Malayan exorcist with fowl in his mouth.This book deals mainly with some aspects of what may be
termed the psychical life of the inhabitants of the Madras
Presidency, and the Native States of Travancore and Cochin. In my
“Ethnographic Notes in Southern India”, I stated that the confused
chapter devoted to omens, animal superstitions, evil eye, charms,
sorcery, etc., was a mere outline sketch of a group of subjects,
which, if worked up, would furnish material for a volume. This
chapter has now been remodelled, and supplemented by notes
collected since its publication, and information which lies buried
in the seven bulky volumes of my encyclopædic “Castes and Tribes of
Southern India”. The area dealt with (roughly, 182,000 square
miles, with a population of 47,800,000) is so vast that I have had
perforce to supplement the personal knowledge acquired in the
course of wandering expeditions in various parts of Southern India,
and in other ways, by recourse to the considerable mass of
information, which is hidden away in official reports, gazetteers,
journals of societies, books, etc.To the many friends and correspondents, European and Indian,
who have helped me in the accumulation of facts, and those whose
writings I have made liberal use of, I would once more express
collectively, and with all sincerity, my great sense of
indebtedness. My thanks are due to Mr L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer
for supplying me with the illustrations of Malabar
yantrams.
I
OmensIn seeking for omens, Natives consult the so-called science
of omens or science of the five birds, and are guided by them.
Selected omens are always included in native calendars or
panchāngams.To the quivering and throbbing of various parts of the body
as omens, repeated reference is made in the Hindu classics. Thus,
in Kalidāsa’s Sakuntala, King Dushyanta says: “This hermitage is
tranquil, and yet my arm throbs. Whence can there be any result
from this in such a place? But yet the gates of destiny are
everywhere.” Again, Sakuntala says: “Alas! why does my right eye
throb?” to which Gautami replies: “Child, the evil be averted. May
the tutelary deities of your husband’s family confer happy
prospects!” In the Raghuvamsa, the statement occurs that “the son
of Paulastya, being greatly incensed, drove an arrow deep into his
right arm, which was throbbing, and which, therefore,
prognosticated his union with Sīta.” A quivering sensation in the
right arm is supposed to indicate marriage with a beautiful woman;
in the right eye some good luck.During a marriage among the Telugu Tottiyans, who have
settled in the Tamil country, a red ram without blemish is
sacrificed. It is first sprinkled with water, and, if it shivers,
this is considered a good omen. It is
recorded,1in connection with the legends
of the Badagas of the Nīlgiris, that “in the heart of the Banagudi
shola (grove), not far from the Doddūru group of cromlechs, is an
odd little shrine to Karairāya, within which are a tiny cromlech,
some sacred water-worn stones, and sundry little pottery images
representing a tiger, a mounted man, and some dogs. These keep in
memory, it is said, a Badaga who was slain in combat with a tiger;
and annually a festival is held, at which new images are placed
there, and vows are paid. A Kurumba (jungle tribe) makes fire by
friction, and burns incense, throws sanctified water over the
numerous goats brought to be sacrificed, to see if they will shiver
in the manner always held necessary in sacrificed victims, and then
slays, one after the other, those which have shown themselves duly
qualified.”In many villages, during the festival to the village deity,
water is poured over a sheep’s back, and it is accepted as a good
sign if it shivers. “When the people are economical, they keep on
pouring water till it does shiver, to avoid the expense of
providing a second victim for sacrifice. But, where they are more
scrupulous, if it does not shiver, it is taken as a sign that the
goddess will not accept it, and it is taken
away.”2Before the thieving Koravas set out on a predatory
expedition, a goat is decorated, and taken to a shrine. It is then
placed before the idol, which is asked whether the expedition will
be successful. If the body of the animal quivers, it is regarded as
an answer in the affirmative; if it does not, the expedition is
abandoned.If, in addition to quivering, the animal urinates, no better
sign could be looked for. Thieves though they are, the Koravas make
it a point of honour to pay for the goat used in the ceremony. It
is said that, in seeking omens from the quivering of an animal, a
very liberal interpretation is put on the slightest movement. It is
recorded by Bishop Whitehead3that, when
an animal has been sacrificed to the goddess Nukalamma at Coconada,
its head is put before the shrine, and water poured on it. If the
mouth opens, it is accepted as a sign that the sacrifice is
accepted.At the death ceremonies of the Idaiyans of Coimbatore, a cock
is tied to a sacrificial post, to which rice is offered. One end of
a thread is tied to the post, and the other end to a new cloth. The
thread is watched till it shakes, and then broken. The cock is then
killed.Of omens, both good and bad, in Malabar, the following
comprehensive list is given by Mr
Logan4:—
“Good.—Crows, pigeons, etc., and beasts as deer, etc., moving
from left to right, and dogs and jackals moving inversely, and
other beasts found similarly and singly; wild crow, ruddy goose,
mungoose, goat, and peacock seen singly or in couples either at the
right or left. A rainbow seen on the right and left, or behind,
prognosticates good, but the reverse if seen in front. Buttermilk,
raw rice, puttalpira (Trichosanthes anguina, snake-gourd), priyangu
flower, honey, ghī (clarified butter); red cotton juice, antimony
sulphurate, metal mug, bell ringing, lamp, lotus, karuka grass, raw
fish, flesh, flour, ripe fruits, sweetmeats, gems, sandalwood,
elephants, pots filled with water, a virgin, a couple of Brāhmans,
Rājas, respectable men, white flower, white yak
tail,5white cloth, and white horse. Chank
shell (Turbinella rapa), flagstaff, turban, triumphal arch,
fruitful soil, burning fire, elegant eatables or drinkables, carts
with men in, cows with their young, mares, bulls or cows with ropes
tied to their necks, palanquin, swans, peacock and crane warbling
sweetly. Bracelets, looking-glass, mustard, bezoar, any substance
of white colour, the bellowing of oxen, auspicious words,
harmonious human voice, such sounds made by birds or beasts, the
uplifting of umbrellas, hailing exclamations, sound of harp, flute,
timbrel, tabor, and other instruments of music, sounds of hymns of
consecration and Vēdic recitations, gentle breeze all round at the
time of a journey.
