Planning Gain E-Book

Tony Crook

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Real Estate Issues
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 679

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Winner of the Royal Town Planning Institute award for research excellence

This critical examination of the development and implementation of planning gain is timely given recent changes to the economic and policy environment.

The book looks both at the British context as well as experience in other developed economies and takes stock of how the policy has evolved. It examines the rationale for planning gain, how it has delivered substantial funds for infrastructure and affordable housing and, in the light of this, how it might continue to play a role in the funding of these.  It also draws on overseas experience, for example on impact fees and public sector land assembly.  It looks at lessons from the past for future policy, both for Britain and for countries overseas.

Mechanisms to tap development value are also a global phenomenon in developed market economies - whether through formal taxation or negotiated contributions.  As fiscal austerity becomes an increasingly challenging issue, ‘planning gain’ has grown in importance as a potential source of funding for infrastructure and new affordable housing, with many countries keen to examine, learn from, and adapt the experience of others.

• a critical commentary of planning gain as a policy
• timely post credit crunch analysis
• addresses recent planning policy changes

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Real Estate Issues

Books in the series

Title Page

Copyright

Acknowledgements

Foreword

Preface

Notes on Contributors

Chapter 1: Introduction

Purpose of the book

Factors affecting effective development value capture

Key factors behind the development of planning gain policy in England

Definitions

The structure of the book

References

Chapter 2: The Economics of Development Value and Planning Gain

Introduction

Why is land and its value special?

The potential to tax increasing land values without generating inefficiency

The impact of planning on development values – the creation of planning gain

Instruments available to capture planning gain

Overview

References

Chapter 3: Capturing Development Value Through de jure National Taxation: The English Experience

Introduction

Betterment and development value defined

Compensation and betterment: the Uthwatt principles

Taxing development value: post-war national schemes

Lessons learned

References

Chapter 4: Planning Obligations Policy in England: de facto Taxation of Development Value

Introduction

Planning obligations: the key principles

Using planning obligations to secure land and funding for affordable housing

Recent policy initiatives

Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Development Viability

Introduction

Development viability

Development appraisal

Estimating the residual value of a residential development site

Assessing the impact of planning obligations and developer's contributions on the viability of development proposals

Accounting for spatial and temporal variations in the development market

Conclusion: addressing the viability dilemma?

References

Chapter 6: The Incidence and Value of Planning Obligations

Introduction

The growth of obligations

Methods for measuring the incidence and calculating the value of planning obligations in England

The number of obligations in England

Affordable housing obligations in England

The total value of planning obligations agreed in England

Planning obligations in Scotland and Wales

Rural exceptions schemes

Who pays for the obligations?

Conclusions

References

Chapter 7: Spatial Variation in the Incidence and Value of Planning Obligations

Introduction

Defining and disseminating good practice in planning obligations

Regional variations in the value of planning obligations

Quantitative analysis of the drivers of the incidence and value of planning obligations

Qualitative explanations for spatial variations in planning obligations

Conclusions

References

Chapter 8: Delivering Planning Obligations – Are Agreements Successfully Delivered?

Introduction

Why consider delivery of planning obligations?

Types of planning obligations

Case-study evidence of successful delivery of planning obligations

Quantitative evidence on the delivery of obligations

The factors affecting the delivery of affordable housing obligations

Trends in the delivery of affordable housing

The impact of the economic downturn on delivery

Implementing the community infrastructure levy

Conclusions

References

Chapter 9: International Experience

Introduction: making comparisons and transferring experience

Australia

Germany

The Netherlands

United States

Summary and conclusions: comparing the English and international experience

References

Chapter 10: Summary and Conclusions

Introduction

Policies for capturing development value

The economics of planning obligations

The financial aspects of planning obligations

Conclusions

References

Index

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End User License Agreement

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Guide

Table of Contents

Foreword

Preface

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2: The Economics of Development Value and Planning Gain

Figure 2.1 The impact of land taxation. (a) Land in fixed supply, (b) Land supply in a particular use.

