extracted from foods, herbs, and plants that are taken, without further modification outside of foods, for their presumed health-enhancing benefits intended to supplement the diet, that bears or contains one or more of the following dietary ingredients: a vitamin, mineral, amino acid, herb, or other botanical in the form of a capsule, powder, softgel, or gelcap, and not represented as a conventional food or as a sole item of a meal or the diet”) as a “diet supplement that delivers a concentrated form of a biologically active component of food in a non-food matrix in order to enhance health.”

Table 1.1Some definitions of functional foods

Organization

Definition

Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics

“Whole foods along with fortified, enriched, or enhanced foods that have a potentially beneficial effect on health when consumed as part of a varied diet on a regular basis at effective levels.”

International Food Information Council

“Foods or dietary components that may provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition and may play a role in reducing or minimizing the risk of certain diseases and other health conditions.”

Institute of Food Technologists

“Foods and food components that provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition (for the intended population).”

International Life Sciences Institute

“Foods that by virtue of the presence of physiologically active food components provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition.”

European Commission

“A food that beneficially affects one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effects, in a way that is relevant to either an improved state of health and well-being and/or reduction of risk of disease. It is part of a normal food pattern. It is not a pill, a capsule or any form of dietary supplement.”

Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare

“FOSHU [Food for specified health uses] refers to foods containing ingredient with functions for health and officially approved to claim its physiological effects on the human body. FOSHU is intended to be consumed for the maintenance/promotion of health or special health uses by people who wish to control health conditions, including blood pressure or blood cholesterol.”

Source: Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 2013. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

As Table 1.1 indicates, the definition of a functional food depends on the demography and the designated regulatory authority involved. The vast array of different ingredients used in the formulation of functional foods helps to explain the endless options and combinations available in the marketplace. A casual observation in any supermarket will confirm the multitude of different categories of products available in this sub-sector including solid foods, beverages, and supplements, which continue to expand on a daily basis. Over 5,500 new types of these products have been introduced to the Japanese market since 1990, the birthplace of functional foods (Siró et al. 2008), and 537 products valued at US$6.3 billion have been granted FOSHU (Foods for Specific Health Use) status since 2005 (Hartmann and Meisel 2007).

The American Dietetic Association expands the definition by categorizing functional foods into four groups. These are conventional, modified, medical, and foods for special dietary use. Conventional foods include whole foods such as garlic, nuts, whole grains, oily fish, and tomatoes, which contain bioactive chemicals and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). For instance, oatmeal is considered a functional food because it naturally contains soluble fiber that can help lower cholesterol levels. Modified foods are those that have been enriched, enhanced, or fortified to have or increase health benefits by adding bioactive substances such as phytochemicals or other antioxidants. Such foods include omega-3 (or ω-3) enriched eggs, yoghurts with live beneficial bacterial cultures, calcium-fortified orange juice, folate-enriched bread, and energy bars. Medical foods are those that serve specific medical purposes and those for dietary use, including products such as lactose-free milk and gluten-free breads. Some of these distinctions provide another basis for classifying functional foods, as shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2Categories of functional foods

Categories

Definition

Examples

Basic/whole/ unaltered products

Foods naturally containing increased content of nutrients or components

Carrots (containing the natural level of the antioxidant β-carotene)

Fortified products

Foods with higher contents of existing nutrients through the addition of extra quantities of those nutrients

Fruit juices with vitamin C

Enriched or supplemented products

Foods with added new nutrients or components not normally found in a particular food

Margarine with plant sterol ester, probiotics, prebiotics

Yogurts with probiotics

Calcium-enriched fruit juice

Muffins with β-glucan

Drinks with herb blends

Altered products

Foods from which a deleterious component has been removed, reduced, or replaced with another substance with beneficial effects

Fibers as fat releasers in meat or ice cream products

Enhanced products

Foods that have been enhanced to have more of a functional component (via traditional breeding, special livestock feeding or genetic engineering)

Tomatoes with higher levels of lycopene

Oat bran with higher levels of beta glucan

Eggs with increased ω-3 achieved by altered chicken feed

Processed foods

Foods that have been processed to contain their natural levels of functional components

Oat bran cereal (containing the natural level of β-glucan)

Source: Spence 2006. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

With increasing incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD)—for example, coronary heart disease (CHD), which can result in heart attacks; and cerebrovascular disease, which can result in stroke and high blood pressure (hypertension)—it is estimated that 23.6 million people worldwide could die from heart disease and stroke by 2030 (WHO 2013). A growing body of literature on the role of diet on health shows that risk factors cumulating from unhealthy dietary lifestyle, obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes, and raised lipids can lead to high incidence of CVD. Similarly, oxidative stress and inflammation have been linked to the initiation and propagation of many diseases including hypertension and CVD. Despite the popularity of pharmacological interventions to disease and ill health, some drugs may have serious side effects, and some treatments may be unsuccessful. As a result, many consumers have turned to functional foods with bioactive components such as lycopene, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), omega-3 fatty acids (FAs), and fiber, which are reported to play a role in the treatment and prevention of chronic and metabolic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cancer, arthritis, and CVD (Paiva and Russell 1999; Gibson 2004; Krinsky and Johnson 2005; Spence 2006; Boots et al. 2008; Siró et al. 2008; Patisaul and Jefferson 2010; Plaza et al. 2010; Escobar et al. 2012; Karppi et al. 2012; Harms-Ringdahl et al. 2012; Xaplanteris et al. 2012; Houston 2013; Jacques et al. 2013). Indeed, the use of functional foods may in some instances offer safe and effective alternatives to prevent, mitigate, and/or treat some of these conditions. Tables 1.3 and 1.4 provide a list of some sources and components of foods and food ingredients reported to have potential health benefits.