“Bad.—Men deprived of their limbs, lame or blind, a corpse or
wearer of a cloth put on a corpse, coir (cocoanut fibre), broken
vessels, hearing of words expressive of breaking, burning,
destroying, etc.; the alarming cry of alas! alas! loud screams,
cursing, trembling, sneezing, the sight of a man in sorrow, one
with a stick, a barber, a widow, pepper, and other pungent
substances. A snake, cat, iguana (Varanus), blood-sucker (lizard),
or monkey passing across the road, vociferous beasts such as
jackals, dogs, and kites, loud crying from the east, buffalo,
donkey, or temple bull, black grains, salt, liquor, hide, grass,
dirt, faggots, iron, flowers used for funeral ceremonies, a eunuch,
ruffian, outcaste, vomit, excrement, stench, any horrible figure,
bamboo, cotton, lead, cot, stool or other vehicle carried with legs
upward, dishes, cups, etc., with mouth downwards, vessels filled
with live coals, which are broken and not burning, broomstick,
ashes, winnow, hatchet.”In the category of good omens among the Nāyars of Travancore,
are placed the elephant, a pot full of water, sweetmeats, fruit,
fish, and flesh, images of gods, kings, a cow with its calf,
married women, tied bullocks, gold lamps, ghī, and milk. In the
list of bad omens come a donkey, broom, buffalo, untied bullock,
barber, widow, patient, cat, washerman. The worst of all omens is
to allow a cat to cross one’s path. An odd number of Nāyars, and an
even number of Brāhmans, are good omens, the reverse being
particularly bad. On the Vinayakachaturthi day in the month of
Avani, no man is allowed to look at the rising moon, on penalty of
incurring unmerited obloquy.By the Pulayas of Travancore, it is considered lucky to see
another Pulaya, a Native Christian, an Izhuva with a vessel in the
hand, a cow behind, or a boat containing sacks of rice. On the
other hand, it is regarded as a very bad omen to be crossed by a
cat, to see a fight between animals, a person with a bundle of
clothes, or to meet people carrying steel instruments.It is a good omen for the day if, when he gets up in the
morning, a man sees any of the following:—his wife’s face, the
lines on the palm of his right hand, his face in a mirror, the face
of a rich man, the tail of a black cow, the face of a black monkey,
or his rice fields. There is a legend that Sīta used to rise early,
and present herself, bathed and well dressed, before her lord Rāma,
so that he might gaze on her face, and be lucky during the day.
This custom is carried out by all good housewives in Hindu
families. A fair skinned Paraiyan, or a dark skinned Brāhman,
should not, in accordance with a proverb, be seen the first thing
in the morning.Hindus are very particular about catching sight of some
auspicious object on the morning of New Year’s Day, as the effects
of omens seen on that occasion are believed to last throughout the
year. Of the Vishu festival, held in celebration of the New Year in
Malabar, the following account is given by Mr Gopal
Panikkar.6
“Being the commencement of a new year, native superstition
surrounds it with a peculiarly solemn importance. It is believed
that a man’s whole prosperity in life depends upon the nature,
auspicious or otherwise, of the first things that he happens to fix
his eyes upon on this particular morning. According to Nair, and
even general Hindu mythology, there are certain objects which
possess an inherent inauspicious character. For instance, ashes,
firewood, oil, and a lot of similar objects, are inauspicious ones,
which will render him who chances to notice them first fare badly
in life for the whole year, and their obnoxious effects will be
removed only on his seeing holy things, such as reigning princes,
oxen, cows, gold, and such like, on the morning of the next new
year. The effects of the sight of these various materials are said
to apply even to the attainment of objects by a man starting on a
special errand, who happens for the first time to look at them
after starting. However, with this view, almost every family
religiously takes care to prepare the most sightworthy objects on
the new year morning. Therefore, on the previous night, they
prepare what is known as a kani. A small circular bell-metal vessel
is taken, and some holy objects are arranged inside it. A grandha
or old book made of palmyra leaves, a gold ornament, a new-washed
cloth, some ‘unprofitably gay’ flowers of the konna tree (Cassia
Fistula), a measure of rice, a so-called looking-glass made of
bell-metal, and a few other things, are all tastefully arranged in
the vessel, and placed in a prominent room inside the house. On
either side of this vessel, two brass or bell-metal lamps, filled
with cocoanut oil clear as diamond sparks, are kept burning, and a
small plank of wood, or some other seat, is placed in front of it.
