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- Herausgeber: Marie B
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
The European Union, with its 27 Member States and 447 million inhabitants, is one of the world's major economic and commercial powers. But many people still know little about it. The third edition of this book, unique in its form, reflects the latest political and economic changes and provides a comprehensive and easily accessible overview of the European Union, the Eurozone and each of its 27 Member States and their overseas territories; it summarises the main points of their history and political and economic realities and includes over 50 physical and geopolitical maps of Europe. Innovative, it is permanent, meaning that its content is regularly updated online, on a website that is accessible free of charge so that everyone has the most reliable information on a constantly developing Europe. The Permanent Atlas of the European Union is written by the experts of the Robert Schuman Foundation and edited by Jean-Dominique GIULIANI and Pascale JOANNIN, President and General Manager of the Foundation.
Pascale Joannin is Managing Director of the Fondation Robert Schuman.
Jean-Dominique Giuliani is President of the Fondation Robert Schuman
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Copyright Éditions Marie B/ Collection Lignes de Repères 2021
ISBN: 9782492763007
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Table des matières
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Robert Schuman Foundation is a research centre on European policy and one of the leading think-tanks devoted to the European Union. It undertakes and publishes many studies which contribute to a better understanding of the Union’s mechanisms, institutions and policies. It makes suggestions for new guidelines and actions. Its publications, amongst which feature a weekly e-letter, its collection of “Notes”, European Issues and its annual Report on the State of the Union, look into all areas of European work and are, in virtue of this, often extremely specialised.
Under the management of its Chairman and General Director, and thanks to its regular work, the Foundation’s team contributes to the gathering of information contained in the present Atlas. This collective book hopes to address the widest public as possible.
Thanks has to go to the entire Foundation team for its contribution, notably Cécile ANTONINI, Ramona BLOJ, Stefanie BUZMANIUK, Catherine d’ANGELO, Helen LEVY, Eric MAURICE, François MERCERON, Pascal ORCIER.
Regarding the Robert Schuman Foundation’s work we refer to its website: www.robert-schuman.eu, and its accounts on all of the social media.
The Foundation offers thanks to the Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs for having provided, in view of this publication, the maps designed by its geographical department (Direction des Archives) whose quality is recognised by all. (www.diplomatie.gouv.fr).
THE EUROPEAN UNION
THE EUROPEAN UNION FOR ALL
THE European Union is present in the life of each and every European citizen. However its complexity, the diversity of its Member States and its detachment make it difficult to understand. Misconceptions feed opinions that are far from reality.
This is why the Robert Schuman Foundation hopes to offer the public this collective work, whose statistical data can be updated in real time on an open, free website. This atlas aims to bridge a gap.
It offers its readers geographical maps of the very best quality that have been created with the support of the French Ministry for Foreign Affairs.
The dangers of history
But this atlas also takes some unusual risks.
Europe’s geography cannot be dissociated from its history. It is vivid and too rich for the geopolitical, economic and social problems of each of the Member States to be dealt with separately. And so we have tried to present a brief history of the European countries which are members of the Union, together with their statistics. Hence, we are perfectly aware of being over simplistic. The history of each of the Member States has been the subject of many detailed works and it deserves to be read in many more publications yet. We therefore ask the diplomats, experts and also the citizens of these countries to excuse our pretention in summarising history in just a few lines, which although accurate is but too brief. Please believe that we have taken this risk for the good cause, to encourage curiosity, to convince the reader that he or she should explore further, to improve his or her knowledge of our European partners.
Diversity and Unity
The history of the countries of Europe is incredibly rich. This continent is one of culture and inventions, the foremost of these being democracy.
During each period of history we find a “Golden Age” whether this be Athenian, Roman, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish, Polish, British, German, French etc. During each age we discover artists, poets, philosophers, scientists, political leaders, industrialists who have all changed the course of humanity’s history with their work, their inventions and their contributions to human thought. For each of these European countries, we recall their names in this book. The list is incomplete of course, but those who do feature here correspond to all of these criteria. And readers should not be surprised if the dictators have not been mentioned, since in our opinion they are not “remarkable personalities”!