Table 1.3Benefits of nutraceuticals and functional foods

Component

Source

Potential benefits

Carotenoids

Alpha-carotene/ β-carotene

Carrots, fruits, vegetables

Neutralizes free radicals, which may cause damage to cells

Lutein

Green vegetables

Reduces the risk of macular degeneration

Lycopene

Tomato products (ketchup, sauces)

Reduces the risk of prostate cancer

Dietary Fiber

Insoluble fiber

Wheat bran

Reduces risk of breast or colon cancer

Beta-glucan

Oats, barley

Reduces risk of cardiovascular disease; protects against heart disease and some cancers; lowers LDL and total cholesterol

Soluble fiber

Psyllium

Reduces risk of cardiovascular disease; protects against heart disease and some cancers; lowers LDL and total cholesterol

Fatty Acids

Long-chain omega-3 FAs-DHA/EPA

Salmon and other fish oils

Reduces risk of cardiovascular disease; improves mental and visual functions

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)

Cheese, meat products

Improves body composition; decreases risk of certain cancers

Phenolics

Anthocyanidins

Fruits

Neutralizes free radicals; reduces risk of cancer

Catechins

Tea

Neutralizes free radicals; reduces risk of cancer

Flavonones

Citrus

Neutralizes free radicals; reduces risk of cancer

Flavones

Fruits, vegetables

Neutralizes free radicals; reduces risk of cancer

Lignans

Flax, rye, vegetables

Prevention of cancer, renal failure

Tannins (proanthocyanidins)

Cranberries, cranberry products, cocoa, chocolate

Improves urinary tract health; reduces risk of CVD

Plant Sterols

Stanol esters

Corn, soy, wheat, wood oils

Lowers blood cholesterol levels by inhibiting cholesterol absorption

Prebiotics/Probiotics

Fructo- oligosaccharides (FOS)

Jerusalem artichokes, shallots, onion powder

Improves quality of intestinal microflora and GI health

Lactobacillus

Yogurt, other dairy

Improves quality of intestinal microflora and GI health

Soy Phytoestrogens

Isoflavones: Daidzein Genistein

Soybeans and soy-based foods

Helps alleviate menopausal symptoms such as hot flashes; protects against heart disease and some cancers; lowers LDL and total cholesterol

Source: AAFC 2012. What are functional foods and nutraceuticals? http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/industry-markets-and-trade/statistics-and-market-information/by-product-sector/functional-foods-and-natural-health-products/functional-foods-and-nutraceuticals-canadian-industry/what-are-functional-foods-and-nutraceuticals-/?id=1171305207040.

Table 1.4Sources of nutraceuticals and functional foods

Categories

Examples

Products extracted or purified from plants

Beta-glucan (e.g., from oats)

Antioxidants (e.g., from blueberries)

Isoflavones (e.g., from soy)

Carotenoids (e.g., from carrots)

Lutein (e.g., from wheat)

Sterols (e.g., from wood pulp)

Essential FAs (e.g., from vegetable oil such as flax oil)

Soluble fiber (e.g., from fenugreek)

Products ground, dried, powdered, and pressed from plant materials

Echinacea

Fenugreek

Valerian

Ginseng

Products produced, extracted, or purified from animals and microorganisms

Omega-3 from fish oils

Essential FAs

Enzymes

Carotenoids (accumulated from the diet)

Probiotics

Products produced from marine sources

Glucosamine

Chitosan

Fish oils

Source: AAFC 2012. What are functional foods and nutraceuticals? http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/industry-markets-and-trade/statistics-and-market-information/by-product-sector/functional-foods-and-natural-health-products/functional-foods-and-nutraceuticals-canadian-industry/what-are-functional-foods-and-nutraceuticals-/?id=1171305207040.

Whereas there are no specific regulations regarding functional foods in most countries, standards have been set in other jurisdictions (e.g., the United States—Food and Drug Administration [FDA]; the European Union—European Food Safety Authority [EFSA]; and Canada—Health Canada) on how a product can be marketed (e.g., as a food additive, conventional food, or dietary supplement) and on the types of nutrient or health claims that can be made. The processes leading to accepting the evidence of health claims can be complex and rigorous due to the stringent rules and regulations set out by these bodies to protect consumers from false claims and especially to ascertain the safe use of these products. Marketers may use permitted labeling to highlight and communicate the beneficial health properties of their products by relying on consumer awareness and understanding of such claims.

Bioactive components in functional food and nutraceutical products are naturally found in plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, and microalgae, and their primary and secondary metabolites (Tables 1.3 and 1.4). When health benefits are proven, these natural food sources could serve as natural substitutes for synthetic pharmaceutical products for intervention purposes and to prevent potential adverse effects from the use of some pharmaceutical drugs.

Primary metabolites, which include amino acids, nucleic acids, and FAs, are required for normal healthy growth and development, while secondary metabolites, such as carotenoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids, are synthesized in specialized cell types under specific conditions. Apart from their role when ingested live in diary and non-dairy products to improve the quality of intestinal microflora and GI health (probiotic effect), some generally recognized as safe (GRAS) microorganisms may be indirect sources of high-yielding nutraceutical and functional ingredients (e.g., CLA, bioactive peptides, and vitamins liberated during fermentation). Probiotic microorganisms may further provide useful beneficial effects such as the prevention of food intolerance and/or sensitivity, and they may further decrease food allergies by degrading and decreasing allergenic epitopes required to elicit an inflammatory response (Gibson 2004; Champagne et al. 2005; Di Criscio et al. 2010; Vasudha and Mishra 2013).