Figure 2.2 The impact of land-use planning; some scenarios.

Chapter 5: Development Viability

Figure 5.1 The financial structure of development.

Figure 5.2 Property development within the wider property market.

Figure 5.3 Example of simple land value residual.

Figure 5.4 Example of basic cash-flow land value residual.

Figure 5.5 The impact of planning requirements on residual land value.

Figure 5.6 The impact of planning obligations and CIL on development viability.

Figure 5.7 Trends in new house prices and tender prices (in current prices; Q1 1985 = 100).

Chapter 6: The Incidence and Value of Planning Obligations

Figure 6.1 Percentage of all non-householder planning permissions that were accompanied by S106 planning agreements 1987–2011.

Figure 6.2 Value of residential land with planning permission in England and Wales outside London.

Figure 6.3 Numbers of planning permissions for housing.

Figure 6.4 Number of affordable units granted planning permission in S106 agreements.

Chapter 7: Spatial Variation in the Incidence and Value of Planning Obligations

Figure 7.1 Transitions in policy and practice.

Figure 7.2 Variability in the number of obligations per 1000 residents by local authority type 2005–2006.

Figure 7.3 Variability in the number of obligations per 1000 residents by local authority type 2007–2008.

Chapter 8: Delivering Planning Obligations – Are Agreements Successfully Delivered?

Figure 8.1 Method of delivery for most common planning obligations for case study schemes.

Figure 8.2 New affordable homes secured on S106 sites in England.

Figure 8.3 Completions of all new affordable homes in England and S106 completions as a percentage of the total.

List of Tables

Chapter 3: Capturing Development Value Through de jure National Taxation: The English Experience

Table 3.1 The four national attempts to tax development value

Chapter 5: Development Viability

Table 5.1 Regional variation in development values, costs and viability

Chapter 6: The Incidence and Value of Planning Obligations

Table 6.1 A typology of planning obligations

Table 6.2 Proportions of dwelling developments with planning agreements attached

Table 6.3 Average number of planning agreements per local authority

Table 6.4 Average number of planning obligations per planning agreement by local authority family

Table 6.5 Use of an officer(s) dedicated to negotiating or monitoring agreements

Table 6.6 The percentage of LPAs using standard charging to secure planning obligations

Table 6.7 Average number of total obligations per LPA by obligation type (proportion that were in-kind in brackets)

Table 6.8 The nominal value of all new affordable homes agreed

Table 6.9 Average value of direct payment planning obligations per authority by type of obligation (thousands)

Table 6.10 Total value of planning obligations agreed in England (£ billions)

Chapter 7: Spatial Variation in the Incidence and Value of Planning Obligations

Table 7.1 Total Value of planning obligations (including affordable housing and land contributions)

Table 7.2 Total value of planning obligations (excluding affordable housing and land contributions)

Table 7.3 The key variables in the average number of planning obligations by LPA across 2003–2004, 2005–2006 and 2007–2008

Table 7.4 The key variables in the average value of planning obligations by LPA across 2003–2004, 2005–2006 and 2007–2008

Table 7.5 Use of an officer(s) dedicated to negotiating or monitoring agreements

Table 7.6 Ranking of the main reasons for any changes between 2005–2006 and 2007–2008 in the number and value of planning agreements

Chapter 8: Delivering Planning Obligations – Are Agreements Successfully Delivered?