At about five o’clock in the morning of the day, some one who has
got up first wakes the inmates, both male and female, of the house,
and takes them blindfolded, so that they may not gaze at anything
else, to the seat near the kani. The members are seated, one after
another, in the seat, and are then, and not till then, asked to
open their eyes, and carefully look at the kani. Then each is made
to look at some venerable member of the house, or sometimes a
stranger even. This over, the little playful urchins of the house
fire small crackers which they have bought for the occasion. The
kani is then taken round the place from house to house, for the
benefit of the poor families, which cannot afford to prepare such a
costly adornment.”I gather further, in connection with the Vishu festival, that
it is the duty of every devout Hindu to see the village deity the
first of all things in the morning. For this purpose, many sleep
within the temple precincts, and those who sleep in their own
houses are escorted thither by those who have been the first to
make their obeisance. Many go to see the image with their eyes
shut, and sometimes bound with a cloth.7If a person places the head towards the east when sleeping,
he will obtain wealth and health; if towards the south, a
lengthening of life; if towards the west, fame; if towards the
north, sickness. The last position, therefore, should be
avoided.8In the Telugu country, when a
child is roused from sleep by a thunderclap, the mother, pressing
it to her breast, murmurs, “Arjuna Sahādēva.” The invocation
implies the idea that thunder is caused by the Mahābhārata heroes,
Arjuna and Sahādēva.9To dream of a temple
car in motion, foretells the death of a near relative. Night, but
not day dreams, are considered as omens for good or evil. Among
those which are auspicious, may be mentioned riding on a cow, bull,
or elephant, entering a temple or palace, a golden horse, climbing
a mountain or tree, drinking liquor, eating flesh, curds and rice,
wearing white cloths, or jewelry set with precious stones, being
dressed in white cloths, and embracing a woman, whose body is
smeared with sandal paste. A person will be cured of sickness if he
dreams of Braāhmans, kings, flowers, jewels, women, or a
looking-glass. Wealth is ensured by a dream that one is bitten in
the shade by a snake, or stung by a scorpion. One who dreams that
he has been bitten by a snake is considered to be proof against
snake-bite; and if he dreams of a cobra, his wife or some near
relative is believed to have conceived. Hindu wives believe that to
tell their husband’s name, or pronounce it even in a dream, would
bring him to an untimely end. If a person has an auspicious dream,
he should get up and not go to sleep again. But, if the dream is of
evil omen, he should pray that he may be spared from its ill
effects, and may go to sleep again.The arrival of a guest is foreshadowed by the hissing noise
of the oven, the slipping of a winnow during winnowing, or of a
measure when measuring rice. If one dines with a friend or relation
on Monday, Wednesday, Friday, or Saturday, it is well; if on a
Tuesday, ill-feeling will ensue; if on a Thursday, endless enmity;
if on a Sunday, hatred. While eating, one should face east, west,
south, or north, according as one wishes for long life, fame, to
become vainglorious, or for justice or truth. Evil is foreshadowed
if a light goes out during meals, or while some auspicious thing,
such, for example, as a marriage, is being discussed. A feast given
to the jungle Paliyans by some missionaries was marred at the
outset by the unfortunate circumstance that betel and tobacco were
placed by the side of the food, these articles being of evil omen
as they are placed in the grave with the dead. Chewing a single
areca nut, along with betel leaf secures vigour, two nuts are
inauspicious, three are excellent, and more bring indifferent luck.
The basal portion of the betel leaf must be rejected, as it
produces disease; the apical part, as it induces sin; and the
midrib and veins, as they destroy the intellect. A leaf on which
chunam (lime) has been kept, should be avoided, as it may shorten
life.Before the Koyis shift their quarters, they consult the
omens, to see whether the change will be auspicious or not.
Sometimes the hatching of a clutch of eggs provides the answer, or
four grains of four kinds of seed, representing the prosperity of
men, cattle, sheep, and land, are put on a heap of ashes under a
man’s bed. Any movement among them during the night is a bad
omen.10When a Kondh starts on a shooting expedition, if he first
meets an adult female, married or unmarried, he will return home,
and ask a child to tell the females to keep out of the way. He will
then make a fresh start, and, if he meets a female, will wave his
hand to her as a sign that she must keep clear of him. The Kondh
believes that, if he sees a female, he will not come across animals
in the jungle to shoot. If a woman is in her menses, her husband,
brothers, and sons living under the same roof, will not go out
shooting for the same reason.It is noted by Mr F. Fawcett11that
it is considered unlucky by the Koravas, when starting on a dacoity
or housebreaking, “to see widows, pots of milk, dogs urinating, a
man leading a bull, or a bull bellowing. On the other hand, it is
downright lucky when a bull bellows at the scene of the criminal
operation. To see a man goading a bull is a good omen when
starting, and a bad one at the scene. The eighteenth day of the
Tamil month, Avani, is the luckiest day of all for committing
crimes. A successful criminal exploit on this day ensures good luck
throughout the year. Sundays, which are auspicious for weddings,
are inauspicious for crimes. Mondays, Wednesdays, and Saturdays are
unlucky until noon for starting out from home. So, too, is the day
after new moon.” Fridays are unsuitable for breaking into the
houses of Brāhmans or Kōmatis, as they may be engaged in
worshipping Ankalamma, to whom the day is sacred.Some Bōyas in the Bellary district enjoy inām (rent free)
lands, in return for propitiating the village goddesses by a rite
called bhūta bali, which is intended to secure the prosperity of
the village. The Bōya priest gets himself shaved at about midnight,
sacrifices a sheep or buffalo, mixes its blood with rice, and
distributes the rice thus prepared in small balls throughout the
village. When he starts on this business, all the villagers bolt
their doors, as it is not considered auspicious to see him
then.When a student starts for the examination hall, he will, if
he sees a widow or a Brāhman, retrace his steps, and start again
after the lapse of a few minutes. Meeting two Brāhmans would
indicate good luck, and he would proceed on his way full of
hope.If, when a person is leaving his house, the head or feet
strike accidentally against the threshold, he should not go out, as
it forebodes some impending mischief. Sometimes, when a person
returns home from a distance, especially at night, he is kept
standing at the door, and, after he has washed his hands and feet,
an elderly female or servant of the house brings a shallow plate
full of water mixed with lime juice and chunam (lime), with some
chillies and pieces of charcoal floating on it. The plate is
carried three times round the person, and the contents are then
thrown into the street without being seen by the man. He then
enters the house. If a person knocks at the door of a house in the
night once, twice, or thrice, it will not be opened. If the knock
is repeated a fourth time, the door will be opened without fear,