European diversity is only equalled by its unique contribution to mankind and it is probably this which sets it apart from the rest. The construction of the States has also been that of the nations and within this framework democracy was created, i.e. the rule of law, the process of creating political legitimacy based on the election, the majority rule, the control and balance of power. The modern difficulties encountered in terms of European integration, notably speaking as one, can also be explained by the citizens’ attachment to their history. But necessity, the emergence of Continent-States, the opening of borders and the global aspect of international affairs, have also had their impact. European integration has progressively shown itself for what it is, a choice of reason particularly adapted to the requirements of the States of Europe. It is a unique example in the history of Man; it is one of a voluntary grouping of sovereign States which pool their strengths, i.e. certain aspects of their sovereignty to rise to the challenges they face. The presentation of the European Union will help readers understand what it has become: a true economic power, the voluntary grouping of people who have a great deal in common and of States which have decided to cooperate together before all others. The page specifically devoted to the euro area is a choice that has been dictated by the present context. Europeans now nearly all share the same currency, which apart from its international influence stands as a unifying factor, since it consolidates the common interests of the European populations in terms of economic competition and brings the most determined of these together as they step up European cooperation. However, European unification cannot just be reduced to the economy and finance. From the dream born after a deadly conflict, the European Union has become a tangible reality, with its institutions, its laws and procedures. In the 20th century it provided peace, stability and prosperity to a continent forged by war, treaties, glory and catastrophes. In the 21st century it offers the people of Europe an answer to a particularly fast moving period of globalisation, which is full of challenges. Hesitation, even in the most crises, has not shaken beliefs that are underpinned by undeniable acquisitions. Only the UK, which was never at ease within Europe, is an exception, and has now left.
For all of the others, the European Union is an alliance of States that is trying to protect and promote their model of society in a rapidly changing world. This Atlas simply aims to explain the diversity of our nations and peoples, whose multitude of common qualities emerge from this. “United in Diversity”, such is the Union’s official motto that we would like to illustrate here.
Jean-Dominique GIULIANI January 2021
FOR centuries voices spoke out in support of the unity of Europe. The continent’s history has indeed been marked by too many conflicts and treaties. It is a warring, murderous and brutal history. However, as early as the Middle Ages, a mixture of elites emerged, firstly in the universities and then in the Renaissance between artists and scientists. Europe learned from Erasmus that mobility is the vital condition for creation. It gradually built up a shared, although not common culture thanks to its incredible inventiveness. But the slow integration of the States led to a period of nationalities, the mother of nationalism. It led to a strengthening of the borders, impediments to the free movement of men and merchandise, and war, again.
The two world wars marked an escalation in destruction and sacrifice of human lives. The conflict of 1914-18 was one in which “industrial war” emerged, the Second was that of total war, i.e. when the civilian population is attacked first. There were more than 10 million deaths at the beginning of the 20th century and more than 60 million between 1939 and 1945!
Why Europe?
With this we understand that the address made by Victor Hugo at the Congress for Peace in 1848, the projects drafted by Aristide Briand in 1929, who wanted to federate Europe, the unrelenting work by Richard de Coudenhove-Kalergi, founder of the Paneuropean Movement, the “Manifesto for a free and united Europe” (the Ventotene Manifesto) drafted by Altiero Spinelli in 1941, the speech delivered by Sir Winston Churchill in 1946 and The Hague Congress in 1948 (Congress of Europe) for a united Europe found a real echo amongst the ruins of the Second World War.
On 9th May 1950, based on the idea of Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, the then French Foreign Affairs Minister made a surprise offer to Germany and those European States who wanted to, to pool their coal and steel, their strategic resources; those which were to enable reconstruction and the revival of the countries ravaged by war and exhausted economies and over which governments were still disputing production quotas and war damages. America, which had then become the leading world power, launched the Marshall Plan which provided Europe with the equivalent of 100 billion $ at current exchange rates to help it recover. All seemed to have learned from 1918, 1919 and 1920. The Versailles Treaty, and those which followed had caused humiliation, resentment, an economic crisis, as well as social disorder, which were to be the true causes of the Second World War.
This true break with Europe’s past, which at the time demanded a great deal of courage, was immediately supported by the populations, who wanted peace.
The Great European Odyssey
The Treaty of Paris establishing the European Community of Steel and Coal (ECSC) entered into force on 23rd July 1952. It linked six States (Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands), who were the founders of the Community. It is was the first legal act that organised European cooperation in a new way, the “community method”, which granted an independent High Authority the power to ensure the respect of the content of the commitments made voluntarily by the signatories. It was followed by 10 other treaties.
Europe’s great odyssey was then embarked upon and it has constantly grown and strengthened both economies and policies across the continent.
The rejection of the European Community of Defence in 1954 by France, which had originally launched it, did not stop the process and so the Treaties of Rome, which created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Community of Atomic Energy (EURATOM) entered into force on January 1st 1958. The Customs Union of the six founder States was proclaimed and completed 10 years later. The ensuing economic successes were the source of enthusiasm on the part of the governments of Europe and then there was open mention of the goal to create “the United States of Europe” sometime in the future, which would have real federal power resulting from the common institutions. The Costa/ENEL decision of the Court of Justice on 15th July 1964 confirmed the principle of the superiority of European law over national law.
General de Gaulle’s France, which wanted to recover its position as a major power, lost in the defeat of 1949, opposed this. This was then to be known as the “empty chair crisis” (1st July 1965) which the European Community ended with the “Luxembourg Compromise” (21st January 1966). Europe was not to be federal and remained a Union of sovereign States, the unanimity of which was required for vital decisions. This state of affairs continues today.