Table 8.1 Types of contributions secured on case study schemes

Table 8.2 Typology of delivery of planning obligations 2007–2008

Table 8.3 Tenures of affordable completions on S106 sites by region

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Real Estate Issues

Series Managing Editors

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Department of Town and Regional Planning, University of Sheffield

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Chair Professor, Department of Real Estate and Construction, The University of Hong Kong

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Books in the series

Greenfields, Brownfields & Housing Development

Adams & Watkins

9780632063871

Planning, Public Policy & Property Markets

Adams, Watkins & White

9781405124300

Housing & Welfare in Southern Europe

Allen, Barlow, Léal, Maloutas & Padovani

9781405103077

Markets & Institutions in Real Estate & Construction

Ball

9781405110990

Building Cycles:

Growth & Instability

Barras

9781405130011

Neighbourhood Renewal & Housing Markets:

Community Engagement in the US and UK

Beider

9781405134101

Mortgage Markets Worldwide

Ben-Shahar, Leung & Ong

9781405132107

The Cost of Land Use Decisions:

Applying Transaction Cost Economics to Planning & Development

Buitelaar

9781405151238

Urban Regeneration & Social Sustainability:

Best Practice from European Cities

Colantonio & Dixon

9781405194198

Urban Regeneration in Europe

Couch, Fraser & Percy

9780632058419

Urban Sprawl in Europe:

Landscapes, Land-Use Change & Policy

Couch, Leontidou & Petschel-Held

9781405139175

Transforming Private Landlords

Crook & Kemp

9781405184151

Real Estate & the New Economy:

The Impact of Information and Communications Technology

Dixon, McAllister, Marston & Snow

9781405117784

Economics & Land Use Planning

Evans

9781405118613

Economics, Real Estate & the Supply of Land

Evans

9781405118620

Management of Privatised Housing:

International Policies & Practice

Gruis, Tsenkova & Nieboer

9781405181884

Development & Developers:

Perspectives on Property

Guy & Henneberry

9780632058426

The Right to Buy:

Analysis & Evaluation of a Housing Policy

Jones & Murie

9781405131971

Housing Markets & Planning Policy

Jones & Watkins

9781405175203

Office Markets & Public Policy

Colin Jones

9781405199766

Challenges of the Housing Economy:

An International Perspective

Jones, White& Dunse

9780470672334

Mass Appraisal Methods:

An International Perspective for Property Values

Kauko & d'Amato

9781405180979

Economics of the Mortgage Market:

Perspectives on Household Decision Making

Leece

9781405114615

Towers of Capital:

Office Markets & International Financial Services

Lizieri

9781405156721

Making Housing More Affordable:

The Role of Intermediate Tenures

Monk & Whitehead

9781405147149

Global Trends in Real Estate Finance

Newell & Sieracki

9781405151283

Housing Economics & Public Policy

O'Sullivan & Gibb

9780632064618

International Real Estate:

An Institutional Approach

Seabrooke, Kent & How

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Urban Design in the Real Estate Development Process:

Policy Tools & Property Decisions

Tiesdell & Adams

9781405192194

Real Estate Finance in the New Economy

Tiwari & White

9781405158718

British Housebuilders:

History & Analysis

Wellings

9781405149181

European Housing Finance

Lunde

9781118929452

Dynamics of Housing in East Asia

Cho

9780470672662

Planning Gain

Crook

9781118219812

Planning Gain

Providing Infrastructure and Affordable Housing

EDITED BY

Tony Crook

Emeritus Professor of Town and Regional Planning The University of Sheffield

John Henneberry

Professor of Property Development Studies The University of Sheffield

Christine Whitehead

Emeritus Professor of Housing Economics The London School of Economics

This edition first published 2016

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Crook, Tony, 1944- editor.

Planning gain : providing infrastructure & affordable housing / Tony Crook, John Henneberry, Christine Whitehead.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-21981-2 (cloth)

1. Real estate development–Great Britain. 2. Housing development–Great Britain. 3. Land use–Great Britain–Planning. 4. City planning–Great Britain. I. Henneberry, John, editor. II. Whitehead, Christine, editor. III. Title.

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Acknowledgements

We have worked together on research and policy development about the issues described and discussed in this book for more than two decades. Over this period, many colleagues have worked with us on ‘planning gain’ and on related matters. We are especially grateful to those who collaborated with us on a long series of research projects and who readily agreed to contribute chapters to the book. Many thanks are, therefore, due to Dr Gemma Burgess and Sarah Monk from the Cambridge Centre for Housing and Planning Research in the Department of Land Economy at the University of Cambridge, to Dr Steven Rowley from the Business School, Curtin University, Western Australia, and to Richard Dunning, Dr Ed Ferrari and Professor Craig Watkins from the Department of Urban Studies and Planning at the University of Sheffield.

