Packaging Materials and Processing for Food, Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics E-Book

Frederic Debeaufort

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 564

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

This book provides valuable information on a range of food packaging topics. It serves as a source for students, professionals and packaging engineers who need to know more about the characteristics, applications and consequences of different packaging materials in food-packaging interactions.

This book is divided into 13 chapters and focuses on the agro-food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical sectors. The first four chapters cover traditional packaging materials: wood, paper and cardboard, glass and metal. The next two deal, respectively, with plastics and laminates. Biobased materials are then covered, followed by a presentation of active and smart packaging. Some chapters are also dedicated to providing information on caps and closures as well as auxiliary materials. Different food packaging methods are presented, followed by an investigation into the design and labelling of packaging. The book ends with a chapter presenting information on how the choice of packaging material is dependent on the characteristics of the food products to be packaged.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Acknowledgements

Introduction to Food Packaging

I.1. Introduction

I.2. Definition

I.3. Levels of packaging

I.4. Functions of packaging

I.5. Introduction to packaging materials

I.6. Sociological, psychological and economical aspects of packaging

I.7. References

1 Wood-based Packaging

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Wood as a raw material for food packaging: characteristics, requirements, limitations and regulations

1.3. Pallets

1.4. Boxes, crates and trays

1.5. Barrels and casks

1.6. Wood package–food interactions

1.7. References

2 Papers and Boards

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Pulp and cellulose extraction for paper-based materials

2.3. Paper production and properties

2.4. Paperboards and containerboards

2.5. Corrugated paperboard

2.6. Regulations and safety concerns of papers and boards

2.7. References

3 Glass Packaging

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Composition and properties of glass

3.3. Glass manufacturing

3.4. Bottle design and terminology

3.5. Lifecycle, recycling and safety concerns

3.6. References

4 Metal Packaging

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Metal packaging types

4.3. Composition and properties: metals and alloys

4.4. Can manufacturing

4.5. Can surface treatments

4.6. Food–can interactions

4.7. References

5 Plastics

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Plastic materials and processes

5.3. Plastic films for packaging

5.4. Properties of plastic packaging

5.5. Plastic packaging innovation

5.6. Plastic waste management

5.7. Legislation for food contact materials

5.8. References

6 Multilayer Packaging Materials

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Multilayer materials and their production

6.3. Properties of laminates

6.4. Packaging application of laminates

6.5. Environmental and waste management issues

6.6. References

7 Bio-based Materials

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Definitions

7.3. Classification of bio-based materials

7.4. Industrial relevance and future trends

7.5. List of abbreviations

7.6. References

8 Active and Intelligent Packaging

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Active packaging

8.3. Intelligent packaging: concepts and commercial applications

8.4. Consumer safety and related regulations

8.5. References

9 Packaging Caps and Closures

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Closure types

9.3. Specialized type of closures

9.4. References

10 Auxiliary Materials

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Coatings

10.3. Adhesives

10.4. Printing inks

10.5. Interaction between packaging and contents

10.6. Future trends and challenges

10.7. References

11 Food Packaging Methods

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Packaging operations

11.3. Packaging for thermally processed food

11.4. Packaging for non-thermally processed food

11.5. Packaging with atmosphere modification

11.6. List of abbreviations

11.7. References

12 Packaging Marking and Labeling

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Labeling

12.3. Standards

12.4. Material and label production

12.5. References

13 Food Packaging Selection

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Food packaging material selection

13.3. List of abbreviations

13.4. References

List of Authors

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Introduction to Food Packaging

Figure I.1. Levels of packaging

Figure I.2. Packaging functions

Figure I.3. Packaging in nature

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Pallet types (adapted from https://www.homestratosphere.com/types-of-...

Figure 1.2. Pallet components and structure

Figure 1.3 Pallet box and pallet crates

Figure 1.4. Pallet assembly (adapted from http://jusworx.co.za/)

Figure 1.5. Wooden trays/crates for fruits and vegetables

Figure 1.6. Boxes and crates for wine or milk bottles

Figure 1.7. Main stages of wood barrels and casks manufacturing

Figure 1.8. Wood barrel and cask structure

Figure 1.9. Size and functions of casks and barrels

Figure 1.10 Casks and barrels for balsamic vinegar aging at Midolini Balsameria ...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1. Paper sheet processing by the Fourdrinier method

Figure 2.2. Example of wound container and different paper-based bags

Figure 2.3. Three-ply paperboard Fourdrinier table

Figure 2.4. Vat–cylinder paperboard method

Figure 2.5. Structure of SBB and FBB multi-ply paperboard (adapted from Iggesund...

Figure 2.6. Folding capacity of monoply and multi-ply board

Figure 2.7. Process of paperboard folding and examples of carton design (adapted...

Figure 2.8. Corrugating machine for corrugated board (adapted from Watkins 2012)

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1. Light transmission though glass packaging for food and pharmaceutica...

Figure 3.2. Glass bottle or container process (adapted from VerreAvenir 2020)

Figure 3.3. Blow–blow processing of glass bottles (adapted from Wikibooks 2020)

Figure 3.4. Press-and-blow processing (adapted from Misaglass 2020)

Figure 3.5. Bottles and jar characteristics

Figure 3.6. Variety of bottle design (adapted from WineryLovers 2020)

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1. Illustration of the variety of types of food packaging from metal-ba...

Figure 4.2. Representation of the multi-layered structure of tinplate and tin-fr...

Figure 4.3. Three-piece can manufacturing (adapted from MPMA 2020)

Figure 4.4. Processing flowchart of the two-piece can making (DWI process, adapt...

Figure 4.5. Processing of two-piece impact cold extrusion process for aerosols i...

Figure 4.6. Can end making (adapted from Page 2012; Robertson 2013)

Figure 4.7. Seaming process and seam characteristics (adapted from AFDO 2011; Ro...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1. Extrusion of plastics

Figure 5.2. Calender with three-roll system

Figure 5.3. Compression molding

Figure 5.4. Injection molding

Figure 5.5. Blow molding

Figure 5.6. Vacuum thermoforming

Figure 5.7. Biaxial orientation of polymeric film

Figure 5.8. Recycling packaging symbols with Möbius strip (Fidel Fillaud 2015)

Figure 5.9. Food contact materials symbol (Regulation EC No. 1935/2004 (European...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1. Multilayer material with combined properties from different monofilm...