In addition to the potential health benefits of nutraceuticals and functional foods, their production may also support economic development, as well as offer a way for some producers to diversify their agricultural and marine-based product offerings (Siró et al. 2008). The global nutraceuticals market is predicted to reach nearly US$207 billion by 2016, with a projected compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.5% between 2011 and 2016 (BCC Research, 2011a). The functional beverages market sub-sector is experiencing the highest growth and is expected to reach approximately US$87 billion by 2016, followed by US$67 billion from food and around US$51 billion from the supplement sectors at CAGRs of 8.8%, 6.4%, and 4.8%, respectively, during the same 5-year period (i.e., 2011–2016).

1.2.1 Characteristics and Properties of Selected Bioactive Ingredients

Bioactive proteins and peptides, PUFAs, fibers, phenolics, probiotics, and prebiotics are some of the main active ingredients (Tables 1.3 and 1.4) contained in functional food and nutraceutical formulations. These compounds purportedly confer diverse health benefits and are believed to interfere with the pathogenesis of several diseases, including but not limited to GI inflammation, carcinogenesis, hypertension, CVD, developmental disorders, brain and cognitive disabilities, and aging (Gibson 2004; Phelan et al. 2009; Patisaul and Jefferson 2010; Jacques et al. 2013; Théolier et al. 2013). Most studies to date on these active ingredients are complex, confusing, controversial, and offer no clear consensus on the helpfulness or harmfulness (if any) of some of these ingredients, or if the potential benefits might be contraindicated for some groups of individuals based on age, sex, health status, and even the presence or absence of risk factors (Setchell et al. 2003; Bar-El and Reifen 2010; Patisaul and Jefferson 2010; Cederroth et al. 2012). In addition to the main active ingredient in a particular functional food or nutraceutical, synergistic interactions with other bioactive compounds present may contribute to their health effects (Spence 2006; Kris-Etherton et al. 2008; Kay et al. 2010; Ros 2010; Bao et al. 2013). As an example, a recent report from two prospective cohort studies involving nearly 120,000 people over 30 years (76,464 women in the Nurses' Health Study [1980–2010] and 42,498 men in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study [1986–2010]) confirmed the beneficial effects of consuming nuts. The report showed inverse associations between nut consumption and the risk of major chronic diseases, including CVD, type-2 diabetes, weight gain, and total and cause-specific mortality (Bao et al. 2013). The results were similar for all nuts, that is, nuts that grow underneath the earth, such as peanuts (groundnuts, a legume), and nuts that grow on trees, such as walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, macadamias, pecans, pistachios, and pine nuts. In addition to high amounts of fats, mostly unsaturated FAs, nuts are also good sources of fiber (4–11 g/100 g), protein (7.9–38.1 g/100 g), PUFAs (1.5–47.2 g/100 g), phenolic compounds, and phytosterols (72–220 µg/100 g), and they contain traces of vitamins, minerals, as well as other bioactive substances (Table 1.5). In view of the wide-ranging nutrients, phytochemicals, and salutary health effects, most nuts hold an FDA-qualified health claim, such as follows: “eating 43 g (1.5 oz) per day of most nuts [such as name of specific nut] as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease” (FDA 2003).

Table 1.5Nutrient composition of some raw nuts (per 100 g)

Nuts

Energy(KJ)

Fats(g)

SFA(g)

MUFA(g)

PUFA(g)

LA(g)

ALA(g)

Protein(g)

Fiber(g)

Folate(µg)

PS(mg)

Ca(mg)

Mg(mg)

K(mg)

Na(mg)

Almonds

2418

50.6

3.9

32.2

12.2

12.2

0.00

21.3

8.8

29

120

248

275

728

1

Brazil nuts (dried)

2743

66.4

15.1

24.5

20.6

20.5

0.05

14.3

7.5

22

NR

160

376

659

3

Cashews

2314

46.4

9.2

27.3

7.8

7.7

0.15

18.2

5.9

25

158

37

292

660

12

Hazelnuts

2629

60.8

4.5

45.7

7.9

7.8

0.09

15.0

10.4

113

96

114

163

680

0

Macadamia nuts

3004

75.8

12.1

58.9

1.5

1.3

0.21

7.9

6.0

11

11

85

130

368

5

Peanuts

2220

49.2

6.8

24.4

15.6

15.6

0.00

25.8

8.5

145

220

92

168

705

18

Pecans

2889

72.0

6.2

40.8

21.6

20.6

1.00

9.2

8.4

22

102

70

121

410

0

Pine nuts (dried)