for the evil spirit is said to knock only thrice.A tickling sensation in the sole of the right foot foretells
that the person has to go on a journey. The omens are favourable if
any of the following are met with by one who is starting on a
journey, or special errand:—Married woman.Virgin.Prostitute.Two Brāhmans.Playing of music.One carrying musical instruments.Money.Fruit or flowers.A light, or clear blazing fire.Umbrella.Cooked food.Milk or curds.Cow.Deer.Corpse.Two fishes.Recital of Vēdas.Sound of drum or horn.Spirituous liquor.Bullock.Mutton.Precious stones.One bearing a silver armlet.Sandalwood.Rice.Elephant.Horse.Pot full of water.Married woman carrying a water-pot from a tank.Pot of toddy.Black monkey.Dog.Royal eagle.Parrot.Honey.Hearing kind words.A Gāzula Balija with his pile of bangles on his
back.If, on similar occasions, a person comes across any of the
following, the omens are unfavourable:—Widow.Lightning.Fuel.Smoky fire.Hare.Crow flying from right to left.Snake.New pot.Blind man.Lame man.Sick man.Salt.Tiger.Pot of oil.Leather.Dog barking on a housetop.Bundle of sticks.Buttermilk.Empty vessel.A quarrel.Man with dishevelled hair.Oilman.Leper.Mendicant.Sometimes people leave their house, and sleep elsewhere on
the night preceding an inauspicious day, on which a journey is to
be made. Unlucky days for starting on a journey are vāra-sūlai, or
days on which Siva’s trident (sūla) is kept on the ground. The
direction in which it lies, varies according to the day of the
week. For example, Sunday before noon is a bad time to start
towards the west, as the trident is turned that way. It is said to
be unlucky to go westward on Friday or Sunday, eastward on Monday
or Saturday, north on Tuesday or Wednesday, south on Thursday. A
journey begun on Tuesday is liable to result in loss by thieves or
fire at home. Loss, too, is likely to follow a journey begun on
Saturday, and sickness a start on Sunday. Wednesday and Friday are
both propitious days, and a journey begun on either with a view to
business will be lucrative. The worst days for travelling are
Tuesday, Saturday, and Sunday.12On more
than one occasion, a subordinate in my office overstayed his leave
on the ground that his guru (spiritual preceptor) told him that the
day on which he should have returned was an unlucky one for a
journey.If a traveller sees a hare on his way, he may be sure that he
will not succeed in the object of his journey. If, however, the
hare touches him, and he does not at once turn back and go home, he
is certain to meet with a great misfortune. There is an authority
for this superstition in the Rāmayana. After Rāma had recovered
Sīta and returned to Ayodha, he was informed that, whilst a
washerman and his wife were quarrelling, the former had exclaimed
that he was not such a fool as the king had been to take back his
wife after she had been carried away by a stranger. Rāma thought
this over, and resolved to send his wife into the forest. His
brother, Lutchmana, was to drive her there, and then to leave her
alone. On their way they met a hare, and Sīta, who was ignorant of
the purpose of the journey, begged Lutchmana to return, as the omen
was a bad one.13If a dog scratches its body, a traveller will fall ill; if it
lies down and wags its tail, some disaster will follow. To one
proceeding on a journey, a dog crossing the path from right to left
is auspicious. But, if it gets on his person or his feet, shaking
its ears, the journey will be unlucky.A person should postpone an errand on which he is starting,
if he sees a cobra or rat-snake. In a recent judicial case, a
witness gave evidence to the effect that he was starting on a
journey, and when he had proceeded a short way, a snake crossed the
road. This being an evil omen, he went back and put off his journey
till the following day. On his way he passed through a village in
which some men had been arrested for murder, and found that one of
two men, whom he had promised to accompany and had gone on without
him, had been murdered.Sneezing once is a good sign; twice, a bad sign. When a child
sneezes, those near it usually say “dirgāyus” (long life), or
“sathāyus” (a hundred years). The rishi or sage Markandēya, who was
remarkable for his austerities and great age, is also known as
Dirgāyus. Adults who sneeze pronounce the name of some god, the
common expression being “Srimadrangam.” When a Badaga baby is born,
it is a good omen if the father sneezes before the umbilical cord
has been cut, and an evil one if he sneezes after its severance. In
the Teluga country it is believed that a child who sneezes on a
winnowing fan, or on the door-frame, will meet with misfortune
unless balls of boiled rice are thrown over it; and a man who
sneezes during his meal, especially at night, will also be unlucky
unless water is sprinkled over his face, and he is made to
pronounce his own name, and that of his birthplace and his patron
deity.14Gaping is an indication that evil spirits have effected an
entrance into the body. Hence many Brāhmans, when they gape, snap
their fingers as a preventive.15When a
great man yawns, his sleep is promoted by all the company with him
snapping their fingers with great vehemence, and making a singular
noise. It was noted by Alberuni16that
Hindus “spit out and blow their noses without any respect for the
elder ones present, and crack their lice before them. They consider
the crepitus ventris as a good omen, sneezing as a bad omen.” In
Travancore, a courtier must cover the mouth with the right hand,
lest his breath should pollute the king or other superior. Also, at
the temples, a low-caste man must wear a bandage over his nose and
mouth, so that his breath may not pollute the
idols.17A Kudumi woman in Travancore, at
the menstrual period, should stand at a distance of seven feet,
closing her mouth and nostrils with the palm of her hand, as her
breath would have a contaminating effect. Her shadow, too, should
not fall on any one.A Kumbāra potter, when engaged in the manufacture of the pot
or household deity for the Kurubas, should cover his mouth with a
bandage, so that his breath may not defile it. The Koragas of South
Canara are said to be regarded with such intense loathing that, up
to quite recent times, one section of them called Ande or pot
Kurubas, continually wore a pot suspended from their necks, into
which they were compelled to spit, being so utterly unclean as to
be prohibited from even spitting on the
highway.18In a note on the Paraiyans
(Pariahs), Sonnerat, writing in the eighteenth
century,19says that, when drinking, they
put the cup to their lips, and their fingers to their mouths, in
such a way that they are defiled with the spittle. A Brāhman may
take snuff, but he should not smoke a cheroot or cigar. When once
the cheroot has touched his lips, it is defiled by the saliva, and,
therefore, cannot be returned to his
mouth.20At the festivals of the village deities in the Telugu
country, an unmarried Mādiga (Telugu Pariah) woman, called
Mātangi21(the name of a favourite
goddess) spits upon the people assembled, and touches them with her
stick. Her touch and saliva are believed to purge all uncleanliness
of body and soul, and are said to be invited by men who would
ordinarily scorn to approach her. At a festival called Kathiru in
honour of a village goddess in the Cochin State, the Pulayans
(agrestic slaves) go in procession to the temple, and scatter
packets of palm-leaves containing handfuls of paddy (unhusked rice)
rolled up in straw among the crowds of spectators along the route.