Figure 6.2. Wet bonding lamination

Figure 6.3. Dry bonding lamination

Figure 6.4. Lamination by extrusion

Figure 6.5. Three-layer coextrusion process

Figure 6.6. Metallized film laminate with associated layers

Figure 6.7. Three layers in series

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1. Schematic view of the biodegradability of polymers depending on thei...

Figure 7.2 Schematic representation of some of the methods of production of bio-...

Figure 7.3. Chemical structure of some protein-based films: a) casein and b) gel...

Figure 7.4. Structural formula of some polysaccharides: a) alginate; b) chitosan...

Figure 7.6. Three processes for synthesis of PLA

Figure 7.7. Production processes of bio-based PE, PP and PET

Figure 7.8. Different types of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)

Figure 7.9. Synthesis of polycaprolactone

Figure 7.10. Synthesis of polybutylene succinate (PBS)

Figure 7.11. Structure of PBAT

Figure 7.12. Synthesis of Poly(glycolic acid)

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1. Schematic view of packaging functions (adapted from Yam et al. 2005)

Figure 8.2. Classification of different types of active packaging systems for fo...

Figure 8.3. Sachet, pad and film scavenging or emitting systems

Figure 8.4. Oxygen scavenger systems based on the oxidation of iron and ferrous ...

Figure 8.5. Ethylene absorber sachets to stop ripening of ethylene-sensitive fru...

Figure 8.6. Moisture absorber pads for fish and meat (adapted from Wholesalegrou...

Figure 8.7. CO

2

emitter sachets and pads

Figure 8.8. Aluminum microwave susceptors (Sirane 2020)

Figure 8.9. Example of a self-heating package

Figure 8.10 Communication functions in intelligent packaging systems

Figure 8.11. Different categories of intelligent packaging systems

Figure 8.12. Chemical TTIs (OnVu™ indicators 2020)

Figure 8.13. Chemical TTIs: Fresh-Check® indicators (Temptimecorp 2020)

Figure 8.14 Physical TTIs from 3M Monitor Mark® (Infoagro, 2020)

Figure 8.15. Vitsab CheckPoint® biochemical TTIs (VITSAB, 2020)

Figure 8.16. Biological TTIs (TopCryo™ indicators)

Figure 8.17. ripeSense™ indicator (ripeSense, 2020)

Figure 8.18. SensorQ™ indicator (Packworld, 2020)

Figure 8.19. Ageless Eye® O

2

absorbers

Figure 8.20. Principle of the Food Sentinel System

TM

biosensor (SIRA Technologie...

Figure 8.21. Different examples of barcodes

Figure 8.22. RFID tag application

Figure 8.23. The working principle of a radiofrequency identification (RFID) tag

Figure.8.24. Thermochromic smart lid inks

Figure 8.25. Thermochromic smart label inks

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1. Crown cork closure

Figure 9.2 Roll-on tamper-evident cup applied to the finish of a glass container...

Figure 9.3 Wine closures

Figure 9.4 Composition of liners in Stelvin® capsules for shelf life: (A) up to ...

Figure 9.5. PVC bottle capsule

Figure 9.6. Examples of glass finishes for vacuum closure with (A) lug cap (regu...

Figure 9.7. Flip-top closure

Figure 9.8. Shrink seals

Figure 9.9. Child-resistant closure

Figure 9.10 Easy-open ends for drinks

Figure 9.11. Easy-open ends for food

Figure 9.12. Peelable seal lids

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1. Multilayer structure bonded with an adhesive

Figure 10.2. Classification of adhesives depending on their source

Figure 10.3. Example of adhesives and ink migration process

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1. Examples of plain (A) and stretch (B) wrappings

Figure 11.2. Principle of shrink packaging

Figure 11.3. Examples of pouch closing (A) and some types of sealed (dotted line...

Figure 11.4 Horizontal form-fill-seal operations

Figure 11.5. Variations (A and B) of the vertical form-fill-seal operation

Figure 11.6 Principle of blister packaging

Figure 11.7. Types of metal cans

Figure 11.8 Glass jars with metal closures

Figure 11.9. Rigid plastic containers

Figure 11.10. Example of a three-ply retort pouch

Figure 11.11 Sous-vide immersion cooker

Figure 11.12. Schematic view of the aseptic process (A) and multilayer packaging...

Figure 11.13. Schematic view of ohmic heating (Lee et al. 2016)

Figure 11.14. A schematic view of a flexible package with aluminum (ALU) foil el...

Figure 11.15. Schematic view of an infrared heater for fruit juice processing (A...

Figure 11.16. Radiofrequency (RF) dielectric heating systems (Zhao et al. 2000)

Figure 11.17. Basic structure of a microwave oven (Hill 1998)

Figure 11.18 Susceptors consist of a metallized PET film laminated to a thin pap...

Figure 11.19 Schematic view of the high-pressure processing (Goyal et al. 2013)

Figure 11.20 Schematic view of the pulsed electric field processing system with ...

Figure 11.21. The spectrum of electromagnetic waves

Figure 11.22. Schematic view of pulsed UV-light food treatment (Murugesan et al....

Figure 11.23. Food packaging methods with atmosphere modification

Figure 11.24. Controlled atmosphere storage elements

Figure 11.25 Modified atmosphere packaging elements

Figure 11.26. Gas change in active and passive packaging with time

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1. Types of information: a) written; b) electronic; c) graphic

Figure 12.2. Example of food name information on a label

Figure 12.3. Example of an ingredient list on a label

Figure 12.4. Example of labeling of food allergens

Figure 12.5. Example of a label emphasizing the quantity of certain ingredients

Figure 12.6. Different date markings used for food labeling

Figure 12.7. Examples of labeling for special storage conditions

Figure 12.8. Examples of labels with the manufacturer’s instructions for prepara...

Figure 12.9. Examples of labeling with nutritional and health claims

Figure 12.10. Examples of incorrect (left) and correct (right) font size used fo...

Figure 12.11. Example of a roll of self-adhesive labels

Figure 12.12. Example of a full-wrap label

Figure 12.13. Comparison of self-adhesive (left) and shrink sleeve (right) food ...