2816

68.4

4.9

18.8

34.1

33.2

0.16

13.7

3.7

34

141

16

251

597

2

Pistachios

2332

44.4

5.4

23.3

13.5

13.2

0.25

20.6

9.0

51

214

107

121

1025

1

Walnuts, English

2738

65.2

6.1

8.9

47.2

38.1

9.08

15.2

6.4

98

72

98

158

441

2

Source: Ros 2010 . Reproduced under a Creative Commons License; http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Bioavailability, which refers to the body's ability to fully or partially absorb ingested bioactives, is crucial to the ability to exert beneficial effects. The bioavailability and efficacy of active ingredients in nutraceuticals and functional foods are important considerations in their formulation (Charalampopoulos et al. 2002; Havrlentová et al. 2011). For instance, the bioavailability of active ingredients may be altered depending on the specific compound or isomer formed during formulation (Kurzer and Xu 1997; Rao et al. 1998; Benakmoum et al. 2008; Xaplanteri et al. 2012). Additionally, the fate, characteristics, and behavior of bioactive components subjected to varying conditions of processing and storage (e.g., high or low temperature) and their inherent properties (e.g., high heat stability or lability, pH tolerance, shear stress tolerance) and the possible alterations that could occur following ingestion, digestion, and absorption may variously affect their potential health benefits. Knowledge of these properties and susceptibilities is important to mitigate any adverse effects during processing and storage. Other factors that need to be considered include appropriate dosage (i.e., acute or large single exposures vs. continuous small exposures), mode of delivery (e.g., oral or topical), possible interactions, toxicology, fate of carrier materials, and short- and long-term side effects based on age, sex, and health status (Paiva and Russell 1999; Setchell et al. 2003; Patisaul and Jefferson 2010; Grooms et al. 2013).

Functional foods and nutraceuticals may also contain inert components or excipients as part of the formulation. While the active ingredients are the components that confer the actual benefit, the inert components are primarily the carriers that help deliver the active ingredients to the target organ (Brownlie 2007; Hébrard et al. 2010; Kuang et al. 2010; Wichchukit et al. 2013). These inert ingredients may enhance the utility of the product or provide benefits such as disguising a bad taste or flavor (e.g., tablets coated with sugar or wax) or making the tablet resistant to gastric acid such that it only disintegrates at the appropriate site as a result of enzyme action or alkaline pH (Gaudette and Pickering 2013; Jantzen et al. 2013; Nesterenko et al. 2013). Other examples of inert materials used in food formulation include surfactants, stabilizers (gums), emulsifiers, and colorants.

Brief reviews on specific bioactive components are provided in the following text. For more detailed information on the structure, distribution, metabolism, bioavailability, possible mechanism, and potential health benefits of various bioactive components, readers are referred to the following publications: bioactive proteins and peptides (Duranti 2006; Möller et al. 2008; Chatterton et al. 2013; Théolier et al. 2013), fiber (Gibson 2004; Havrlentová et al. 2011), PUFAs (Simopoulos 2002a, 2002b; Strobel et al. 2012; Ammann et al. 2013; AHA 2013; Brasky et al. 2013; Janczyk et al. 2013; van den Elsen et al. 2013), phytochemicals (De Pascual-Teresa et al. 2010; Patisaul and Jefferson 2010; Xaplanteris et al. 2012; Cederroth et al. 2012; Jacques et al. 2013; Vitale et al. 2013), and prebiotics and probiotics (FAO 2001; Gibson 2004; Champagne et al. 2005; Di Criscio et al. 2010; Hébrard et al. 2010; Śliżewska et al. 2012; Al-Sheraji et al. 2013).

1.2.2 Bioactive Proteins and Peptides

In addition to the dispensable and indispensable amino acids that proteins provide for structural and biological functions to sustain life, their potential health benefits beyond basic nutrition have been reported (Duranti 2006; Möller et al. 2008; Phelan et al. 2009; Mochida et al. 2010; Barbana and Boye 2010; Chou et al. 2012; Rui et al. 2012; Chatterton et al. 2013; Théolier et al. 2013). Plants (e.g., soybean, wheat, and other cereal grains and legumes) and animals (e.g., milk, eggs, other dairy products, meat, and fish) are important food sources of protein with encrypted biological activities (Lam and Lumen 2003; Hartmann and Meisel 2007; Phelan et al. 2009; Barbana and Boye 2010). Table 1.6 shows some plant protein sources and their estimated protein content, which can vary markedly.

Table 1.6Protein content of common edible legumes

Source

Protein (%)

Soybean

34.3

Peanut

27.6

Pea

24.5

Cowpea

22.0

Chickpea

19.5

Pigeon pea

19.5

Fava bean

24.8

Lupin

39.7

Winged bean

32.8

Source: Adapted from Lam and de Lumen 2003. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Many food proteins have been used as precursors of bioactive peptides, which may be released upon hydrolysis during GI digestion by digestive or microbial enzymes, or by fermentation or ripening during food processing with isolated or microbial enzymes. These bioactive peptides may exert a wide variety of beneficial biological functions in the body (Table 1.7; Phelan et al. 2009), including, for example, regulating serum cholesterol and hypocholesterolemic effect through binding of bile acids (which are synthesized from cholesterol in the liver) (Kahlon and Woodruff 2002; Barbana et al. 2011). Eliminating bile acids may increase cholesterol metabolism and help reduce cholesterol levels in the blood. Bioactive hydrolysates and peptides may also produce inhibitory effects against angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE) (by inhibiting the conversion of angiotensin I [decapeptide] to the more potent vasoconstrictor angiotensin II [octapeptide] by ACE) with possible blood-pressure-lowering effects (Vermeirssen et al. 2005; Barbana and Boye 2010; Rui et al. 2012). Bioactive hydrolysates and peptides may further possess antimicrobial activity and antioxidant properties that can enhance the body's defense mechanisms. Other bioactive proteins and peptides may produce immunomodulating, opioid, and anti-thrombotic activities, as well as provide positive influence on calcium absorption and dental health by inhibiting plaque-forming bacteria and tooth enamel demineralization (Table 1.6; Möller et al. 2008; Phelan et al. 2009; Chou et al. 2012; Nam et al. 2012; Théolier et al. 2013).