However the mechanism for the pooling of real interests triggered by the Schuman Declaration continued to function. The progressive unification of Europe continued within a legal framework. The institutions developed and the number of common policies continued to grow. The European Council was created in 1974 for the regular assembly of the heads of State and government. The European Parliament was elected by direct universal suffrage for the first time in June 1979. The foundations for a European monetary system were established in 1979, prior to the euro, the single currency, in circulation since 1st January 2002. The Single European Act (1st July 1987), then the Treaty on European Union (Maastricht, 1st November 1993), the Amsterdam (1st May 1999), Nice (1st February 2003) Lisbon (1st December 2009) Treaties, have led to the formation of a grand single European market, progressing towards Economic and Monetary Union, setting the base for a Common Foreign and Security Policy and also the enlargement of the Union.
Five Enlargements
In addition to its deepening the European Community has continued to grow. In over 50 years (1957-2013), it has multiplied the number of Member States fourfold, rising from 6 to 28 members, its population has tripled, rising from 181 to 508 million and its surface area has grown to reach 4.2 million km². Its geography has been transformed in proportion to the strategic changes that have occurred on its borders. It then had to assume the impact of the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9th November 1989) and the collapse of the Soviet Union (21st December 1991). No State was able to resist the attraction of the European Union. All have progressively joined it in five periods of enlargement, which involved the UK, Ireland and Denmark (1973), Greece (1981), Spain and Portugal (1986) then Austria, Sweden and Finland (1995). Norway and Switzerland are not members but are linked to the EU via close agreements. The total reunification of the continent only came in 2004 and 2007 with the accession of the States of Central and Eastern Europe, formerly under Soviet domination (Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia in 2004, Bulgaria and Romania in 2007 and Croatia in 2013) and the two Mediterranean islands of Malta and Cyprus (2004). The European Union “a small cape on the Asian continent” (Paul Valéry), has gradually acquired the dimension of a continent, as required by the 21st century, its main asset in the face of the “world pivot” toward Asia and its spectacular development. Transatlantic relations, notably from the financial and trade points of view still form the heart of the world economy and are still an unequalled pole of creativity. Europe can be proud of being a successful part of this.
Having helped bring down communism with its economic successes and its strong alliance within NATO, the European Union contributed to bringing democracy back to Greece and to the Iberian Peninsula. Its soft power, power by example, belief and economic support has achieved miracles since it has pacified an entire continent from within, the security of which has only really been guaranteed by the US until now. It also helped bring prosperity back to Europe. With its Member States it is now the biggest provider of humanitarian aid and development aid in the world.
From a strategic point of view history will note that this achievement seemed impossible just after the Second World War. Europe and its Member States have no declared enemies, have no serious dispute with any power and are linked by legal commitments that are not really likely to be criticised or infringed; they offer an envied model of a social market economy.
New Challenges
However the beginning of the 21st century gave Europe a violent wake-up call with the financial crisis starting in 2007, which coincided with a deep change in the economic balance of power in the international arena. This is the multifaceted challenge to which it now has to rise.
The demography of Europe is also cause for concern. The European Union’s population is declining and the average age of its citizens is constantly rising. It has become the primary destination for immigration and asylum requests.
Its diversity, both from the point of view of the competitiveness of its economic players, as well as its State structures, is real and its Member States have extremely different levels of development. It is still the leading trading power in the world, but for how much longer? The deepening of European unification seems to be answer to the reduction in influence of Western countries in the international arena.
Constantly integrating
Finally, in a state of constant and still incomplete integration, Europe has not always managed to speak with one voice to influence the international arena as it should. A true Common Foreign and Security Policy is slowly emerging because it affects extremely specific areas of sovereignty.
Given its past achievements the European Union should be more confident of its ability to face the future. Standards of life in Europe are exceptional in comparison with other continents, solidarity is organised like nowhere else on earth, inequalities between States, regions, between categories of the population are compensated for according to a model that no one else in the world can match, its rule of law, rules and regulation procedures are unrivalled.
If it is to assert these values the EU will probably have to change the way it is organised. It has to continue pooling the strengths of its Member States and assert itself in the world on a par with the unequalled contribution it has made to human civilisation, surpassing itself with new founding acts that rise to the challenges of the 21st century
The European Union has 27 Member States
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, The Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden.