“The spectators, both young and old, scramble to obtain as many of
the packets as possible, and carry them home. They are then hung in
front of the houses, for it is believed that their presence will
help to promote the prosperity of the family, until the festival
comes round again next year. The greater the number of trophies
obtained for a family by its members, the greater, it is believed,
will be the prosperity of the family.”22In a note on the Kulwādis or Chalavādis of the Hassan
district in Mysore, Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie
writes23as follows:—
“Every village has its Holigiri—as the quarters inhabited by
the Holiars (formerly agrestic serfs) is called—outside the village
boundary hedge. This, I thought, was because they are considered an
impure race, whose touch carries defilement with it. Such is the
reason generally given by the Brāhman, who refuses to receive
anything directly from the hands of a Holiar, and yet the Brāhmans
consider great luck will wait upon them if they can manage to pass
through the Holigiri without being molested. To this the Holiars
have a strong objection, and, should a Brāhman attempt to enter
their quarters, they turn out in a body and slipper him, in former
times it is said to death. Members of the other castes may come as
far as the door, but they must not enter the house, for that would
bring the Holiar bad luck. If, by chance, a person happens to get
in, the owner takes care to tear the intruder’s cloth, tie up some
salt in one corner of it, and turn him out. This is supposed to
neutralise all the good luck which might have accrued to the
trespasser, and avert any evil which might have befallen the owner
of the house.”The Telugu Tottiyans, who have settled in the Tamil country,
are said by Mr F. R. Hemingway not to recognise the superiority of
Brāhmans. They are supposed to possess unholy powers, especially
the Nalla (black) Gollas, and are much dreaded by their neighbours.
They do not allow any stranger to enter their villages with shoes
on, or on horseback, or holding up an umbrella, lest their god
should be offended. It is believed that, if any one breaks this
rule, he will be visited with illness or some other
punishment.I am informed by Mr S. P. Rice that, when smallpox breaks out
in a Hindu house, it is a popular belief that to allow strangers or
unclean persons to go into the house, to observe festivals, and
even to permit persons who have combed their hair, bathed in oil,
or had a shave, to see the patient, would arouse the anger of the
goddess, and bring certain death to the sick person. Strangers, and
young married women are not admitted to, and may not approach the
house, as they may have had sexual intercourse on the previous
day.It is believed that the sight or breath of Muhammadans, just
after they have said their prayers at a mosque, will do good to
children suffering from various disorders. For this purpose, women
carry or take their children, and post themselves at the entrance
to a mosque at the time when worshippers leave it. Most of them are
Hindus, but sometimes poor Eurasians may be seen there. I once
received a pathetic appeal from a Eurasian woman in Malabar,
imploring me to lay my hands on the head of her sick child, so that
its life might be spared.In teaching the Grāndha alphabet to children, they are made
to repeat the letter “ca” twice quickly without pausing, as the
word “ca” means “die.” In Malabar, the instruction of a Tiyan child
in the alphabet is said by Mr F. Fawcett to begin on the last day
of the Dasara festival in the fifth year of its life. A teacher,
who has been selected with care, or a lucky person, holds the
child’s right hand, and makes it trace the letters of the Malayālam
alphabet in rice spread on a plate. The forefinger, which is the
one used in offering water to the souls of the dead, and in other
parts of the death ceremonies, must not be used for tracing the
letters, but is placed above the middle finger, merely to steady
it. For the same reason, a doctor, when making a pill, will not use
the forefinger. To mention the number seven in Telugu is unlucky,
because the word (yēdu) is the same as that for weeping. Even a
treasury officer, who is an enlightened university graduate, in
counting money, will say six and one. The number seven is, for the
same reason, considered unlucky by the Koravas, and a
house-breaking expedition should not consist of seven men. Should
this, however, be unavoidable, a fiction is indulged in of making
the house-breaking implement the eighth member of the
gang.24In Tamil the word ten is
considered inauspicious, because, on the tenth day after the death
of her husband, a widow removes the emblems of married life.
Probably for this reason, the offspring of Kallan polyandrous
marriages style themselves the children of eight and two, not ten
fathers. Lābha is a Sanskrit word meaning profit or gain, and has
its equivalent in all the vernacular languages. Hindus, when
counting, commence with this word instead of the word signifying
one. In like manner, Muhammadans use the word Bismillah or Burketh,
apparently as an invocation like the medicinal ℞ (Oh! Jupiter, aid
us). When the number a hundred has been counted, they again begin
with the substitute for one, and this serves as a one for the
person who is keeping the tally. Oriya merchants say labho (gain)
instead of eko (one), when counting out the seers of rice for the
elephants’ rations. The people of the Oriya Zemindaris often use,
not the year of the Hindu cycle or Muhammadan era, but the year of
the reigning Rāja of Puri. The first year of the reign is called,
not one, but labho. The counting then proceeds in the ordinary
course, but, with the exception of the number ten, all numbers
ending with seven or nothing are omitted. This is called the onko.
Thus, if a Rāja has reigned two and a half years, he would be said
to be in the twenty-fifth onko, seven, seventeen and twenty being
omitted.25For chewing betel, two other
ingredients are necessary, viz., areca nuts and chunam (lime). For
some reason, Tamil Vaishnavas object to mentioning the last by
name, and call it moonavadu, or the third.At a Brāhman funeral, the sons and nephews of the deceased go
round the corpse, and untie their kudumi (hair knot), leaving part
thereof loose, tie up the rest into a small bunch, and slap their
thighs. Consequently, when children at play have their kudumi
partially tied, and slap their thighs, they are invariably scolded
owing to the association with funerals. Among all Hindu classes it
is considered as an insult to the god to bathe or wash the feet on
returning home from worship at a temple, and, by so doing, the
punyam (good) would be lost. Moreover, washing the feet at the
entrance to a home is connected with funerals, inasmuch as, on the
return from the burning-ground, a mourner may not enter the house
until he has washed his feet. The Badagas of the Nīlgiris hold an
agricultural festival called devvē, which should on no account be
pronounced duvvē, which means burning-ground.A bazaar shop-keeper who deals in colours will not sell white
paint after the lamps have been lighted. In like manner, a
cloth-dealer refuses to sell black cloth, and the dealer in
hardware to sell nails, needles, etc., lest poverty should ensue.