Figure 12.14. Application steps of shrink sleeves

Figure 12.15. Examples of digital labels: a) QR code; b) RFID code; c) bar code

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1. Overview of factors for food packaging material selection

List of Tables

Introduction to Food Packaging

Table I.1. Some developments in packaging during the past 200 years (Coles 2011;...

Chapter 2

Table 2.1. Wood composition and fiber characteristics (Otenio et al. 2004; Igges...

Table 2.2. Pulp grades and uses (adapted from Bajpai 2012)

Table 2.3. Characteristics and applications of packaging papers

Table 2.4. Applications and required properties of paperboards

Table 2.5. Corrugated board type, flute characteristics and mechanical propertie...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1. Composition (% of weight) of a typical soda-lime glass for food packa...

Table 3.2. Metal oxides used to color a typical soda-lime glass for food packagi...

Table 3.3. Wine bottle volumes and related names

Table 3.4. Specific migration limits of lead and cadmium of glass containers

Chapter 4

Table 4.1. Properties and composition of the maingrades of steel used for the pr...

Table 4.2. Properties and composition of the main grades of aluminum alloys (ada...

Table 4.4. Properties and composition of can lacquers (adapted from LaKind 2013;...

Table 4.5. National regulations regarding metals for packaging (adapted from Fit...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1. Plastics additives with processing properties and application (Vujkov...

Table 5.2. Classes of plastic films used for packaging (Ebnesajjad 2013)

Table 5.3. Plastic forms used in food packaging (Coles et al. 2003)

Table 5.4. Plastic materials properties and applications

Table 5.5. List of food simulants (Regulation (EU) No. 2016/1416)

Table 5.6. Barrier characteristics of some polymers (Ščetar et al. 2010)

Chapter 6

Table 6.1. Barrier properties comparison for metallized and non-metallized films...

Table 6.2. Laminates used in packaging applications (Wapo 2020)

Table 6.3. Example of laminates used for food packaging (TECHNOCRAFT 2019)

Chapter 7

Table 7.1. Application sectors of bio-based materials (adapted from Overbeek and...

Table 7.2. Variations in biodegradation efficiency in some materials depending o...

Table 7.3. Standards used for the determination of biodegradation

Table 7.4. Some of the most commonly used protein-based hydrocolloids used as ed...

Table 7.5. Some of the most commonly used polysaccharide-based hydrocolloids use...

Table 7.6. Structural differences in various cellulose derivatives

Table 7.7. Chemical structure of amylose and amylopectin

Chapter 10

Table 10.1. Types, characteristics and application of different can coatings (IP...

Table 10.2. Types, characteristics and application of coatings for plastic conta...

Table 10.3. Surface coating methods

Table 10.4. Novel methods in the production of coated materials

Table 10.5. Types, applications and characteristics of naturally sourced adhesiv...

Table 10.6. Examples of curing method, adhesive type and its application with ma...

Table 10.7. Comparison of different printing techniques used in food packaging

Chapter 11

Table 11.1. Estimated values of packaging materials on a global level (ALL4PACK ...

Table 11.2. Barrier properties of laminates (Lange and Wyser 2003)

Table 11.3. MAP gas mixture for some food items (Smith and Ramaswamy 1996; Smidd...

Table 11.4. General properties of packaging materials

Table 11.5. Barrier characteristics of food packaging materials

Table 11.6. Advantages and disadvantages of MAP

Chapter 12

Table 12.1. Some of the most common food packaging symbols used in labeling

Chapter 13

Table 13.1. Vitamin C contents in capsicum during storage as a function of moist...

Table 13.2. Vitamin C loss in vegetables at ambient and chill storage (Favell 19...

Table 13.3. Modified atmosphere packaging of pomegranate arils; different cultiv...

Table 13.4. Application of perforation-mediated modified atmosphere packaging of...

Table 13.5. Color (L*, a*) value changes of control and oxygen absorber (ATCO O

2

...

Table 13.6. Shelf life of combined modified atmosphere and active packaged meat ...

Table 13.7. Shelf life of modified atmosphere packaged meat (Ščetar et al. 2010)

Table 13.8. Shelf life extension of fish and fishery products by modified atmosp...

Table 13.9. Shelf life of seafood at different packaging conditions and temperat...

Table 13.10. Quality attributes of broccoli stored at a constant temperature (3°...

Table 13.11. Shelf life of frozen meat at different temperatures (IIR 2006)

Table 13.12. Changes in the levels of some physicochemical parameters in frozen ...

Table 13.13. Losses of ascorbic acid due to storage of fresh, frozen and canned ...

Table 13.14. Shelf life of instant coffee in different packaging materials (Alve...

Table 13.15. Vitamin C retention of aseptically packaged pomegranate juices in d...

Table 13.16. Comparison of barrier properties of different flexible packaging fi...

Table 13.17. Deteriorative changes and typical shelf lives for chocolate product...

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Acknowledgements

Introduction to Food Packaging

Begin Reading

List of Authors

Index

End User License Agreement

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SCIENCES

Agronomy and Food Science, Field Directors – Jack Legrand and Gilles Trystram

Packaging and Recycling, Subject Head – Frédéric Debeaufort

Packaging Materials and Processing for Food, Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics

Coordinated by

Frédéric Debeaufort

Kata Galić

Mia Kurek

Nasreddine Benbettaieb

Mario Ščetar

First published 2021 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd

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www.iste.co.uk

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Hoboken, NJ 07030

USA

www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2021

The rights of Frédéric Debeaufort, Kata Galić, Mia Kurek, Nasreddine Benbettaieb and Mario Ščetar to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020951536

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-78945-039-2

ERC code:

LS9 Applied Life Sciences, Biotechnology, and Molecular and Biosystems Engineering LS9_5 Food sciences (including food technology, food safety, nutrition)

Preface

Frédéric Debeaufort1, Kata Galić2, Mia Kurek2, Nasreddine Benbettaieb1 and Mario Ščetar2

1Institute of Technology, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France

2Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Croatia

Packaging today has a significant impact on our society, as well as on our economic sector.

A huge variety of packaging materials, commonly used in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, etc., all with different characteristics, are available. These include so-called traditional (wood, glass, paper-based, metal) materials and “novel” (polymers, bio-based materials, edible, active, etc.) materials. Polymers are put in a special group when they are considered as a source of many different single (monofilm) and complex (laminate) materials. From this, it is obvious that the selection of the optimal packaging material for a specific food product is a task that is harder than ever. Furthermore, the proper selection of packaging is of great importance to food manufacturers when considering the economy, marketing, logistics, distribution, consumer demands and environmental impact of the packaging.