Table 1.7 Immunomodulatory, antihypertensive, and osteoprotective proteins and peptides

Protein/Peptide

Effect

Model

Immunomodulatory

Caseins (and digests)

T-lymphocyte proliferation Immunoglobulin secretion

Cell cultureCell culture

Whey

Lymphocyte blastogenesis

Cell culture

Proline-rich polypeptides (and derivates) from ovine colostrum

B-lymphocyte growth, differentiation , antibody secretion

Cell cultureAnimal culture

Fish protein

IgA-, IL-4-, IL-6-, IL-10-positive cells

Animal culture

Antihypertensive

α

s1

- and β-casein

ACE Hypertension

In vitroAnimal

γ-Zein

ACE

In vitro

Wheat germ

ACE

In vitro

Hordein (barley)

ACE

In vitro

Bonito

ACE

In vitro

Osteoprotective

Casein

Absorption of intestinal calcium

Animal

Whey protein

Absorption of intestinal calcium

Animal

Milk basic protein

Bone mineral density

Human

Antilipemic

Fish protein hydrolysate

mRNA of desaturases , HDL-cholesterol/total cholesterol

Animal

Lupin protein isolate

Total cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol

Animal

subunits of soybean

Plasma cholesterol , triglycerides , VLDL receptor binding

Animal

Source: Möller et al. 2008. Reproduced with permission of Springer.

Peptide bioactivity can be affected by the source of protein, chemical composition, degree of hydrolysis, and the type of proteolytic enzyme used (Möller et al. 2008; Phelan et al. 2009; Nam et al. 2012; Théolier et al. 2013). Hydrolyzed proteins show higher digestibility and absorption compared to intact proteins and thus create new sources of functional foods. As sources of free amino acids, these bioactive hydrolysates have been used to potently increase the bioavailability of the building blocks of proteins for synthesis of contractile proteins, managing CVD and diabetes (Blomstrand et al. 2006; Schimomura et al. 2006; Greenfield et al. 2008; Mochida et al. 2010; Clemmensen et al. 2013; Higuchi et al. 2013; Nogiec and Kasif 2013). In sports nutrition, where performance and faster recovery following strenuous exercise are very important, hydrolyzed or predigested protein fractions are highly sought after. Amino acids acting alone or in conjunction with other amino acids have been demonstrated to be more effective in the synthesis of proteins that build muscle mass than intact proteins, as they promote better glucose uptake and synthesis of muscle glycogen, which promotes muscle restoration and recovery before, during, and after exercise (Nogiec and Kasif 2013). Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) (i.e., leucine, valine, and isoleucine) are particularly useful in protein synthesis, especially after exercise (Blomstrand et al. 2006; Schimomura et al. 2006; Nogiec and Kasif 2013). It has recently been reported that BCAA may provide an immediate energy source needed for protein synthesis due to their preferential oxidization over glucose and FAs (Nogiec and Kasif 2013). Glutamine, however, has been shown not to be as effective in increasing protein synthesis and muscle mass as originally reported (Gleeson 2008; Greenfield et al. 2008); rather, it stimulates the release of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), required to augment insulin secretion in obese- and type 2 diabetic individuals, and thereby improve glucose tolerance and clearance (Clemmensen et al. 2013). Amino acid L-arginine is a precursor of the endogenous vasodilator, nitric oxide, and may also play a role in promoting healthy blood pressure levels and vascular function, and in decreasing the risk of various diseases associated with vascular dysfunction (Clemmensen et al. 2013). Proteins are important sources of enzymes (e.g., protease inhibitors that inhibit protein degradation by selectively protecting proteins of interest or blocking the activity of endogenous proteolytic enzymes by reversibly or irreversibly binding to that protease). This may be important in the management of pathogens such as human immunodeficiency viruses, which break up large proteins into smaller peptides, which become precursors for assembling new viral particles (Liu et al. 2012; Koistinen et al. 2014). Although the virus can still replicate in the presence of protease inhibitors, the resulting virions are less able to infect new cells. Examples of proteases found in fruits include bromelain in pineapple (thiol proteinase, EC 3.4.22.4), papain in papaya (cysteine protease, EC 3.4.22.2), and actinidin in kiwi (sulfhydryl proteases, EC 3.4.22.14). These enzymes improve overall health by acting as digestive aids that may also reduce intestinal inflammation (Rutherfurd et al. 2011; Ha et al. 2012; Kaur and Boland 2013).

The high cost of traditional protein sources is leading to more innovation in identifying new protein ingredients. Plant-sourced proteins from legumes, as an example, are attractive alternatives to animal-derived proteins, due to their relatively lower cost, inherent and unique nutritional profile, anti-allergenic properties, and increasingly greater consumer acceptance (Barbana and Boye 2010; Rui et al. 2012). Soybean is an example of a protein source with official FDA acknowledgement of beneficial health effects (Duranti 2006; FDA 2013a). Foods that contain soy protein can carry the approved health claim stating that “25 g of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease.”

1.2.3 PUFAs

The role of specific FAs in human health is still highly debated (Gebauer et al. 2011; Tan et al. 2012; AHA 2013; Ammann et al. 2013; Brasky et al. 2013; Janczyk et al. 2013; Roncaglioni et al. 2013; Zheng et al. 2013). The basic functions of fats in structural, membrane, metabolism, and gene expression are widely known. The American Heart Association (AHA 2013) recommends that 25–35% of daily total calories be obtained as fats from oils and fats in foods. PUFAs are FAs with more than a single carbon–carbon double bond. These are an interesting group of FAs, well-studied and extensively investigated for their health benefits (Simopoulos 2002a, 2002b; Strobel et al. 2012; Ammann et al. 2013; Brasky et al. 2013; Janczyk et al. 2013). Examples of their reported beneficial effects include anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, and antiatherosclerotic effects. The low incidence of CVD among Greenland Eskimos has long been known and attributed to a high-fish diet.