We also wish to record our thanks to the many other colleagues and organisations who worked with us on some of the projects referred to in this book, including Peter Bibby, Professor Heather Campbell, Jennie Currie, Three Dragons consultancy, Dr Hugh Ellis, Caroline Gladwell, Professor Barry Goodchild, The Halcrow Group, Alistair Jackson, Michael Jones, Diane Lister, Dr Roland Lovatt, Fiona Lyall-Grant, Christina Short, Kerry Smith, Dr Robin Smith, Dr Connie Tang and Roger Tym & Partners.

We gratefully acknowledge the support and funding we received on topics discussed in the book from the Department of Communities and Local Government (and its forerunners, the Department of the Environment and the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister), The Countryside Agency, The Homes & Communities Agency (and its forerunner, The Housing Corporation), Inspire East, The Joseph Rowntree Foundation, The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and the Institution's Foundation, The Royal Town Planning Institute, and The Welsh Assembly Government. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the government departments, agencies and other organisations who funded the work.

Many local authorities, house-builders, housing associations and the staff of professional institutes, trade bodies, government departments and government agencies participated in the research through patiently filling in our questionnaires, helping with case studies, guiding us through official statistics, and sitting on focus and advisory groups. Without their unstinting help, we could not have conducted the research we report on in this volume. Thanks are also due to the four anonymous referees who reviewed our proposal for this book in the RICS Real Estate research series and also to the editorial team at Wiley Blackwell for commissioning the book and for their advice and help throughout its preparation. We are also grateful to Dame Kate Barker for agreeing to write the Foreword to the book.

We wish to thank the following for permission to use data and reprint tables in previously published research reports and journal articles: Davis Langdon in relation to Table 5.1; the Department for Business Innovation and Skills in relation to Figure 5.7; the Department for Communities and Local Government for permission in relation to Figures 6.1, 6.3, 6.4, 7.2, 7.3, 8.2 and 8.3, Tables 6.2–6.10 and Tables 7.5, 7.6 and 8.3; Nationwide Building Society in relation to Table 5.1 and Figure 5.7; Prentice Education, Inc. for Figure 5.2; the editors of People, Place & Policy Online for Figure 8.1 and for Tables 8.1 and 8.2; and the Valuation Office Agency for Figure 6.2.

We would also like to thank the following publishers for permission to quote significant text from the following government publications, journal articles and research reports: Her Majesty's Stationery Office (and its successor body the Stationery Office) for permission to quote from the 1942 Uthwatt report, from the 2007 Command Paper 7191 ‘Homes for the Future’, from the National Audit Office 2013 report on the New Homes Bonus; and from the Communities & Local Government Select Committee 2014 report on the Operation of the National Planning Policy Framework; the Department of Communities & Local Government (and its forerunners) to quote from Planning Policy Guidance Note 1 of 1988, Circular 5/05 of 2005, from the National Planning Policy Framework, 2012 and from the 2014 Consultation Paper on the Development Benefits pilot; the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors to quote from its 2012 publication ‘Financial Viability’, the Royal Town Planning Institute for permission to quote from its evidence to the 2007 consultation on Planning Gain Supplement; and Thomson Reuters (Professional) UK Ltd. on behalf of Sweet & Maxwell to quote from a 1989 article by Nathaniel Lichfield and from 1992 and 2000 articles by Malcolm Grant, all in the Journal of Planning and Environment Law.

Foreword

Planning gain is complex. The history of various attempts at national development taxation followed by a succession of locally negotiated schemes for planning obligations indicates the persistent dissatisfaction, which arises from the impossibility of devising a perfect solution. This book makes a tremendous contribution to the subject by bringing together a rigorous theoretic approach, a clear narrative of developments since 1947 and a good deal of data on the revenue that has been gained for the public purse and on the new affordable homes secured from planning obligations.