This book provides the most comprehensive and current information in the field of food packaging. It can serve as a valuable source for not only food science and technology students and professionals, but also packaging technicians and engineers who need to know the characteristics of different packaging materials and their applications, as well as what can happen to food when it is in contact with these materials.

Packaging Materials and Processing for Food, Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics, coordinated by Frédéric DEBEAUFORT, Kata GALIĆ, Mia KUREK, Nasreddine BENBETTAIEB and Mario ŠČETAR. © ISTE Ltd 2021

The book is divided into 13 chapters. The first four chapters cover traditional packaging materials starting with wood (Chapter 1), followed by paper and cardboard (Chapter 2), and then glass (Chapter 3) and metal (Chapter 4). Among the so-called “novel” packaging materials, plastics are covered in two chapters (Chapters 5 and 6), while Chapter 6 is devoted to complex materials (laminates). The following chapters deal with bio-based materials (Chapter 7) and active and smart packaging (Chapter 8), while important parts of packaging, such as caps and closures and auxiliary materials, are covered in Chapters 9 and 10, respectively. At the end of each chapter a possible food–packaging interaction is given. All chapters are presented with a comprehensive list of references. Information on different food packaging methods is presented in Chapter 11, while the marking and labeling of packaging can be found in Chapter 12. The book ends with Chapter 13, where information on the dependence of packaging material selection on the characteristics of food products (fresh, frozen, chilled, dried, etc.) is presented.

November 2020

Acknowledgements

Frédéric Debeaufort1, Kata Galić2, Mia Kurek2, Nasreddine Benbettaieb1 and Mario Ščetar2

1Institute of Technology, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France

2Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Croatia

The authors of this book sincerely thank Professor Audrey Bentz, a colleague from the IUT of Dijon-University, Burgundy, for her careful and efficient proofreading and for improving the English with a lot of kindness.

Packaging Materials and Processing for Food, Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics, coordinated by Frédéric DEBEAUFORT, Kata GALIĆ, Mia KUREK, Nasreddine BENBETTAIEB and Mario ŠČETAR. © ISTE Ltd 2021

Introduction to Food Packaging

Frédéric Debeaufort1and Kata Galić2

1Institute of Technology, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France

2Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Croatia

I.1. Introduction

Packaging is one of the aspects that is part of the daily life of modern companies. It provides many services in support of the product and the various users, whether the packaging company, logisticians, users or consumers. Often disparaged when it is emptied of its contents, the packaging, apparently banal to quote some, is the fruit of human intelligence at the service of all.

Today, packaging is the result of the use of various modern technologies over long development processes (computer-aided design – CAD, 2D/3D digital printing, connected packaging, sustainable packaging and industry 4.0). The packaging world generates sophisticated jobs that require training and learning and schools need to meet this challenge. The packaging industry is “ahead” of many other industries; we are talking about industry 4.0 with high technicality in packaging, its mechanization and its level of robotization, without forgetting the numerous patents filed. Indeed, since 2012, patents filed by the packaging industry (all sectors combined) have represented 2.7% of total patents, that is, twice as much as the economic activity of the sector (1.3%) (CNE 2020). The baby boom and easier access to products, especially food, thanks to the development of large stores (retailing, supermarkets), have been a source of innovation in terms of packaging materials and machines, in order to mass supply products at the right time and at the lowest cost. The arrival of plastic in the 1960s allowed innovation in the processes for implementing packaging associated with functionalities. The arrival of mass distribution in the 1970s accelerated innovations serving the consumer. The integration of use by the user or the consumer is a source of creativity for the benefit of the population, in particular, for the elderly, if it is easy to open, for example. Finally, the regulations, the quest for traceability and the fight against counterfeiting have made it possible to generate packaging and processes for branding and identification purposes.

The global packaging market consumption in 2020 covers five main materials: paper and boards (31.06%), plastic (flexible 24.85% and rigid 22.28%), metal (12.64%), glass (6.81%) and others (2.35%), with approximately 70% of all packaging used in the food industry (WPO 2008; ALL4PACK 2016). In 2015, the global packaging industry value was US$839 billion and is predicted to reach US$998 billion in 2020 (ALL4PACK 2016). The global packaging machine market should grow at an average annual rate of 4.9% in the coming years, reaching a value of US$42 billion in 2018, US$48 billion in 2020 and an estimated 55 billion in 2025 according to Technavio (2020).

I.2. Definition

The definition of “packaging” in EU Directive 94/62/EC (European Commission 1994) is presented as “all products made of any materials of any nature to be used for the containment, protection, handling, delivery and presentation of goods, from raw materials to processed goods, from the producer to the user or the consumer”.

The International Packaging Institute (in the Glossary of Packaging Terms, 1988) defined packaging as the enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance (Robertson 2013). Other definitions of packaging include a system that coordinates the preparation of goods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and end use, a way to ensure its delivery to the consumer in a safe and sound condition. This also includes a techno-commercial function in order to optimize the costs of delivery while maximizing the profits (Coles 2011).

The Glossary of the International Trade Centre (ITC 2020), in the packaging sector, gives the following definitions:

(i) Pack (noun): Bundle of items wrapped up, tied together or otherwise contained for carrying; (ii) Pack (verb): To put items into a box, bundle, bag, bale, wrap, etc. for storage or transportation; (iii) Package (noun): A sealed wrapping or box containing either a retail-sale quantity of a product (consumer package) or a product or a number of items or smaller packages in transport quantities, for transportation and storage (transport package), and (iv) Packaging, the general term for the function, materials and overall concept of a coordinating system of the preparation of goods for handling, shipment, storage and marketing. Distribution and use at optimum cost, and compatible with the requirements of the product.

Thus, packaging serves as a material-handling tool (containing the desired amount of food within a single container or gathering several identical units into aggregates), a processing aid (e.g. sterilization of food products in metal cans) and protection for items from damage and waste, which is an important marketing tool.