Geography
– Surface area: 3,989,180 km²
(Source: European Commission)
– Coastline: 67,571 km (EU) ; 42,672 km (Schengen Area)
(Sources: Frontex)
Population
Population 447.6 million inhabitants (2020)
Gross natural variation rate: – 1.1 per 1000 (2019)
Migratory balance: 3.1 per 1000 (2019)
Total demographic growth: 2 per 1000 (2019)
Gross birth rate: 9.4 per 1000 (2019)
Gross death rate: 10.4 per 1000 (2019)
Life expectancy at birth: women 83.6 years, men 78.3 years (2019)
Immigration
Non-European citizens : 21.8 million (2019)
Citizens of one Member State living in another Member State: 13.3 million (2019)
First time asylum seekers: 612,695 (2019)
Asylum requests: 676,260 (2019)
Asylum requests accepted: 295,800 (2019)
Economy
GDP (in billions of €): 13,963 billion (2019)
GDP/capita: 31,160 € (2019)
GDP Growth: – 4.2% (T3 2020)
Unemployment rate: 7.6% (October 2020)
Employment rate of 20-64 year olds: 73.1% (2019)
Annual inflation rate: 0.3% (October 2020)
Government deficit (in % of the GDP): 11.4% (T2 2020)
Government debt (in % of the GDP): 87.8% (T2 2020)
Government spending (in % of the GDP):
46.7% (2019)
Government revenues (in % of the GDP): 46.2% (2019)
Exports outside of the EU (in billions of €):
2,132.3 (2019)
Imports from outside the EU (in billions of €): 1,932 (2019)
Trade Balance (in billions of €): 200.3 (2019)
Current Account Balance (in billions of €) :
385.5 (2019)
Foreign Direct Investment Stocks (in billions of €): 7,197 (2018)
(Sources: World Banks, Eurostat, OECD)
Distribution of the world GDP in parity purchasing power
Data: IMF
Multiannual financial framework 2021-2027 – Commitment appropriations in billions of EUR (2018 prices)*
Financing as part of the Cohesion Policy 2021-2027 (377.7 billion €*)
*financing includes a margin of 1.2 billion €
Comparative elements, EU-other major powers
(Sources: Eurostat, IMF & World Bank. The varying sources explain the differences with other data presented in this book).
Institutions
Institutions and political situation:
The main institutions of the European Union form a triangle. Hence the European Parliament is the voice of the European people, the European Commission represents European general interest and the Council of the European Union that of the Member States. The Council of the European Union comprising the Ministers of the Member States and the European Council comprising the heads of State and government must not be confused with the Council of Europe (a different international organisation that is independent of the European Union).
The institutions’ legislative branch has two bodies: the Council and the Parliament.
THE 11 EUROPEAN TREATIES
The competences transferred to the common institutions have been defined in the ten European treaties:
The Treaty of Paris, signed on 18th April 1951 entering into force on 23rd July 1952, expired on 23rd July 2002. It established the ECSC (European Community of Steel and Coal).
The Treaty of Rome, signed on 25th March 1957, entering into force on 1st January 1958, established the European Economic Community and provided for Customs Union and the Common Market.
The Treaty establishing a European Community of Atomic Energy (Euratom), was negotiated and ratified under the same conditions as the Rome Treaty and sets out the joint tasks related to nuclear supplies and the control of their security.
The treaty to merge the institutions, signed in Brussels on 8th April 1965, entering into force on 1st July 1967, established a Commission and a Council for the three European Communities (ECSC, EEC, EURATOM).
The European Single Act, signed in Luxembourg and The Hague on 17th and 28th February 1986, entering into force on 1st July 1987, aimed to transform the common market into a truly single market.
The Treaty on European Union signed in Maastricht on 7th February 1992, entering into force on 1st November 1993, notably provided for the Economic Union and the adoption of the euro as a single currency; it laid the foundations for a common foreign and security policy.
The Amsterdam Treaty, signed on 2nd October in 1997, entering into force on 1st May 1999, extended the area of competences of the European Union to the Security and Justice policy.
The Nice Treaty, signed on 26th February 2001, entering into force on 1st February 2003, adapted the functioning of the Union to the future enlargements.
The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, signed in Rome on 29th October 2004 never entered into force since the UK, France, Ireland and the Netherlands did not ratify it and Poland and the Czech Republic never established the ratification instruments.
The Lisbon Treaty, signed on 13th December 2007, entering into force on 1st December 2009 was based on the measures contained in the European Constitution, which it did not replicate entirely. However, it did provide for major institutional changes and confirmed further transfers of competences. It replaced and consolidated the existing treaties with two others, which now are the reference in terms of anything related to Europe: The Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU).
The Treaty on Stability and Coordination and Governance, (TSCG), otherwise known as the European Budgetary Pact was signed on 2nd March 2012 in Brussels.
European Parliament
The European Parliament is based in Strasbourg, its committees, as well as 6 mini-sessions, take place in Brussels. Its Secretariat General is in Luxembourg. Every time there has been a revision of the treaties, the Parliament’s competences have been increased. It is the co-legislator, has real budgetary power and approves the choice of the President of the Commission, as well as the Commissioners. Parliament can withdraw its confidence from the Commission via a vote of no confidence. Since the withdrawal of the United Kingdom Parliament has comprised 705 MEPs from 27 Member States. The election, which takes place every five years (the most recent election was in 2019), has taken place by direct universal suffrage since 1979 in all Member States, with the attribution of seats according to the principle of decreasing proportionality.