Digging operations with a spade should be stopped before the lamps
are lighted. A betel-vine cultivator objects to entering his garden
or plucking a leaf after the lighting of the lamps; but, if some
leaves are urgently required, he will, before plucking them, pour
water from a pot at the foot of the tree on which the vine is
growing.Arrack (liquor) vendors consider it unlucky to set their
measures upside down. Some time ago, the Excise Commissioner
informs me, the Madras Excise Department had some aluminium
measures made for measuring arrack in liquor shops. It was found
that the arrack corroded the aluminium, and the measures soon
leaked. The shop-keepers were told to turn their measures upside
down, in order that they might drain. This they refused to do, as
it would bring bad luck to their shops. New measures with round
bottoms, which would not stand up, were evolved. But the
shop-keepers began to use rings of indiarubber from soda-water
bottles, to make them stand. An endeavour was then made to induce
them to keep their measures inverted by hanging them on pegs, so
that they would drain without being turned upside down. The case
illustrates how important a knowledge of the superstitions of the
people is in the administration of their affairs. Even so trifling
an innovation as the introduction of a new arrangement for
maintaining tension in the warp during the process of weaving gave
rise a few years ago to a strike among the hand-loom weavers at the
Madras School of Arts.When a Paidi (agriculturists and weavers in Ganjam) is
seriously ill, a male or female sorcerer (bejjo or bejjano) is
consulted. A square divided into sixteen compartments is drawn on
the floor with rice flour. In each compartment are placed a
leaf-cup of Butea frondosa, a quarter-anna piece, and some food.
Seven small bows and arrows are set up in front thereof in two
lines. On one side of the square, a big cup filled with food is
placed. A fowl is sacrificed, and its blood poured thrice round
this cup. Then, placing water in a vessel near the cup, the
sorcerer or sorceress throws into it a grain of rice, giving out at
the same time the name of some god or goddess. If the rice sinks,
it is believed that the illness is caused by the anger of the
deity, whose name has been mentioned. If the rice floats, the names
of various deities are called out, until a grain sinks. When
selecting a site for a new dwelling hut, the Māliah Savaras place
on the proposed site as many grains of rice in pairs as there are
married members in the family, and cover them over with a cocoanut
shell. They are examined on the following day, and, if they are all
there, the site is considered auspicious. Among the Kāpu Savaras,
the grains of rice are folded up in leaflets of the bael tree (Ægle
Marmelos), and placed in a split bamboo.It is recorded by Gloyer26that
“when a Dōmb (Vizagapatam hill tribe) house has to be built, the
first thing is to select a favourable spot, to which few evil
spirits (dūmas) resort. At this spot they put, in several places,
three grains of rice arranged in such a way that the two lower
grains support the upper one. To protect the grains, they pile up
stones round them, and the whole is lightly covered with earth.
When, after some time, they find on inspection that the upper grain
has fallen off, the spot is regarded as unlucky, and must not be
used. If the position of the grains remains unchanged, the omen is
regarded as auspicious. They drive in the first post, which must
have a certain length, say of five, seven, or nine ells, the ell
being measured from the tip of the middle finger to the elbow. The
post is covered on the top with rice straw, leaves, and shrubs, so
that birds may not foul it, which would be an evil
omen.”In Madras, a story is current with reference to the statue of
Sir Thomas Munro, that he seized upon all the rice depôts, and
starved the people by selling rice in egg-shells, at one shell for
a rupee. To punish him, the Government erected the statue in an
open place without a canopy, so that the birds of the air might
insult him by polluting his face. In the Bellary district, the
names Munrol and Munrolappa are common, and are given in hope that
the boy may attain the same celebrity as the former Governor of
Madras. (I once came across a Telugu cultivator, who rejoiced in
the name of Curzon). One of Sir Thomas Munro’s good qualities was
that, like Rāma and Rob Roy, his arms reached to his knees, or, in
other words, he possessed the quality of an Ajanubahu, which is the
heritage of kings, or those who have blue blood in
them.In a case of dispute between two
Koravas,27“the decision is sometimes
arrived at by means of an ordeal. An equal quantity of rice is
placed in two pots of equal weight, having the same quantity of
water, and there is an equal quantity of fire-wood. The judges
satisfy themselves most carefully as to quantity, weights, and so
on. The water is boiled, and the man whose rice boils first is
declared to be the winner of the dispute. The loser has to recoup
the winner all his expenses. It sometimes happens that both pots
boil at the same time; then a coin is to be picked out of a pot
containing boiling oil.”At one of the religious ceremonies of the Koravas, offerings
of boiled rice (pongal) are made to the deity, Polēramma, by
fasting women. The manner in which the boiling food bubbles over
from the cooking-pot is eagerly watched, and accepted as an omen
for good or evil. A festival called Pongal is observed by Hindus on
the first day of the Tamil month Tai, and derives its name from the
fact that rice boiled in milk is offered to propitiate the Sun
God.Before the ceremony of walking through
fire28(burning embers) at Nidugala on the
Nīlgiris, the omens are taken by boiling two pots of milk, side by
side, on two hearths. If the milk overflows uniformly on all sides,
the crops will be abundant for all the villages. But, if it flows
over on one side only, there will be plentiful crops for villages
on that side only. For boiling the milk, a light obtained by
friction must be used. After the milk-boiling ceremonial, the
pūjāri (priest), tying bells on his legs, approaches the fire-pit,
carrying milk freshly drawn from a cow, which has calved for the
first time, and flowers of Rhododendron, Leucas, or jasmine. After
doing pūja (worship), he throws the flowers on the embers, and they
should remain unscorched for a few seconds. He then pours some of
the milk over the embers, and no hissing sound should be produced.
The omens being propitious, he walks over the glowing embers,
followed by a Udaya29and the crowd of
celebrants, who, before going through the ordeal, count the hairs
on their feet. If any are singed, it is a sign of approaching
ill-fortune, or even death.It is recorded by the Rev. J.