In particular, it is welcome to read a very clear account of why the taxation of land can be rather more distorting of land use than is sometimes supposed. It was also salutary for me to be reminded of why my own suggestion of a Planning Gain Supplement ultimately failed to be adopted. The evidence that the burden from planning gain generally seems to fall on the landowner is a nice confirmation of what theory would predict. However, a big question on land prices of what is the ‘right price’ to use in a viability calculation is also raised, but perhaps unsurprisingly is not resolved.

There is much stress here on how locally based systems have worked better than attempts at national taxation. However, this also leads to inconsistency in practice, and in monitoring of delivery. While it is encouraging to read that the vast bulk of obligations are delivered, it is also dispiriting that some local authorities do not seem able to devote resources to ensuring that what is negotiated gets done.

There are some real nuggets too, for example, it is often argued that it would be better for there to be more certainty in advance about what planning obligations will be on a particular site. But the international evidence suggests that the flexible negotiations we have in England, which are better able to handle the fact that every site is of course different, are also able to yield more planning gain.

For the tidy-minded economist, it is a bit unsatisfactory that planning gain is seeking to do two things: extract the gain from the public decision to grant planning permission and finance consequential infrastructure. But it is clear this works in practice if not in theory. However, the concluding comment about ‘requiring developers to contribute to the infrastructure costs they impose on local communities’ concerns me a little. The reason we need more infrastructure as a country is because we have more people. Of course, the location of building affects where we need it. But it is important that this is given the right profile as a national issue – not purely a local one.

This is a highly important book. The stress in the conclusion on moving towards public land banking is one I support. It also draws out the truth that government prefers to raise money from charges on development, rather than from property values (which, perhaps more rationally, could also be used to fund infrastructure) because this is not a tax and the effects are more hidden from the public.

Dame Kate Barker

Dame Kate Barker is a non-executive director of several finance and housing companies. She is also a former member of the UK's Monetary Policy Committee and of the board of the Homes & Communities Agency. She undertook independent reviews for the UK government of housing supply and of the planning system in England.

Preface

Whether and how to capture the development value created through spatial and land-use planning decisions has dominated many conceptual, policy and practice planning debates for several decades, not only in Britain but also in many other countries. Since the early days of planning legislation, Britain has made several attempts, especially after World War II, to capture development value through national taxation. None of these succeeded and, although each new attempt learned something from past failures, they generally led to land being withheld from the market whilst attempts to bring development land into public ownership to counter land withholding were also largely ineffective.

These failures have not stopped debates on the arguments for, and methods of capturing development value. Far from it, scholarly and policy debates on the issue continue to be lively. Over the last three decades, a different means of capturing development value has emerged in Britain, one that does not rely on nationally imposed and levied taxation – and initially did not rely on a national policy initiative. It is colloquially referred to as ‘Planning Gain’. This is the long-standing system of planning obligations which permits local planning authorities to negotiate financial and ‘in-kind’ contributions with developers when they are seeking planning permission. Since 1990, the use of this system has spread from a few innovative authorities experimenting with the system of obligations to raise funds so that now most authorities have adopted and use it to some extent. It has raised large amounts of funding at a time when public funds are increasingly scarce. When the costs that developers incur in making these contributions are passed back to landowners in the form of lower land prices, this effectively captures development value to help pay for local infrastructure such as the roads and schools needed for new development and to pay for new community needs, including affordable housing. Although far from a ‘first best’ means of capturing development value it has been a successful means of doing so, but one which depends heavily for its success on the buoyancy of local property markets and on the policies and professional skills of local planning authorities.