There are 7 political groups:
– EPP: European People’s Party (Christian Democrats)
– S&D: Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats
– Renew Europe
– ID Identity and Democracy
– Greens/EFA: Greens/European Free Alliance
– ECR: European Conservatives and Reformists
– GUE/NGL: European United Left/Nordic Green Left
Women’s representation: 276/705 (37.98%)
Operating Budget 2021: 1.88 billion €
Number of civil servants: 7,000
(Source: European Parliament)
Italian David Sassoli David Sassoli (S&D) is the President of the European Parliament until 2022.
France
Germany
Italy
Spain
Poland
EU
% of MEPs of the Group
EPP
4.27%
15.50 %
4.27%
6.95%
9.09%
100%
S&D
4.05%
8.55%
12.83%
14.18%
5.40%
100%
% of MEPs present in the 2 main groups
8.32%
24.05%
17.10%
21.13%
14.49%
100%
Presidency and coordinators
Presidency Group
1
3
2
1
1
10
Presidency of the Committees
5
5
2
3
0
22
Number of coordinators
22
41
12
15
20
209
Presence in 4 influential committees (% of the Commission)
Economic and Monetary Affairs
5
9
7
5
2
60
Environment, Public Health & Food Safety
8
8
10
4
7
81
Transport and Tourism
4
5
7
3
5
49
Internal Market and Consumer protection
5
6
4
2
4
45
*The Greens/EFA have 2 co-presidents
(Source: Robert Schuman Foundation)
European Council
This is the institution in which the heads of State and government meet. During their meetings, which take place once every three months, they set the general major political guidelines, without having any legislative function. The European Council selects its president, the appointment of the President of the Commission, of the High Representative and of the President of the European Central Bank. The President in office at the moment is Belgian Charles Michel and the HQ of this institution is in Brussels.
Council of the European Union
The Council, is a co-legislator with the European Parliament under a procedure of co-decision. It decides alone on the Common Foreign and Security Policy. The Council comprises Ministers of the 27 Union Member States, who meet in ten groups, according to the issues addressed. The Council meets in Brussels or Luxembourg (three times a year). The Council is chaired by the representative of one of the Member States for six months.
Council Groups:
– Foreign Affairs
– General Affairs
– Economic and Financial Affairs (Ecofin)
– Justice and Internal Affairs (JAI)
– Employment, political, social, health and consumer (EPSCO)
– Competitiveness (internal market, industry, research and space)
– Transport, telecommunications, and energy
– Agriculture and fisheries
– Environment
– Education, youth, culture and sport
Rotating presidency:
– January – June 2021: Portugal
– July – December 2021: Slovenia
− January – June 2022: France
− July – December 2022: Czech Republic
− January – June 2023: Sweden
− July – December 2023: Spain
Voting system:
The voting system and the number of votes of each Member State are set by the Treaties, which also define the cases in which the simple or qualified majority or unanimity are required.
Since November 1st 2014, the decision making process within the Council of Ministers has changed.
For the qualified majority (80% of decisions involving legislative acts) a double majority now applies and requires:
– 55% of the Union’s States (i.e. 15 Member States)
– 65% of the Union’s population.
These measures help to take into account the “respective weight of the Member States”. A blocking minority has to include at least four Member States representing more than 35% of the Union’s population.
In the qualified majority votes, abstentions count as a negative vote.
Other voting procedures involve the simple majority (14 Member States) or unanimity.
Since the Lisbon Treaty the number of issues submitted to the qualified majority has increased, rising from 70 to 109. The categories involved are mainly the area of freedom, security and justice, as well as external actions. The number of issues submitted to the unanimous vote has also increased from 69 to 75 due to the new European prerogatives relating to the European External Action Service (EEAS) for example or the European Union’s membership of the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR). Moreover the Council decides according to the simple majority on 7 issues linked to its internal organisation and to its relations with the Commission, the European Council on two issues, regarding the possibility it has to reject the inauguration of an intergovernmental conference as part of the revision of the treaties, as well as establishing internal procedures.
Operating budget 2020: 590.6 million €
Number of civil servants 2020: 3,024
(Source: Council of European Union)
January 1st 2019 – 27 Member States
Country
% of the populationGermany
18.6%
Austria
2%
Belgium
2.6%
Bulgaria
1.6%
Cyprus
0.2%
Croatia
0.9%
Denmark
1.3%
Spain
10.5%
Estonia
0.3%
Finland
1.2%
France
15%
Greece
2.4%
Hungary
2.2%
Ireland
1.1%
Italy
13.5%
Latvia
0.4%
Lithuania
0.6%
Luxembourg
0.1%
Malta
0.1%
The Netherlands
3.9%
Poland
8.5%
Portugal
2.3%
Czech Republic
2.4%
Romania
4.3%
Slovakia
1.2%
Slovenia
0.5%
Sweden
2.3%
(Source: Eurostat)
Year: 2019
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/data/database
European Commission
The Commission embodies the Union’s general interest. It is the guardian of the treaties and holds a monopoly over legislative initiative. Hence it plays both a legislative and an executive role in regard to the competences transferred to the Union, ie competition law, the common agricultural policy, the protection of fishing resources and customs union. The College of Commissioners comprises one commissioner per Member State. They are appointed for a five year period by the European Council and are subject to the Parliament’s approval.