I.3. Levels of packaging

Packaging can be distinguished in regard to its “levels” (Figure I.1). A primary package (e.g. metal can, glass bottle and plastic wrap or pouch) is the most important as it is in direct contact with the product, providing the major protective barrier. The primary package is the one that the consumer usually purchases in supermarkets. A secondary package contains different numbers of primary packages, for example, a plastic pouch containing unidose packed sweets or biscuits. A tertiary package, also known as the transport package, is made up of a number of secondary packages that facilitate national and international trade. In other words, it represents the exact number of secondary packages put on a pallet to fill the space most economically. A quaternary package facilitates the handling of tertiary packages and is usually a large metal container (up to 40 m in length) that can accommodate many pallets during transport by ships or trains. When required, the conditions inside the container (temperature, humidity, gas composition and light) can be regulated. Traceability is at the forefront of food safety and is particularly important for perishables such as fresh fruits and vegetables, chilled meats and frozen foods. This also presents the source of innovation of real-time loggers aimed at delivering real-time distribution chain insights from any location (monitoring in-transit shipments, temperature, security and location details).

Figure I.1.Levels of packaging

I.4. Functions of packaging

Packaging, as an essential element of the product–packaging pair, fulfills various functions, such as the provision of a product to users and consumers, its conservation, its protection and its transport, whether this product is consumed by households, artisans or manufacturers.

Throughout history, packaging has enabled humans to free themselves from both time and space:

– Time, because, thanks to the conservation of a packaged product, humans are no longer obliged to immediately consume what they have just produced.

– Space, because, with the transportability and therefore the availability of the packaged product anywhere, modern humans consume where they want. With packaging, the place of production is separated from the place of consumption.

Four main functions of packaging are thus emphasized: containment, protection, convenience and communication (Figure I.2), which are interrelated, and must all be considered in the package development process (Robertson 2013).

Figure I.2.Packaging functions

Containment

In order to perform its basic function successfully, the package must contain the product before it is transferred from one place to another. In case this task is not fulfilled (e.g. due to damage of the package), this can result in content spillages, economic losses and, in some cases, serious damage to the environment.

Protection

Product protection is the most important function of packaging. The package must protect the product from any external condition leading to damage (mechanical, poor environmental conditions, contamination and infestation) during handling, distribution and storage.

Thus, packaging is designed to ensure that the product reaches the consumer in good condition, through its entire journey from the manufacturer to the ultimate consumer.

Where required, packaging can also provide additional product protection. This is achieved through cushioning using different materials (such as sheets of corrugated paperboard, shredded paper, foam polystyrene or wrappings).

Food safety and quality is ensured through tamper-proof packaging. Special child-resistant closures, on items such as household chemicals (cleaning liquids, detergents, etc.) and pharmaceuticals, are developed to protect this vulnerable population. It is evident that packaging technology has made a huge contribution to improving food science and food safety and the reduction of food spoilage, as well as food waste.

Communication

The expression “a package must protect what it sells and sell what it protects” is applied to all packaging levels, from the primary to quaternary package, helping all involved actors to perform their tasks. Package communication helps consumers to select a product among a number of similar ones, and get all relevant information. It serves as an important marketing and selling tool that often influences the consumer when making their buying choice. It also ensures that warehouses and distribution centers are efficient in carrying and storing secondary and tertiary packages, based on the details on the attached labels. When international trade is involved and different languages are spoken, the use of adequate and clear symbols on the distribution packaging is essential.

Convenience

Convenience characteristics, which are much appreciated by consumers, include those which enable easy access to products, simplify usage or consumption and make it easy to hold, open or reclose. Appropriate packaging levels (secondary, tertiary and quaternary) facilitate the transport of packaged goods in interstate and international trade (Scholderer and Grunert 2005; Robertson 2013).

Packaging materials are often taken for granted as not-so-important actors in food protection. Consumers often do not even think about all of the above-mentioned principal packaging roles, not to mention all of the newly designed special functionalities of packaging materials that the broad population is not familiar with. Packaging is more than just a plastic bag leftover after its use.

I.5. Introduction to packaging materials

Apart from not being toxic, important requirements for food packaging materials also include: a) sanitary protection; b) barrier (moisture, gas, odor, light, fat) protection; c) resistance to impact; d) transparency; e) tamper-proofness; f) ease of opening and reclosing; g) ease of disposal; h) size, shape, weight limitations; i) appearance, printability; j) low cost; and k) special features.

The most common food packaging materials are: plastic (monofilms, laminates), glass, paper and board, metal and wood. Each of these materials offers specific advantages and disadvantages that have to be considered in order to select an adequate material for the specific food product.

Considered as a protective barrier or for carriage purposes, packaging has been known as such and used throughout history, even in Egyptian times. Some of the best examples of packaging can be found in nature, such as chestnuts, egg shells and orange skins (Figure I.3).

Figure I.3.Packaging in nature

It has been found that the first forms of packaging used by humans were flax and banana leaves, and animal products such as leather and stomachs, which are still used today. Some of the packaging-related developments throughout history are presented in Table I.1.

Table I.1.Some developments in packaging during the past 200 years (Coles 2011; Robertson 2013)

Year

Package development

1800–1850s

− 1809, Nicolas Appert (France) produced hermetically sealed glass jars to thermally preserve food− 1813, In England, handmade cans of “patent preserved meats” were produced− 1824, Canned foods were used by the British Navy

1870s

− 1875, Sardines were first packed in cans− 1879, Robert Gair (USA) produced the first machine-made folding carton

1880s

− 1884, The first cereal was packaged in a folding box (Quaker

®

Oats)

1890s

− 1892, William Painter (USA), patented the Crown cap for glass bottles

1900s

− 1906, Paraffin wax-coated paper milk containers were sold by G.W. Maxwell

1910s

− 1915, Pure-Pak

®

filled with milk was commercialized

1920s

− 1921, Zinc compounds in enamel cans were used− 1923, Frozen foods in cartons with wax paper wrappers were commercialized

1930s

− 1935, American brewers began to sell canned beer− 1939, Ethylene was polymerized commercially

1940s

− 1940, Carbonated soft drink canning began− 1946, Saran (PVDC) was used as a moisture barrier

1950s

− 1950, Cellophane was commercialized and used for packaging− 1950, Aluminum foil containers were developed− Polypropylene (PP) was invented− The retort pouch for heat-processed foods was developed− 1956, Tetra Pak