Well-known examples of PUFAs are the long-chain ω-3 FAs, which are considered to be essential because they cannot be effectively synthesized by the body due to the low activity of the rate-limiting enzyme Δ6-desaturase. Mammals also have limited ability and efficiency to convert the shorter-chained ω-3 FAs, such as α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3), to the more important long-chain ω-3 PUFAs (LC ω-3 PUFA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6), and this is also further impaired with aging. Functional foods may compensate for these insufficient endogenous essential FAs needed to cover metabolic requirements. Omega-3 FAs (i.e., ALA, EPA, and DHA), stearidonic acid (STA; 18:4), and ω-6 FAs (i.e., gamma-linolenic acid [GLA] and arachidonic acid [ARA]), as well as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA, 18:2), an isomer of ω-6, have all been identified as functional lipids (Simopoulos 2002a; Strobel et al. 2012). While long-chain ω-3 PUFAs may help reduce inflammation, ω-6 FAs such as GLA and ARA tend to promote inflammation (Simopoulos 2002a, 2002b; Strobel et al. 2012). A lower ratio of ω-3/ω-6 FAs is more desirable, since it reduces the risk and pathogenesis of many diseases, whereas the reverse exerts suppressive effects. Formulated foods containing a mixture of ω-3 and ω-6 FAs are also preferred over a dominance of either one.

Different types of fish—including anchovies, salmon, mackerel, herring, sardines, tuna, and trout, and marine mammals are uniquely rich sources of PUFAs (Table 1.8). The long-chain ω-3 PUFA and total fat content of fish and fish products vary greatly depending on fish species, feeding conditions (wild or farmed), and processing and preparation methods (e.g., fillet, breaded, pre-fried fishes, etc.) (Gebauer et al. 2006; Strobel et al. 2012; Raatz et al. 2013), which is why it is advisable to consume a variety of different fish species and fish products. Regular ingestion of fried fish has been associated with a 32% increased risk for prostate cancer; environmental chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), heavy metals, and other toxic chemicals may affect the quality of fish or fish oil and also contribute to prostate cancer (Mullins and Loeb 2012).

Table 1.8Omega-3 content of fish and seafood (g/100 g)

Fish

Total ω-3

EPA

DPA

DHA

Farmed

Salmon, Atlantic

2.359

0.862

0.393

1.104

Trout, rainbow

0.824

0.217

0.091

0.516

Catfish, channel

0.089

0.017

0.015

0.057

Wild

Herring, Pacific

1.830

0.969

0.172

0.689

Salmon, Atlantic

1.723

0.321

0.287

1.115

Herring, Atlantic

1.626

0.709

0.055

0.862

Sardine, Pacific, canned in tomato sauce

1.457

0.532

0.061

0.864

Whitefish, mixed species

1.421

0.317

0.163

0.941

Mackerel, canned

1.334

0.434

0.104

0.796

Salmon, pink, canned

1.166

0.334

0.089

0.743

Sardine, Atlantic, canned in oil

0.982

0.473

0.000

0.509

Tuna, white (Albacore), canned in water

0.880

0.233

0.018

0.629

Bass, striped

0.754

0.169

0.000

0.585

Mollusks, oyster, Pacific

0.708

0.438

0.020

0.250

Trout, rainbow

0.693

0.167

0.106

0.420

Sea bass, mixed species

0.671

0.161

0.076

0.434

Salmon, Chinook, smoked (lox), regular

0.523

0.183

0.073

0.267

Catfish, channel

0.464

0.130

0.100

0.234

Mollusks, mussel, blue

0.463

0.188

0.022

0.253

Cisco

0.405

0.095

0.053

0.257

Pike, walleye

0.349

0.086

0.038

0.225

Crustaceans, crab, blue

0.320

0.170

0.000

0.150

Croaker, Atlantic

0.306

0.123

0.086

0.097

Flatfish (Flounder/Sole)

0.273

0.137

0.028

0.108

Crustaceans, crab, Dungeness

0.237

0.219

0.010

0.008

Tuna, light, canned in water

0.228

0.028

0.004

0.196

Halibut, Atlantic and Pacific

0.210

0.066

0.016

0.128

Cod, Atlantic

0.194

0.064

0.010

0.120

Crustaceans, lobster, northern

0.176

0.102

0.006

0.068

Pollock, Alaska

0.169

0.049

0.004

0.116

Tilapia

0.134

0.005

0.043

0.086

Haddock

0.136

0.042

0.005

0.089

Cod, Pacific

0.134

0.034

0.004

0.096

Mollusks, clams, mixed species

0.114

0.043

0.007

0.064

Mollusks, scallop, mixed species

0.106

0.042

0.003

0.061

Crustaceans, shrimp, mixed species

0.064

0.030

0.003

0.031

Source: Raatz et al. 2013. Reproduced under a Creative Commons License; http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Other natural sources of PUFAs include human milk and cultivated marine algae. Omega-6 FAs such as GLA are found in plant-based oils such as evening primrose oil, blackcurrant seed oil, and borage seed oil. Other known sources of PUFAs are avocados, peanut butter, many nuts and seeds (e.g., flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, pumpkin seeds), and the oils of canola (rapeseed), corn, olive, flaxseed, sesame, soybean, and sunflower. Table 1.9 shows the ALA content of selected oils, seeds, and nuts, and the amounts needed to obtain the adequate daily intake levels for men and women.