We have written this book describing how the system of ‘planning gain’ has developed in Britain for two reasons. First, we and our colleagues have been monitoring the system of planning obligations for two decades. We have published extensively on the results of our work in research reports, in evidence to government consultations and to parliamentary select committees' inquiries, in short articles in professional magazines, and in scholarly refereed journal articles. We have also spoken regularly on the topic at many professional and academic conferences and in briefings for members of the policy and practice communities, including those in government, in the legal, property and planning professions, and in the trade bodies and lobby groups of housing organisations in the private and not-for-profit sectors. This has given us a privileged ‘seat’ at policy and other debates, as we have provided independent evidence on how the system of planning obligations has been working and critically commented on its effectiveness and on the many policy changes regularly proposed (and implemented) throughout the period under study. So, the first reason for this book is to pull together this evidence so that the ‘story’ of how planning obligations have emerged as an effective means of capturing development value in England and for charging developers for infrastructure is readily accessible to researchers and policy analysts in this country. Our intention is that the book will form a useful basis for informed policy and scholarly discussion.

Our second reason for writing the book is to ensure that this planning gain ‘story’ is equally accessible to policy analysts and researchers in other countries. We know from our own experience that many of those working in the research and policy communities in other countries often look to our experience to find lessons about what works in England to use in their own countries. Yet we know that there are limits to what can be transferred. In particular, account needs to be taken both of the specific contexts within which planning gain developed in England and of the often quite different contexts in other countries before any assessment of the legitimacy and likely impact of policy transfer can be made. We also know that the experience in England is all too easily misunderstood and yet there are messages which can be of value in many different circumstances. So our second reason for this book is to try to tell our story with sufficient clarity and detail that it is of value to those in other countries who are looking to fund infrastructure and housing through their planning regimes. This is why we have devoted one chapter out looking at the experience in four other countries to help point to the similarities and differences between those countries and England.

Although the empirical evidence we present throughout this book comes largely from our own recent work on planning obligations, we also draw on the work of others who have researched and written on the topic. We hope this ensures that the book is a comprehensive coverage of the academic and policy debates and of the evidence about the workings and effectiveness of planning obligations policies and practices. The drafting of this book drew to an end in December 2014 and it is from that time we look back and tell the story of planning obligations in England, conscious that the details will inevitably change after publication of this volume. Because we in the United Kingdom now live in a state which has handed over much domestic policy to devolved governments in Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales we have dealt very largely with the experience of England.

Tony Crook, John Henneberry and Christine WhiteheadSheffield and London, January 2015

Notes on Contributors

Dr Gemma Burgess is a Senior Research Associate at the Cambridge Centre for Housing and Planning Research, Department of Land Economy, University of Cambridge. Her research focuses on land supply and the delivery of housing through the planning system; in particular, she has conducted extensive research on planning obligations, the Community Infrastructure Levy and affordable housing. She recently led research for the House of Commons Communities and Local Government Select Committee on the nature of planning constraints. Her research also encompasses housing options for older people.

Professor Tony Crook is a chartered town planner, Emeritus Professor of Town & Regional Planning and former Pro Vice Chancellor, University of Sheffield. His current research focuses on planning obligations and affordable housing and on the supply side of the private rented housing sector. His co-authored book with Professor Peter A Kemp, Transforming Private Landlords, was published by Wiley Blackwell in 2011. He is also actively engaged in policy and practice. He is the Chair Emeritus of the Shelter Trustee Board, Deputy Chair of the Orbit Housing Group, a non-executive director of a regional house-builder, a Trustee of the Coalfields Regeneration Trust, a council member of the Academy of Social Sciences, and a member of the Royal Town Planning Institute Trustee Board. He is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences and was appointed CBE in 2014 for his services to housing and the governance of charities.

Richard Dunning is a Research Associate in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning, University of Sheffield. He completed his MA in Commercial Property in the department and worked as an Industrial Agent for GVA Grimley, returning to the department in 2009 to work on a number of research projects and subsequently to do his PhD in housing economics. His principal research interest is in applying behavioural analysis approaches to issues related to infrastructure, housing and real-estate markets. Richard has recently undertaken research projects for the EU, RICS, the Department for Communities and Local Government, the French Government, the Joseph Rowntree Foundation and local governments.