The composition of the von der Leyen Commission
Ursula von der Leyen (Germany)
President of the Commission
Frans Timmermans (Netherlands)
Executive Vice-President, European Green Deal
Valdis Dombrovskis (Latvia)
Executive Vice-President, An Economy that works for People; Trade
Margrethe Vestager (Denmark)
Executive Vice-President, A Europe fit for the Digital Age; Competition
Josep Borrell (Spain)
Vice-President and EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and the Security Policy
Maroš Šefcovic (Slovakia)
Vice-President, Interinstitutional Relations and Foresight
Vera Jourová (Czech Rep.)
Vice-President, Values and Transparency
Dubravka Šuica (Croatia)
Vice-President, Democracy and Demography
Margarítis Schinás (Greece)
Vice-President Promoting the European way of life
Johannes Hahn (Austria)
Budget and Administration
Mariya Gabriel (Bulgaria)
Innovation, Research, Culture, Education and Youth
Nicolas Schmit (Luxembourg)
Jobs and Social Rights
Paolo Gentiloni (Italy)
Economy
Janusz Wojciechowski (Poland)
Agriculture
Thierry Breton (France)
Internal Market
Elisa Ferreira (Portugal)
Cohesion and Reforms
Stélla Kyriakídou (Cyprus)
Health and Food Security
Didier Reynders (Belgium)
Justice
Helena Dalli (Malta)
Equality
Ylva Johansson (Sweden)
Home Affairs
Janez Lenarcic (Slovenia)
Crisis Management
Adina-Ioana Valean (Romania)
Transport
Olivér Várhelyi (Hungary)
Neighbourhood and Enlargement
Jutta Urpilainen (Finland)
International Partnerships
Kadri Simson (Estonia)
Energy
Virginijus Sinkevicius (Lithuania)
Environment, Oceans and Fisheries
Mairead McGuinness (Ireland)
Financial Services, Financial Stability and Capital Markets Union
EPP (European People’s Party, Christian Democrats)
10
37.03%
S&D (Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats)
9
33.3%
ALDE (Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe)
5
18.5%
Independents
2
7.4%
ECR (European Conservatives and Reformists)
1
3.7%
In parenthesis the countries of origin of the people quoted.
Source: https://www.robert-schuman.eu/en/doc/questions-d-europe/qe-538-en.pdf
Distribution of European Commission members according to their political affiliation
(Source: Fondation Robert Schuman)
The institutions of Europe employ some 55,000 people of whom 32,847 work for the Commission in 2020.
Operating Budget 2021: 3.7 billion € in current prices
Court of Justice of the European Union
The Court ensures the implementation of the treaties and the uniform interpretation of community law. Comprising 27 judges (one per Member State) appointed for a mandate of six years, the Court delivers decisions that apply to the whole Union. The president of the court is Dutchman Koen Lenaerts and the institution’s HQ is in Luxembourg.
European Central Bank
The ECB defines and implements the Union’s monetary policy. It is independent. It has a mandate to maintain price stability and to contribute to the Union’s general policies (high employment and sustainable growth). Frenchwoman, Christine Lagarde is the president of the institution, whose HQ is in Frankfurt (see information page on the euro area).
European Court of Auditors
It monitors the community’s finances and acts in the financial interests of the citizens of Europe. It assesses all of the Union’s revenues and spending. Its HQ is in Luxembourg and its president is German Klaus-Heiner Lehne.
Other organisations and services
• European Economic and Social Committee
– HQ: Brussels
– President: Christa Schweng (Austrian)
A consultative institution, it represents economic and social players with the legislative institutions. The Committee’s members are appointed by the Council and put forward by the Commission.
• Committee of Regions
– HQ: Brussels
– President: Apostolos Tzitzikostas (Greek)
This is a consultative body representing the regional and local authorities. Its consultation is obligatory – likewise that of the Economic and Social Committee, when the interests it represents are involved. The Committee’s members are appointed by the Council and put forward by the Member States.
• European Investment Bank
– HQ: Luxembourg
– President: Werner Hoyer (German)
Via its loans and low interest rates that are provided by the European Investment Funds, the EIB helps support the Union’s economy and its projects. It is non-profit making and is co-owned by the Member States – it acts in support of their economic development.
• European Ombudsman
– HQ: Strasbourg
– Emily O’Reilly (Irish)
Elected by the European Parliament for a five year mandate, he/she serves as an intermediary between the citizens and the European authorities. He/She investigates cases of poor administration and tries to settle litigation between citizens and the institutions.