Table 1.9 α-Linolenic acid (ALA) content of selected oils, seeds, and nuts and the amounts needed to obtain recommended adequate daily intake (RDI)

Source of ALA

ALA (g/tbsp)

Amount needed by men to meet RDI of 1.6 g ALA/d (tbsp)

Amount needed by women to meet RDI of 1.1 g ALA/d (tbsp)

Pumpkin seeds

0.051

31.4

21.6

Olive oil

0.103

15.5

10.7

Walnuts, black

0.156

10.3

7.05

Soybean oil

1.231

1.3

0.89

Rapeseed oil

1.302

1.2

0.84

Walnut oil

1.414

1.1

0.78

Flaxseeds

2.350

0.68

0.47

Walnuts, English

2.574

0.62

0.43

Flaxseed oil

7.249

0.22

0.15

Source: Gebauer et al. 2006. Reproduced with permission of American Society for Nutrition.

Several physiological processes affected by PUFAs may account for their perceived benefits (Simopoulos 2002a; Furuhjelm et al. 2009; Janczyk et al. 2013; Roncaglioni et al. 2013). For instance, some beneficial effects on cellular physiology have been attributed to the presence of long-chain ω-3 PUFAs in cardiac and brain membrane phospholipids (especially DHA). PUFAs also serve as precursors for prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and eicosanoids such as resolvins and protectins, which are known for their anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activities. Other beneficial effects of long-chain PUFAs include lowering plasma triglyceride concentration, improving plasma lipoprotein profile, supporting fetal brain and eye development, cognitive health and maintenance, better performance or preservation of cognitive function in aging persons, improved cardiovascular health, and reduced risk of metabolic-syndrome-related conditions such as obesity and insulin resistance syndrome. Dietary supplementation with long-chain ω-3 PUFAs during pregnancy and in early stages of life may play a critical role in reducing allergic sensitization in children (Furuhjelm et al. 2009; Kremmyda et al. 2011; Noakes et al. 2012; van den Elsen et al. 2013). The role of PUFAs in promotion of the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines and autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and certain cancers has been described (Simopoulos 2002b).

Dietary intake of fish is the most desirable way to increase marine ω-3 PUFA intake, owing to the higher amount of long-chain ω-3 PUFAs in circulation and tissue stores after fish intake compared to fish oil supplements. This suggests a larger uptake from fish than from fish oil supplements, which may be due to differences in physiochemical structure of the lipids and better digestion and absorption of the former. Based on these perceived benefits, various professional groups and health organizations worldwide have made dietary recommendations for EPA and DHA and fish intake to primarily lower triglyceride, and to reduce risk of and treat existing CVD (Gebauer et al. 2006; Lucas et al. 2009). Recommendations also have been made for DHA intake for pregnant women and infants (Table 1.10). Table 1.11 shows the PUFA content of some commonly eaten fish and shellfish in the United States.

Table 1.10Recommendations for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake

Organization

Year

Recommendations

UK Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy

1994

100–200 mg/d EPA and DHA

Eurodiet

2000

200 mg/d

Apports Nutritionnels Conseillés (France)

2001

450 mg/d (DHA, 110–120)

Health Council of the Netherlands

2001

200 mg/d

American Heart Association/American Heart Association Nutrition Committee (United States)

2002, 2006

Two servings of fatty fish per week for general health (∼430–570 mg/d)

1,000 mg/d of ω-3 EPA and DHA for patients with CHD

2,000–4,000 mg/d of ω-3 EPA/DHA for patients with high triglycerides

Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies of Science

2002

130–270 mg/d (EPA and DHA can contribute up to 10% of total ω-3 intake and, therefore, up to this percentage can contribute toward the adequate intake of α-LA (1.3–2.7 g/d)

European Society of Cardiology

2003

1,000 mg/d of ω-3 EPA/DHA for patients with CHD

WHO/FAO

2003

400–1,000 (1–2 fish meals/week)

International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids Workshop

2004

≥500 mg/d

UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition

2004

Minimum two fish meals/week (one fatty fish) ∼450 mg

National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia)

2005

430 mg/d EPA, DHA, DPA for women

610 mg/d EPA, DHA, DPA for men

Dietitians of Canada

2007

Two fish meals/week (fatty fish), 8 oz cooked fish ∼500 mg

European Food Safety Authority

2010

250 mg/d EPA and DHA for adults

250 EPA and DHA mg/d plus 100–200 mg DHA for pregnant/lactating women

Source: Gebauer et al. 2006. Reproduced with permission of American Society for Nutrition.

Table 1.11Total eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (and amount needed to get 500 mg), and mercury content cost of commonly eaten fish and shellfish in the United States

Fish

EPA + DHA (mg/serving)

Amount needed to get 500 mg EPA + DHA/d (serving)

Amount needed to get 500 mg EPA + DHA/d (serving/week)

Mean Mercury Concentration (ppm)

Cod

134

307

25.9

0.11

Catfish

151

3.3

23.1

0.05

Haddock

203

2.5

17.5

0.03

Clams

241

2.1

14.7

ND

Shrimp

267

1.9

13.3

ND

Flounder

426

1.2

804

0.05

Pollock

460

1.1

7.7

0.06

Flatfish

498

1

7

0.05

Tuna, canned

733

0.68

4.8

0.12 (light); 0.35 (Albacore)

Salmon

1825

0.27

1.9

0.01

Source: Gebauer et al. 2006. Reproduced with permission of American Society for Nutrition.