®

launched its tetrahedral shape multilayer form for milk

1960s

− 1960, Easy-open cans were introduced− 1965, Beverage cans made from aluminum were introduced− 1965, Tin-free steel (TFS chromium) cans were developed− 1967, Ring-pull openers were developed for canned drinks− Tetra Pak launched Tetra Brik

®

Aseptic (TBA) system for UHT milk

1970s

− The bar code system for retail packaging was introduced (USA)− Boil-in-the-bag frozen meals and bag-in-box systems were developed− MAP retail packs were introduced (USA, Scandinavia and Europe)− 1973, PET bottles were used for colas and other carbonated drinks− 1973, Antimicrobial wrappers were used to extend food shelf life− 1976, Iron-based O

2

scavengers were commercialized

1980s

− Packaging was produced for microwave use and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) was developed for ready-to-eat fresh fruits and vegetables− 1986, The first use of the terms “Smart packaging” and “Interactive packaging”

1990s

− 1997, Ethanol-generating films or sachets were patented− Shrink-sleeve plastic labels for glass bottles were used

2000–2010

− 2006, Nanotechnology was used to modify the internal surface properties of squeezable plastic bottles− 2007, The world’s first 100% recycled PET bottle was used for fruit drinks− Polylactic acid (PLA) bottles were used for water

I.6. Sociological, psychological and economical aspects of packaging

Packaging strongly influences the consumer’s perception of the packed products, consciously or unconsciously, and thus their consumption behavior and habits. People have different lifestyles, which lead to differences in their perceptions of the products they need. Some people who are trying to have a healthy lifestyle may prefer certain products that are perceived as low fat and calorie restricting, whereas most consumers are mainly influenced by the price, which is related to color and shape attractiveness (Deng and Kahn 2009). Food products and their marketing are everywhere we look, on the way to school or work, on the sports courts, on TV and other media. Looking at shelves filled with various food items, color and product identification originating from the package design have significantly more impact on the choice of the product than its positioning on the shelves. The packaging of fast-moving consumer goods has changed frequently and dramatically for years, especially since the 1960s, as producers have fought for positioning, brand recognition and customer loyalty. In this context, it has become crucial to understand more about how consumers perceive and respond to changes in packaging. Package design and impressions play an important part in consumption patterns, and when consumers’ impressions do not match expectations, disappointment and dissatisfaction may not only have an immediate impact on sales and profitability, but also lead to long-term damage to brand credibility.

I.6.1. Packaging characteristics and consumer behavior

“The clothes do not make the man”. It is by the external appearance that we recognize an object or a person. This expression reflects the significant influence of packaging on stimulating the purchase of a product. Does improving the packaging of a product have an impact on its image? How do you measure the psychological impact of this approach? How strong is the impact of health and nutrition claims? Is there any effect on sales because of it?

The goods have been able to dominate the thoughts of the consumer to influence the act of purchase. Ranging from playful to functional, without forgetting the humorous or tendentious (misguided), the packaging of the product takes on all its finery to seduce the buyer. A determining factor in marketing action, the criteria for choosing product packaging, is of paramount importance for brands. The visual aspect associated with the functional parameters of a product determines the sale. But that is not enough, because it is necessary to play on the psychology of the client.

To succeed in a marketing sector, it is important to study the habits of the consumer, since the goal is to encourage them to buy products. It is not an automatic mechanism beforehand, but it is possible to maneuver so that it becomes one. To achieve this, we must bring together a set of ingredients, each subtler than the next, which interact in the cerebral cortex of the individual, potential consumer. Science has demonstrated this through Pavlov’s conditioning experience (Wells 2014). It is therefore necessary to do some work to arouse the intention to buy. As previously presented, the marketing function of packaging as a communication tool is the key to selling the product.

However, packaging is the first thing consumers see when they are ready to buy a product. It is the last opportunity for the company to communicate about the product it markets. This moment is therefore decisive and deserves special attention. Successful packaging knows how to attract the attention of the consumer in the hubbub that surrounds it and responds, quickly and easily, to questions that arise. In any case, even if the packaging of competing products is adequate, in this context, the consumer will abandon them, for lack of having really seen them.

To attract the attention of the consumer, to retain them and to make them take the product in their hands, the packaging uses several techniques, among which are the color, the images, the typography, the brand, the design and the finish.

The color black is associated with luxury products, white with household products, green with organic or natural products and almost transparent sky blue with water bottles. It can be interesting to break these codes to surprise the consumer. Carbonated water is thus found in red bottles, and do not go unnoticed in a department usually filled with blue bottles.

Images easily convey a message. They do not need to be translated. Sparkling, bright white teeth on a tube of toothpaste immediately speaks to the consumer. It is also the most frequently used technique for products intended for children. This is the reason why brands invest so much in mascots, so that young people can spontaneously associate with a product.

Typography also plays an essential role. For example, elegant typography helps visually reinforce the luxurious character of the product it describes. Typography that resembles handwriting instead gives it an authentic appearance. The labels of some jars of jam are based on this relationship.

The brand and its logo are signs that are immediately recognized by the consumer when they have been the subject of intensive publicity. This is why they appear prominently on packaging. They speak to consumers as much as images.

The design, in other words, the shape of the product offered to consumers, is fundamental to the perception they may have of it, in particular, with regard to its practicality or its playfulness.

The finish adds to the impression given by the product. Varnished, shiny packaging is interpreted as going hand in hand with a quality product. The use of cheap-looking packaging must therefore be clearly explained to the consumer if the product it contains is exceptional.

For instance, the consumer perceptions of packed foods are influenced by the shape and size of the packaging. For example, elongated containers are often seen as larger than equivalent wide and short containers. In addition, people generally underestimate the changes in package volume, especially when packaging changes along two or three spatial dimensions as opposed to just one dimension (Ordabayeva and Chandon 2013). Over the past several decades, people have become accustomed to the supersized packaging in many product categories that reflect a sense of affluence and abundance. The supersizing trend has been especially pronounced in the food industry, where supersized fast food and snack portions have become the norm in many places. However, unforeseen negative side effects are beginning to take their toll. In addition to increased waste disposal issues, supersizing is considered to have contributed to over-consumption, weight gain and a rise in obesity to epidemic proportions. Public health authorities in Western countries have therefore become concerned about the influence of supersizing on consumer health.