• European External Action Service
– HQ: Brussels
– High Representative: Josep Borrell (Spanish)
The EEAS is the Union’s diplomatic service, guaranteeing the coherence and coordination of the Union’s external action. It is a separate service from the Commission and the Council. Its goal is to strengthen the Union’s diplomatic voice. 3,500 people work for it. Its budget totalled 678.5 million euro in 2018. Its Secretary General is Stefan Sannino (Italian).
(Source: Robert Schuman Foundation)
Agencies
The European Union has 53 decentralised agencies and organisations created to undertake technical, scientific and specific administrative tasks. Notably we have to make the distinction between the executive agencies that depend on the Commission (6), the agencies for the Common Security and Defence Policy (3), the Euratom agencies (2) and the agencies that focus on financial stability (5).
THE INSTITUTIONAL FUNCTIONING OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
Europe and the Citizens’ Direct Vote Referendums on European Issues in the Member States
Date
State Member
Vote on
% of vote
Turnout
1
23.04.1972
France
Enlargement of the EEC
68.28%
60.27%
2
10.05.1972
Ireland
Membership EC
83.1%
70.88%
3
24.25.09.1972
Norway
Membership EC
46.5%
79.2%
4
02.10.1972
Denmark
Membership EC
63.29%
90.4%
5
03.12.1972
Switzerland
Area of free trade with the EEC
72.5%
52%
6
05.06.1975
United Kingdom
Continuation of Membership EC
67.23%
64.03%
7
23.02.1982
Greenland
Membership EC
45.96%
74.91%
8
27.02.1986
Denmark
Common Market (SEA)
56.34%
75.39%
9
26.05.1987
Ireland
Common Market (SEA)
69.92%
44.09%
10
18.06.1989
Italy
Mandate for the Spinelli Treaty
88.06%
85.4%
11
02.06.1992
Denmark
Maastricht Treaty
47.93%
83.1%
12
18.06.1992
Ireland
Maastricht Treaty
6.7%
57.31%
13
20.09.1992
France
Maastricht Treaty
51.05%
69.69%
14
06.12.1992
Switzerland
Membership EEA
49.7%
78%
15
13.12.1992
Liechtenstein
Membership EEA
55.81%
87%
16
18.05.1993
Denmark
Maastricht Treaty
56.77%
85.5%
17
12.06.1994
Austria
Membership EU
66.58%
82.35%
18
16.10.1994
Finland
Membership EU
56.88%
70.4%
19
13.11.1994
Sweden
Membership EU
52.74%
83.32%
20
20.11.1994
Aland Islands
Membership EU
73.64%
49.1%
21
28.11.1994
Norway
Membership EU
47.8%
89%
22
09.04.1995
Liechtenstein
Membership EEA
55.88%
82.05%
23
08.06.1997
Switzerland
Launch of EU membership negotiations
25.9%
35%
24
22.05.1998
Ireland
Amsterdam Treaty
61.74%
56.26%
25
28.05.1998
Denmark
Amsterdam Treaty
55.1%
76.24%
26
21.05.2000
Switzerland
Bilateral Treaties with the EU
67.2%
48%
27
28.09.2000
Denmark
Membership EMU
46.87%
87.2%
28
04.03.2001
Switzerland
Launch of EU membership negotiations EU
23.3%
55%
29
07.06.2001
Ireland
Nice Treaty
46.13%
34.79%
30
19.10.2002
Ireland
Nice Treaty
62.89%
48.45%
31
08.03.2003
Malta
Membership EU
53.6%
91%
32
23.03.2003
Slovenia
Membership EU
89.6%
60.3%
33
12.04.2003
Hungary
Membership EU
83.8%
45.6%
34
11.05.2003
Lithuania
Membership EU
91.1%
63.4%
35
17.05.2003
Slovakia
Membership EU
92.5%
52.2%
36
08.06.2003
Poland
Membership EU
77.5%
58.9%
37
14.06.2003
Czech Republic
Membership EU
77.3%
55.2%
38
14.09.2003
Estonia
Membership EU
66.8%
64%
39
14.09.2003
Sweden
Membership EMU
42%
82.6%
40
20.09.2003
Latvia
Membership EU
67%
72.5%
41
19.10.2003
Romania
EU Membership preparation
89.7%
55.7%
42
20.02.2005
Spain
Constitutional Treaty
76.7%
42%
43
29.05.2005
France
Constitutional Treaty
45.3%
69%
44
01.06.2005
The Netherlands
Constitutional Treaty
38.2%
63%
45
05.06.2005
Switzerland
Schengen Agreements
54.6%
56%
46
10.07.2005
Luxembourg
Constitutional Treaty
56.5%
89%
47
25.09.2005
Switzerland
Extension Agreement on Free Movement of People
56%
54.4%
48
26.11.2006
Switzerland
Federal Law on Cooperation with Eastern Europe
53.4%
44.3%
49
12.06.2008
Ireland
Lisbon Treaty
46.6%
53%
50
08.02.2009
Switzerland
Extension Agreement on Free Movement of People to Bulgaria and Romania
59.6%
51.6%
51
02.10.2009
Ireland
Lisbon Treaty
67.13%
59%
52
22.01.2012
Croatia
Membership EU
66.67%
43.5%
50
08.02.2009
Switzerland
Extension Agreement on Free Movement of People to Bulgaria and Romania
59.6%
51.6%
51
02.10.2009
Ireland
Lisbon Treaty
67.13%
59%
52
22.01.2012
Croatia
Membership EU
66.67%
43.5%
53
31.05.2012
Ireland
Budgetary Pact
60.29%
50.60%
54
25.05.2014
Denmark
Membership of the European Patent Convention
62.5%
55.8%
55
05.07.2015
Greece
Acceptance of proposals of European and international institutions in exchange for further financial assistance
38.69%
63%
56
06.04.2016
The Netherlands
Association Project between the European Union and Ukraine
38.41%
32.28%
57
23.06.2016
United Kingdom
Remain or Leave the EU
51.9%
(leave) 72.2%
58
02.10.2016
Hungary
Referendum on the quotas of migrants
98.36%
44.32%*
* according to the Hungarian Constitution because turnout was not enough (<50%) the referendum is invalidated.