EPA and DHA were recently approved for three heart health claims by the EU/ESFA (EFSA 2012; Eur-Lex 2013). The permitted health claims state that “DHA contributes to the maintenance of normal blood triglyceride levels,” “DHA and EPA contribute to the maintenance of normal blood pressure,” and “DHA and EPA contribute to the maintenance of normal blood triglyceride levels.” The main difference between the second and the third claims is a daily intake of 3 g of DHA–EPA in the former and 2 g in the latter. The claim may be used only for food that provides a daily intake of 2 g of DHA in combination with EPA, and also should inform consumers not to exceed a supplemental daily intake of 5 g of EPA and DHA combined per day. All three claims must contain these conditions.

Whereas the overwhelming conclusion is that of a plausible association of long-chain PUFA intake and several health benefits, there are some inconsistencies in reported literature. Previous and recent studies using various analytical assessments, including prospective or retrospective cohort studies, nested case-control, case-cohort assessment, and randomized controlled trials of the perceived effects of PUFAs, have been mixed (Tan et al. 2012; Ammann et al. 2013; Brasky et al. 2013; Galet et al. 2013; Janczyk et al. 2013; Roncaglioni et al. 2013; Zheng et al. 2013). A recent study involving 834 men found increased prostate cancer risk among men with high blood concentrations of long-chain ω-3 PUFAs (Brasky et al. 2013). However, previous studies reported the opposite. For instance, in a study involving 6,272 Swedish men who were followed for 30 years, an association between fish consumption and decreased risk of prostate cancer was reported (Terry et al. 2001). Men who ate no fish had a twofold to threefold increase in the risk of developing prostate cancer compared with those who consumed moderate to large amounts of fish in their diet. Similar studies with American men also suggested the association of ω-3 FAs from fish intakes with lower risk of prostate cancer. In another study carried out by the Harvard School of Public Health for over 12 years involving 47,882 men, eating fish more than three times a week reduced the risk of prostate cancer. The study also showed the greater impact of the consumption of these fats on the risk of metastatic prostate cancer. For instance, for each additional 500 mg of marine fat consumed, the risk of metastatic disease decreased by 24% (Augustsson et al. 2003). A recent report on a follow-up study supported the previous findings that daily fish oil supplementation in conjunction with a low-fat diet slows the growth of cancer cells in men with prostate cancer (i.e., lower amounts of pro-inflammatory substances in their blood and a lower cell cycle progression score, a measure that correlates prostate cancer aggression and likelihood of recurrence) (Galet et al. 2013). In another study involving 1,575 older people (average age 67 years) who were free of dementia, Tan et al. (2012) reported an association between lower red blood cells, DHA levels, and smaller brain volumes, and a vascular pattern of cognitive impairment even in persons free of clinical dementia. However, recent studies involving women aged 65 years and older did not find any difference in memory and thinking test scores based on levels of ω-3 FAs in the blood (Ammann et al. 2013).

Other studies have investigated the role of dietary ω-3 PUFAs in health. In a large general-practice cohort of 12,513 patients with multiple cardiovascular risk factors but no history of myocardial infarction, daily treatment with ω-3 FAs did not reduce cardiovascular mortality and morbidity (Roncaglioni et al. 2013). In a study involving 76 patients, aged 5–19 years, long-chain ω-3 PUFAs were found to improve the lipid profile by lowering triglycerides and decreasing insulin resistance and cytokine synthesis, thereby tackling the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) (Janczyk et al. 2013). In a meta-analysis involving 883,585 women, the intake of marine ω-3 PUFAs were inversely associated with risk of breast cancer. Women with the highest intake of marine-sourced ω-3 PUFAs were found to have a 14% reduction in their risk of developing breast cancer compared with women with the lowest intake (Zheng et al. 2013).

CLAs have also been a focus of several studies due to their potential health benefits (Hasler 2002; Schmid et al. 2006; Kelley et al. 2007; Larsson et al. 2009; Gebauer et al. 2011). CLA is a collective term for a group of octadecadienoic acids that are geometric-, positional-, and stereo-isomers of LA with a conjugated double bond. Dietary sources of CLA are predominant in ruminant-derived foods such as meat and milk and their products due to the action of rumen microorganisms in PUFA bio-hydrogenation and/or isomerization. Cheese, beef, yogurt, and milk, respectively, contain ∼3.6, 4.3, 4.4, and 5.5 mg of CLA per gram of fat (Table 1.12). The concentration of CLA also varies substantially among raw meat of commonly consumed animals (Table 1.13). CLA contents in these sources were not negatively altered with cooking and storing (Schmid et al. 2006).

Table 1.12Amounts of total FAs and conjugated linoleic acid in commonly consumed ruminant products

Food

Total fat (g/100 g)

TFA(g/100 g)

TFA(% total fat)

TFA(g/serving)

CLA (mg/g fat)

Dairy products

Cheese, cheddar (28 g, 1 oz)

36.4

0.87

2.39

0.24

3.6 (93)

Milk, whole (244 g, 1 cup)

3.10

0.09

2.90

0.21

5.5 (92)

Yogurt, plain, low-fat (255 g, 1 cup)

1.16

0.03

2.59

0.06

4.4 (86)

Meat

Meat, beef, ground, 20.8% fat, raw (115 g, 4 oz)

21

0.79

3.76

0.91

4.3 (85)

Meat, beef, ground, 22.1% fat, raw (115 g, 4 oz)

22.1

0.93

4.21

1.07

4.3 (85)

Source: Gebauer et al. 2011. Reproduced with permission of American Society for Nutrition.

Table 1.13