I.6.2. Packaging trends

According to McTigue Pierce (2020) from Packaging Digest, future trends for packaging will satisfy both the consumer’s wishes and food industry requirements. That is:

– Sustainable packaging, or even reaching a zero-waste packaging concept, is in preparation, because companies must promote packaging that is both safe for the consumer and respectful to the environment, e.g. recyclable packaging (paper, glass and metal materials, see

Chapters 2

,

3

and

4

, respectively), bio-sourced and biodegradable packaging (bio-based packaging, see

Chapter 7

).

– Transparency towards consumers, because they demand honesty regarding the composition of food products as well as their containers (additives, endocrine disruptors) and the way they are made. Traditional packaging is reinvented to adopt a clear and precise formulation and, where appropriate, transparent information that reveals what is inside.

– Sophistication, and therefore a visible (marketing) message, refined with bold and simple, but sophisticated, colors and large print to communicate trust and respect (packaging marking and labeling, see

Chapter 12

).

– Consistency with the brand image of the product.

– State-of-the-art packaging, because consumers love their smart devices, and the increased use of technology, in turn, puts pressure on companies to offer “smart packaging” (active and intelligent packaging, see

Chapter 8

).

Sustainability, branding and “smart” packaging technologies resonate with global packaging professionals, based on the leading stories from early 2020. For example, using paper-based bags made from recycled paper with a transparent window made from polylactic acid biopolymer film, with an easy handling design and simple print information could satisfy almost all of the previous trends.

Green packaging has become attractive both for consumers and retailers in the past decade and is also in line with increasing consumer awareness of environmental sustainability. Packaging does not only serve to protect the main product, but is also expected to be environmentally friendly to reduce environmental problems due to packaging waste (Auliandri et al. 2018). The purchase intention of young consumers towards green packaging was positively affected by attitude, personal norms and the willingness to pay. The environmental concern positively influenced the purchase intention through the mediation of attitude. According to Kaufmann et al. (2012), the consumers’ green purchasing behavior directly depends on demographic variables (age, gender, income level, education level, ethnicity, occupation), and could also be influenced by sociological/psychological variables such as altruism, environmental awareness, environmental concern and attitude, the belief about product safety for use and availability of product information and product availability, the perceived consumer effectiveness, the collectivism and the transparency/fairness in trade practices (customer care, product adulteration, unfair pricing, black marketing, misleading advertising, deceptive packaging).

The business sector needs to consider green packaging as one of the company’s competitive strategies, as well as a substitute for recycling and waste, but also to the circular economy.

I.6.3. Packaging and the circular economy

Unlike the current linear economy, the circular economy forms a cycle. It is based on a model of reasoned production, of a change in consumption influenced by the population, and seeks to revive products by various means (repairing, recycling and transformation). Its simple objective is to produce goods and services while subscribing to a logic of sustainable development. Three areas apply to the circular economy, one of the key players of which is the packaging industry. The first area concerns supply and economic players (sustainable supply, eco-design, etc.). The second area is based on consumer demand and behavior (responsible consumption, duration of use). Finally, the last area concerns waste management, with the concept of recycling. There are seven pillars that make up the circular economy, which are divided into three areas (supply of economic players, consumer demand and behavior and waste management): supply, eco-design, industrial and territorial ecology, economy of functionality, responsible consumption, increased usage time and waste prevention. Packaging industries can and must contribute to all of the seven pillars of the circular economy. The circular economy has become a goal for many governments, especially in Western countries. For example, France aims to double the rate of the incorporation of recycled plastic by 2025 (i.e. more than 400,000 tons for the packaging sector), to make 100% of plastic packaging reusable, recyclable or compostable by 2025, to use 100% recycled glass bottles by 2030 and 90% recycled cans by 2025 in the brewery sector, which means that 100% of French people will be affected by sorting instructions in 2022 (ANIA 2020).

The packaging industries have been practicing the circular economy for a very long time, long before European regulations forced them to do so. The results of material recycling are there to bear witness to this. Indeed, the packaging world has worked significantly in this area in the past, without it being called the circular economy, and is still working on the subject: it is a great opportunity for each link in the value chain of the packaging industry to highlight its good practices (whether for primary, secondary or tertiary packaging). They often feature a lot of bottlenecks, especially passing from laboratory to pilot and industrial scale that needed to be resolved. The industries are engaged in this approach not because of ideology, but often because it makes economic sense and, more recently, ecological sense. It also answers consumer wishes.

The annual production of household waste in the world today exceeds 2 billion tons per year (ANIA 2020), 44% of which is from food or plant sources, and almost 70% is related to packaging. This is the reason why many countries defined regulations for dealing with packaging and packaging waste. The European parliament published the first directive 94/62/EC (European Commission 1994) specifying the first rules for packaging material recycling and waste management early. On December 2, 2015, the European Commission put forward a plan to support the EU’s transition to a circular economy. On March 4, 2019, the Commission reported on the complete execution of the action plan. All 54 actions included in the 2015 plan have now been delivered or are being implemented. This will help to boost Europe’s competitiveness, modernize its economy and industry to create jobs, protect the environment and generate sustainable growth (European Commission 2020). Many items in this plan concern the packaging sector.

The circular economy, for the packaging sector, is not limited to recycling; it covers all stages of the life of the packaged product, namely: design, production, distribution and use, without forgetting recovery of the packaging. It includes the notions of anchoring in the territories and proximity. It includes resource savings (material, water, energy), in particular, by the eco-design of the product and packaging, the optimization of the use of all resources, the reuse of packaging (especially in business to business), the prevention of packaging waste, the reduction of product losses (also by reducing food waste), the improvement of recyclability and the closure of material flows by its reuse. It also includes any initiative allowing changes in behavior and/or market codes for the best in packaging.

The packaging activities must be mainly local and not easily outsourced. The packaging sector is an emblematic example of a circular economy, where production and recycling generate economic activities synonymous with territorial roots. The packaging industry is generally an economic activity that meets the needs of principals who are in proximity. The reasons for this proximity are historical as well as economic.