Cain30that, when the Koyis of the
Godaāvari district determine to appease the goddess of smallpox or
cholera, they erect a pandal (booth) outside their village under a
nīm tree (Melia Azadirachta). They make the image of a woman with
earth from a white-ant hill, tie a cloth or two round it, hang a
few peacock’s feathers round its neck, and place it under the
pandal on a three-legged stool made from the wood of the
silk-cotton tree (Cochlospermum Gossypium). They then bring forward
a chicken, and try to persuade it to eat some of the grains which
they have thrown before the image, requesting the goddess to inform
them whether she will leave their village or not. If the chicken
picks up some of the grains, they regard it as a most favourable
omen; but, if not, their hearts are filled with dread of the
continued anger of the goddess. At the Bhūdēvi Panduga, or festival
of the earth goddess, according to Mr F. R. Hemingway, the Koyis
set up a stone beneath a Terminalia tomentosa tree, which is thus
dedicated to the goddess Kodalamma. Each worshipper brings a cock
to the priest, who holds it over grains of rice, which have been
sprinkled before the goddess. If the bird pecks at the rice, good
luck is ensured for the coming year, whilst, if perchance the bird
pecks three times, the offerer of that particular bird can scarcely
contain himself for joy. If the bird declines to touch the grains,
ill-luck is sure to visit the owner’s house during the ensuing
year.Concerning a boundary oath in the Mulkangiri tāluk of
Vizagapatam, Mr C. A. Henderson writes to me as
follows:—
“The pūjāri (priest) levelled a piece of ground about a foot
square, and smeared it with cow-dung. The boundary was marked with
rice-flour and turmeric, and a small heap of rice and cow-dung was
left in the middle. A sword was laid across the heap. The pūjāri
touched the rice-flour line with the tips of his fingers, and then
pressed his knuckles on the same place, thus leaving an exit on the
south side. He then held a chicken over the central heap, and
muttered some mantrams. The chicken pecked at the rice, and an egg
was placed on the heap. The chicken then pecked at the rice again.
The ceremony then waited for another party, who performed a similar
ceremony. There was some amusement because their chickens would not
eat. The chickens were decapitated, and their heads placed in the
square. The eggs were then broken. It was raining, and there was a
resulting puddle of cow-dung, chicken’s blood, egg, and rice, of
which the representatives of each party took a portion, and eat it,
or pretended to do so, stating to whom the land belonged. There is
said to be a belief that, if a man swears falsely, he will
die.”Though not bearing on the subject of omens, some further
boundary ceremonies may be placed under reference. At
Sāttamangalam, in the South Arcot district, the festival of the
goddess Māriamma is said to be crowned by the sacrifice at midnight
of a goat, the entrails of which are hung round the neck of the
Toti (scavenger), who then goes, stark naked, save for this one
adornment, round all the village
boundaries.31It is recorded by Bishop
Whitehead32that, in some parts of the
Tamil country, e.g., in the Trichinopoly district, at the ceremony
for the propitiation of the village boundary goddess, a priest
carries a pot containing boiled rice and the blood of a lamb which
has been sacrificed to the boundary stone, round which he runs
three times. The third time he throws the pot over his shoulder on
to another smaller stone, which stands at the foot of the boundary
stone. The pot is dashed to pieces, and the rice and blood scatter
over the two stones and all round them. The priest then goes away
without looking back, followed by the crowd of villagers in dead
silence. In the Cuddapah district, when there is a boundary dispute
in a village, an image of the goddess Gangamma is placed in the
street, and left there for two days. The head of a buffalo and
several sheep are offered to her, and the blood is allowed to run
into the gutter. The goddess is then worshipped, and she is
implored to point out the correct
boundary.33In Mysore, if there is a
dispute as to the village boundaries, the
Holeya34Kuluvādi is believed to be the
only person competent to take the oath as to how the boundary ought
to run. The old custom for settling such disputes is thus described
by Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie:35
“The Kuluvādi, carrying on his head a ball made of the
village earth, in the centre of which is placed some earth, passes
along the boundary. If he has kept the proper line, everything goes
well, but, should he, by accident even, go beyond his own proper
boundary, then the ball of earth, of its own accord, goes to
pieces. The Kuluvādi is said to die within fifteen days, and his
house becomes a ruin. Such is the popular belief.”Some years ago Mr H. D. Taylor was called on to settle a
boundary dispute between two villages in Jeypore under the
following circumstances. As the result of a panchāyat (council
meeting), the men of one village had agreed to accept the boundary
claimed by the other party if the head of their village walked
round the boundary and eat earth at intervals, provided that no
harm came to him within six months. The man accordingly
perambulated the boundary eating earth, and a conditional order of
possession was given. Shortly afterwards the man’s cattle died, one
of his children died of smallpox, and finally he himself died
within three months. The other party then claimed the land on the
ground that the earth-goddess had proved him to have perjured
himself. It was urged in defence that the man had been made to eat
earth at such frequent intervals that he contracted dysentery, and
died from the effects of earth-eating.36When the time for the annual festival of the tribal goddess
of the Kuruvikkārans (Marāthi-speaking beggars) draws nigh, the
headman or an elder piles up Vigna Catiang seeds in five small
heaps. He then decides in his mind whether there is an odd or even
number of seeds in the majority of heaps. If, when the seeds are
counted, the result agrees with his forecast, it is taken as a sign
of the approval of the goddess, and arrangements for the festival
are made. Otherwise it is abandoned for the year.At the annual festival of Chaudēswari, the tribal goddess of
Dēvānga weavers, the priest tries to balance a long sword on its
point on the edge of the mouth of a pot. A lime fruit is placed in
the region of the navel of the idol, who should throw it down
spontaneously. A bundle of betel leaves is cut across with a knife,
and the cut ends should unite. If the omens are favourable, a lamp
made of rice-flour is lighted, and pongal (boiled rice) offered to
it.It is recorded by Canter
Visscher37that, in the building of a
house in Malabar, the carpenters open three or four cocoanuts,
spilling the juice as little as possible, and put some tips of
betel leaves into them. From the way these float on the liquid they