HISTORIC POINTSOF REFERENCE
• 9th May 1950: declaration by Robert Schuman, French Foreign Minister, suggested that Germany and France pool the management of steel and coal.
• 24th July and 10th August 1952: entry into force of the treaty establishing the European Community of Steel and Coal (ECSC) and launch of the High Authority in Luxembourg, chaired by Jean Monnet.
• 20th August 1954: the French National Assembly reject the Treaty of Paris on the European Community of Defence (ECD).
• 1st January 1958: entry into force of the Rome Treaties establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), signed on 25th March 1957.
• 17th January 1962: adoption of the first regulations of the Common Agriculture Policy.
• 1st July 1965: General de Gaulle refuses to increase the powers of the community institutions; this was the crisis of the “empty chair”.
• 29th January 1966: Luxembourg compromise. The rule of unanimity is maintained at the Council of Ministers when a Member State declared that vital national interest was at stake.
• 1st July 1967: entry into force of the treaty merging the three Community executives, establishing a Council, a single Commission signed on 8th April 1965.
• 1st July 1968: completion of Customs Union 18 months ahead of time.
• 1st January 1973: Membership of Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom.
• 13th March 1979: entry into force of the European Monetary system, created on 5th December 1978 by the European Council in Brussels.
• From 7th to 10th June 1979: first elections of the European Parliament by direct universal suffrage, Simone Veil is elected President.
• 1st January 1981: Membership of Greece.
• 1st January 1986: Membership of Spain and Portugal.
• 1st July 1987: entry into force Single European Act, decided on 4th December 1985, signed on 17th and 28th February 1986, planning the creation of the Single Market before 1993.
• 1st July 1990: first phase of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU): free movement of capital.
• 1st January 1993: entry into force of the Single Market.
• 1st November 1993: entry into force of the Maastricht Treaty, adopted at the European Council of 9th and 10th December 1991 and signed on 7th February 1992 in Maastricht.
• 1st January 1995: Membership of Austria, Finland and Sweden.
• 13th-14th December 1996: adoption of the EMU’s stability and growth pact.
• 1st January 1999: introduction of the single currency on the financial markets.
• 1st May 1999: entry into force of the Amsterdam Treaty, signed on 2nd October 1997.
• 1st January 2002: introduction of coins and notes in euros in 11 Member States.
• 1st February 2003: entry into force of the Nice Treaty, signed on 26th February 2001.
• 1st May 2004: Membership of 10 new Member States: Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia.
• 1st January 2007: Membership of Bulgaria and Romania.
• 1st December 2009: entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty. The European Council acquires a President and a High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, who is also Vice-President of the Commission. The European Parliament becomes a legislator almost in its own right.
• 7th May 2010: adoption by the European Council of the European stabilisation mechanism to help States in difficulty (Greek crisis).
• 17th June 2010: adoption by the European Council of stricter governance rules (European budgetary review semester).
• 28th-29th October 2010: adoption by the European Council of a permanent crisis management mechanism for the euro area (Irish crisis).
• 2nd March 2012: the treaty on stability, coordination and governance, TSCG, better known as the European Fiscal Stability Treaty was signed on 2nd March 2012 in Brussels by the heads of State and government of 25 Member States of the European Union (except for the UK and the Czech Republic). This treaty provides for the application of stricter rules in terms of the fight to counter deficits and government debt, but also it provides for possible sanctions against States who are not strict enough in this area.
• 1st