There are many details linking the world of packaging and the circular economy. This is a complicated step, especially in a society where this type of operation is not yet the standard. However, the priority of large organizations is no longer based on renewable energies or on the rational use of resources. We must now decide to consider the origin of the problem at its source. If “ecological” packaging does not exist as such, it is up to companies to make strategic choices according to the objectives that they wish to achieve (avoid waste, reduce the carbon footprint, etc.). There are no good or bad practices. A company that does not use plastic will not necessarily have a lower ecological impact than another company that uses it, especially if the latter integrates a circular approach to its activity and continues to optimize its services or products. The development of new materials and technologies by the packaging industry may contribute to a better circular and ecological economy for the food industry.

I.7. References

ALL4PACK (2016). Packaging: Market and challenges in 2016. The global marketplace for packaging, processing, printing & handling. Trade Show, Paris.

ANIA (Association Nationale des Industries Alimentaires) (2020). Economie circulaire et gestion des emballages : les entreprises alimentaires en action [Online]. Available: https://www.ania.net/developpement-durable/economie-circulaire-et-gestion-des-emballages-les-entreprises-alimentaires-en-action and https://ania.net/Livret-dengagements-emballages-ANIA-oct2019.pdf [Accessed 13 April 2020].

Auliandri, T.A., Thoyib, A., Rohman, F., and Rofiq, A. (2018). Does green packaging matter as a business strategy? Exploring young consumers’ consumption in an emerging market. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 16(2), 376–384.

CNE (Conseil National de l’Emballage) (2020). L’emballage en France [Online]. Available: https://conseil-emballage.org/lemballage-en-france/ [Accessed 13 April 2020]

Coles, R. (2011). Introduction. In Food and Beverage Packaging Technology, Coles, R. and Kirwan, M. (eds). Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Chichester.

Deng, X. and Kahn, B.E. (2009). Is your product on the right side? The “Location Effect” on perceived product heaviness and package evaluation. Journal of Marketing Research, 46(6), 725–738.

European Commission (1994). Packaging and packaging waste. European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC [Online]. Available: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31994L0062.

European Commission (2020). Internal market, industry, entrepreneurship and SMEs: Sustainability and circular economy [Online]. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/sustainability/circular-economy_en [Accessed 18 April 2020].

ITC (International Trade Centre) (2020). Packaging. The Glossary of the International Trade Centre [Online]. Available: http://www.intracen.org/packaging/glossary/P/ [Accessed 8 April 2020].

Kaufmann, H.R., Panni, M.F., Khan, A., and Orphanidou, Y. (2012). Factors affecting consumers’ green purchasing behavior: An integrated conceptual framework. Amfiteatru Economic Journal, 14(31), 50–69.

Lee, S.M. (1989). Dictionary of Composite Materials Technology. Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster.

McTigue Pierce, L. (2020). How packaging trends will shape 2020. Packaging Digest [Online]. Available: https://www.packagingdigest.com/packaging-design/how-packaging-trends-will-shape-2020-2020-02-27 [Accessed 20 April 2020].

Ordabayeva, N. and Chandon, P. (2013). Predicting and managing consumers’ package size impressions. Journal of Marketing, 77, 123–137.

Robertson, G.L. (2013). Food Packaging: Principles and Practice, 3rd edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton.

Scholderer, J. and Grunert, K.G. (2005). Consumers, food and convenience: The long way from resource constraints to actual consumption patterns. Journal of Economic Psychology, 26(1), 105–128.

Wells, V.K. (2014). Behavioural psychology, marketing and consumer behaviour: A literature review and future research agenda. Journal of Marketing Management, 30(11–12), 1119–1158.

WPO (2008). Market statistics and future trends in global packaging. World Packaging Organisation [Online]. Available: www.worldpackaging.org [Accessed 6 April 2020].

1Wood-based Packaging

Frédéric Debeaufort

Institute of Technology, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France

1.1. Introduction

Wood packaging is used to pack, transport, handle, preserve, present and add value to many food products and sectors (fruits and vegetables, fish and seafood, wines and spirits, oils, cheese and dairy, raw meat, cured meat and delicatessen, bread and bakery, dried fruits, etc.). There is a special focus on wood barrels and casks, which are considered as the primary packaging for both the storage and the aging of many beverages, such as wine, whiskey, sherry and cognac.

Wood packaging represents only between 9 and 12% of the tonnage of the overall production of packaging materials and only 2–3% of the value. Nevertheless, wood is substantially less expensive than other raw packaging materials, and, unlike alternative materials, such as plastics, wood is a sustainable resource (FEFPEB 2020). Wooden packaging is reusable, repairable and recyclable. At the end of its life, it becomes a renewable energy source. Finally, wood is the only raw material that is endlessly renewable. It is an essential part of the circular economy.

Wood packaging material, sometimes referred to as non-manufactured wood packing (NMWP) or solid wood packing material (SWPM), is both hardwood (deciduous trees like oak, maple or hornbeam) and softwood (evergreen trees, mainly conifers and poplars). Wood packaging materials are different from wooden products, for example, plywood, particle board, oriented strand board, veneer and wood wool. These are created by using glue, heat and pressure, or a combination of these methods. Wood packaging materials are used to support, protect and carry goods. Different examples of wood packaging materials include pallets, crates, boxes, cases, bins, reels, drums, load boards, skids, pallet collars and containers.

The wood packaging manufacturing sector includes four major separate areas: pallets, light packaging, cooperage and industrial packaging. Wood packaging is often not considered as packaging by the consumer because it is almost invisible in shops, as it is mainly used in tertiary packaging, dunnage and transport packaging (pallets, boxes). On the other hand, crates or trays are often used for the transportation and storage of fruits, vegetables and cheese, and wood barrels are used for storing and aging wines and distilled beverages such as whiskey or cognac. Wood boxes, which are also considered as secondary packaging, are often used for luxury packaging, for instance, for wine bottles.

Packaging is one of the most important parts of the wood industry, and there is an increasing demand for wooden packaging these days, as awareness is rising about the negative environmental impact of the use of plastic. The upcoming stringent government regulation for plastic packaging has had a positive impact on the wood packaging market. The global wood packaging market is predicted to grow by US$5.42 billion during the 2019–2023 period, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) estimated from 4 to 6.6%, and it is estimated that Europe will contribute to about 35% of this growth. In the wood packaging market, pallets represent more than 65% of the value, reaching about US$60 billion in 2018, and more than 90% of these pallets are made from wood (Parobek et al