foretell whether the house will be lucky or unlucky, whether it
will stand for a long or short period, and whether another will
ever be erected on its site.Korava women, if their husbands are absent on a criminal
expedition long enough to arouse apprehension of danger, pull a
long piece out of a broom, and tie to one end of it several small
pieces dipped in oil. If the stick floats in water, all is well;
but, should it sink, two of the women start at once to find the
men.38In the village of Chakibunda in the Cuddapah district, there
is a pool of water at the foot of a hill. Those who are desirous of
getting children, wealth, etc., go there and pour oil into the
water. The oil is said not to float as is usual in greasy bubbles,
but to sink and never rise. They also offer betel leaves, on which
turmeric and kunkumam have been placed. If these leaves sink, and
after some time reappear without the turmeric and kunkumam, but
with the marks of nails upon them, the person offering them will
gain his wishes. The contents of the leaves, and the oil, are
supposed to be consumed by some divine being at the bottom of the
pool.39At Madicheruvu, in the Cuddapah
district, there is a small waterfall in the midst of a jungle,
which is visited annually by a large number of pilgrims. Those who
are anxious to know if their sins are forgiven stand under the
fall. If they are acceptable the water falls on their heads, but,
if they have some great guilt weighing on them, the water swerves
on one side, and refuses to be polluted by contact with the
sinner.40Among the Vādas (Telugu fishermen) the Mannāru is an
important individual who not only performs worship, but is
consulted on many points. If a man does not secure good catches of
fish, he goes to the Mannāru to ascertain the cause of his bad
luck. The Mannāru holds in his hand a string on which a stone is
tied, and invokes various gods and goddesses by name. Every time a
name is mentioned, the stone either swings to and fro like a
pendulum, or performs a circular movement. If the former occurs, it
is a sign that the deity whose name has been pronounced is the
cause of the misfortune, and must be propitiated in a suitable
manner.The Nomad Bauris or Bāwariyas, who commit robberies and
manufacture counterfeit coin, keep with them a small quantity of
wheat and sandal seeds in a tin or brass case, which they call
dēvakadana or god’s grain, and a tuft of peacock’s feathers. They
are very superstitious, and do not embark on any enterprise without
first ascertaining by omens whether it will be attended with
success or not. This they do by taking at random a small quantity
of grains out of the dēvakadana, and counting the number thereof,
the omen being considered good or bad according as the number is
odd or even.41A gang of Donga Dāsaris,
before starting on a thieving expedition, proceed to the jungle
near their village in the early part of the night, worship their
favourite goddesses, Huligavva and Ellamma, and sacrifice a sheep
or fowl before them. They place one of their turbans on the head of
the animal as soon as its head falls on the ground. If the turban
turns to the right it is considered a good sign, the goddess having
permitted them to proceed on the expedition; if to the left they
return home. Hanumān (the monkey god) is also consulted as to such
expeditions. They go to a Hanumān temple, and, after worshipping
him, garland him with a wreath of flowers. The garland hangs on
both sides of the neck. If any of the flowers on the right side
drop down first, it is regarded as a permission granted by the god
to start on a plundering expedition; and, conversely, an expedition
is never undertaken if any flower happens to drop from the left
side first.42The Kallans are said by Mr
F. S. Mullaly43to consult the deity
before starting on depredations. Two flowers, the one red and the
other white, are placed before the idol, a symbol of their god
Kalla Alagar. The white flower is the emblem of success. A child of
tender years is told to pluck a petal of one of the two flowers,
and the success of the undertaking rests upon the choice made by
the child. The Pulluvan astrologers of Malabar sometimes calculate
beforehand the result of a project in which they are engaged, by
placing before the god two bouquets of flowers, one red, the other
white, of which a child picks out one with its eyes closed.
Selection of the white bouquet predicts auspicious results, of the
red the reverse. In the same way, when the Kammālans (Tamil
artisans) appoint their Anjivīttu Nāttāmaikkāran to preside over
them, five men selected from each of the five divisions meet at the
temple of the caste goddess, Kāmākshi Amman. The names of the five
men are written on five slips of paper, which, together with some
blank slips, are thrown before the shrine of the goddess. A child,
taken at random from the assembled crowd, is made to pick up the
slips, and he whose name turns up first is proclaimed Anjivīttu
Nāttāmaikkāran.Eclipses are regarded as precursors of evil, which must, if
possible, be averted. Concerning the origin thereof, according to
tradition in Malabar, Mr Gopal Panikkar writes as
follows44:—
“Tradition says that, when an eclipse takes place, Rāhu the
huge serpent is devouring the sun or moon, as the case may be. An
eclipse being thus the decease of one of those heavenly bodies,
people must, of necessity, observe pollution for the period during
which the eclipse lasts. When the monster spits out the body, the
eclipse is over. Food and drink taken during an eclipse possess
poisonous properties, and people therefore abstain from eating and
drinking until the eclipse is over. They bathe at the end of the
eclipse, so as to get rid of the pollution. Any one shutting
himself up from exposure may be exempted from this obligation to
take a bath.”Deaths from drowning are not unknown in Madras at times of
eclipse, when Hindus bathe in the sea, and get washed away by the
surf. It is said45that, before an
eclipse, the people prepare their drums, etc., to frighten the
giant, lest he should eat up the moon entirely. Images of snakes
are offered to the deity on days of eclipse by Brāhmans on whose
star day the eclipse falls, to appease the wrath of the terrible
Rāhu. It is noted by Mr S. M. Natesa
Sastri46that “the eclipse must take place
on some asterism or other, and, if that asterism happens to be that
in which any Hindu was born, he has to perform some special
ceremonies to absolve himself from impending evil. He makes a plate
of gold or silver, or of palm leaf, according to his means, and
ties it on his forehead with Sanskrit verses inscribed on it. He
sits with this plate for some time, performs certain ceremonies,
bathes with the plate untied, and presents it to a Brāhman with
some fee, ranging from four annas to several thousands of rupees.
The belief that an eclipse is a calamity to the sun or moon is such
a strong Hindu belief, that no marriage takes place in the month in
which an eclipse falls.”I gather47