Dr Ed Ferrari is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning, University of Sheffield. Having completed his BA and PhD in the department, he left Sheffield to take up a post as GIS Officer for Birmingham City Council and then as a Research Fellow and Lecturer at the Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, University of Birmingham. He returned to Sheffield in 2006. His main research interests are in the analysis of housing markets, mobility in the social rented sector, application of GIS to housing research, and use of secondary datasets for policy research and evaluation. His work involves a wide range of local and central government clients aimed at developing evidence bases for spatial strategy and housing investment purposes. He was closely involved in the development of the evidence base for the government's Housing Market Renewal programme (2002–2010) and was a lead member of the consortium undertaking the national evaluation of the HMR Pathfinders for the Department of Communities and Local Government. He is also a former Chair of the Housing Studies Association, the learned society of all housing researchers in the UK.

Professor John Henneberry is a charted town planner, a chartered surveyor and Professor of Property Development Studies, Department of Urban Studies and Planning, University of Sheffield. His research focuses on the structure and behaviour of the property market and its relation to the wider economy and state regulatory systems. He has particular interests in property development and investment and their contribution to urban and regional development. He has developed a distinctive ‘old’ institutional approach to property research that focuses on the impact of social, cultural and behavioural influences on market actors, structures, processes and outcomes. He is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences.

Sarah Monk is an applied economist and currently a Departmental Fellow in the Department of Land Economy, University of Cambridge. She was the Deputy Director of the Cambridge Centre for Housing and Planning Research (CCHPR) from 1999 until her retirement in 2014. She remains a Senior Associate of the Centre. Her research interests have focused on the delivery of affordable housing through the planning system and she has published widely on this topic. She has jointly edited two books with Christine Whitehead, the founding Director of CCHPR: Restructuring Housing Systems: From Social to Affordable Housing in 2000 and Making Housing More Affordable: The Role of Intermediate Tenures published by Wiley Blackwell in 2010. She is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences.

Dr Steven Rowley is an Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Economics and Property at Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia. He is also Director of the Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute's Curtin Research Centre. Prior to joining Curtin, he worked as a Research Fellow in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning, University of Sheffield for nine years, focusing mainly on research, particularly UK Government funded research projects on planning and affordable housing, including being part of the team that calculated the incidence and value of planning obligations in both England and Wales. He also worked on commercial property markets and the impact of environmental improvements on land values. He also consulted for Fordham Planning Consultants in London, specialising in the development viability of residential and commercial development projects with a particular focus on the impact of planning obligations and affordable housing.

Professor Craig Watkins is an applied economist and Professor of Planning and Housing in the Department of Urban Studies & Planning, University of Sheffield. He is also Director of Research and Innovation in the Faculty of Social Science and Director of the Sheffield Urban Institute, a research centre that spans Social Science and Engineering departments and seeks to develop socio-technical solutions to urban problems. His research focuses on understanding the structure and operation of property markets, particularly local housing systems, and on exploring the interaction between planning, public policy and property market behaviour.

Professor Christine Whitehead is Emeritus Professor of Housing Economics at the London School of Economics and was for 20 years the Director of the Cambridge Centre of Housing and Planning Research, University of Cambridge. She is an internationally respected applied economist working mainly in the fields of housing economics, finance and policy. Major themes in her recent research have included analysis of the relationship between planning and housing; the role of private renting in European housing systems; financing social housing in the UK and Europe; and more broadly the application of economic concepts and techniques to questions of public resource allocation with respect to housing, education, policing and urban regeneration. Her latest book, with Kath Scanlon and Melissa Fernandez, Social Housing in Europe, was published by Wiley Blackwell in July 2014. She is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences and was appointed OBE in 1991 for services to housing.

Chapter 1Introduction

Tony Crook1, John Henneberry and Christine Whitehead