Public Transportation in Kenya (A Phenomenological Study of Transport Issues) E-Book
Joseph Kamau Muguro
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Lebensstil
- Sprache: Englisch
Public Transportation in Kenya provides an in-depth examination of the significant challenges faced by Kenya’s public transportation system, using a phenomenological approach to highlight the real-world experiences of commuters and stakeholders. The book addresses two primary goals: to explain the severe impact of transportation issues on millions of Kenyans, including loss of livelihoods, disabilities, and fatalities, and to propose solutions aimed at reducing road traffic accidents and improving overall transportation safety. The chapters begin with a review of Kenya's transport studies and current state, followed by an analysis of road traffic accident data and contributing factors. Subsequent sections explore the inadequacies in infrastructure, traffic law and enforcement, and the challenges posed by incomplete data collection. The book also details an innovative study using data mining and natural language processing (NLP) on over one million traffic-related tweets to uncover commuter trends and driver behaviors. The final set of chapters presents comprehensive recommendations for improving road safety, enhancing infrastructure, and reforming policing practices to better manage traffic and transportation issues. Key features of this book include the use of both structured and unstructured data for a robust analysis, practical solutions for policymakers, and an innovative methodological approach utilizing NLP and data mining to analyze the issues presented. References and summaries are also provided in each chapter to make information accessible. These elements make the book a valuable resource for researchers, academics, policymakers, transportation professionals, and anyone interested in the socio-economic impacts of public transportation in Kenya and other African countries. Public Transportation in Kenya is essential reading for those looking to understand and address the critical transportation challenges that affect millions daily, providing insights and solutions that can lead to safer and more efficient transport systems. Readership All readers who want to understand transportation issues in Kenya: students, general readers, researchers, professionals and policymakers in the field of urban planning and transportation.
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Seitenzahl: 320
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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FOREWORD
The book, inspired by a doctoral dissertation takes a deep dive into the exploration of Kenya's public transportation system, undertaken through a phenomenological study. The multidimensional analysis encompasses safety, policy, law enforcement, infrastructure, traffic flow, and the role of Public Service Vehicles (PSVs). This detailed analysis demonstrates the linked nature of these aspects, offering a detailed insight into the challenges and possibilities that shape Kenya's transport landscape.
The significant lack of dependable, all-inclusive accident/traffic-related data availability has been highlighted in the literature. The work adopted alternative data sources augmented by advanced analytical techniques such as Natural Language Processing (NLP). Integrating many data sources and NLP approaches deepens the research by revealing patterns, correlations, and trends that are critical for understanding accidents and contextual variables that contribute to high mortality rates. The research emphasizes the need to use data to improve road safety. It stresses how a lack of data hinders efficient planning, policy formation, and informed decision-making.
The study goes beyond problem assessment and actively proposes transformational remedies. The work proposes an Intelligent Transport System (ITS) that integrates sensor technologies, AI, and other onboard units that seamlessly integrate with existing policing functionalities. The ITS as proposed would enhance monitoring and improve safety. Through this and other recommendations, the work engages in advocacy, proposing methods and initiatives to address the highlighted concerns. From calling for a data revolution in transport to emphasizing road safety programmes and embracing technology-driven solutions, the authors provide a road map for dramatic change. Each recommendation is made with a thorough understanding of the subtleties and complexity of Kenya's transport scene.
In conclusion, this book makes an outstanding addition to the discussion of transport in Kenya and beyond. It smoothly blends human stories, academic seriousness, and a call to action, making it a must-read for policy-makers, scholars, and anyone interested in public transportation's revolutionary potential. The authors have identified the issues and established the basis for a future in which mobility is safer, more efficient, and responsive to the demands of the public.
PREFACE
On a fateful day, 12 February 2015, Fredrick Muguro did not resume his usual business after dropping his kid at Buruburu Primary School, Nairobi Kenya. He was knocked down from his motorcycle and run over by a Matatu operator. In his last moments, he was pleading with bystanders to take him to hospital, which never happened. Road accidents like this are all too common in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa. Breadwinners' lives are cut short in tragic incidences, some of which could have been avoided. This work, looking at transport issues in Kenya, is an attempt to, (1) underscore the plight of millions who have suffered through lost livelihoods, disabilities, and ultimately lost lives, and (2) propose a solution, that can save at least a life that would needlessly be another statistic in countries road traffic fatality counts.
The current work, emerging from a doctoral dissertation, is a phenomenological treatise of transportation issues that grip Kenya’s general transport, emphasising public transportation. The issues discussed are nevertheless not unique to Kenya as the general practices and experiences resonate with all African countries. At the heart of the book's authorship is to point stakeholders (policymakers and any interested party) and researchers (grad. students, research firms) to the disproportionately huge issues that African countries have to grapple with to streamline the transport sector. That is, the work offers insights into Kenya’s (and by extension, most African countries) transport situation as well as informs policy refinement and possible venture/investment opportunities.
From global metrics, African countries have the highest fatality index ranging from 25-34 per quota from Road Traffic Accidents (RTA). The World Health Organization estimates Kenya’s fatality rate due to RTA at 28 per quota. Despite this, research towards RTA is minimal or insufficient compared to the impacts and trends in the country. Chief among the issues compiling the RTA challenge is the availability of traffic-related data. The country faces incomplete RTA data capturing, hindering effective planning and policy adjustments to curb the menace. To overcome the issue, the work employed data mining techniques from transportation agencies' statistical abstracts and user-generated sources to formulate a comprehensive view of the road traffic situation in the country.
The work collected all publicly available statistical abstract reports from the National Transport and Safety Authority (NTSA), the body overseeing and formulating transportation policies in Kenya, between 2015 and 2021. The objective is to assess the trends of road incidents to uncover prevalence concerning time, locality, affected groups, and main sources of collision and, most importantly, formulate a generalised causative agency from the reported data. Overall, police-reported data only touches on major incidents (accidents) since that is when motorists involve authorities; minor collisions and traffic flow go undocumented. Prevailing conditions of the traffic incidents (e.g., drunk drivers) are unreported with a focus on the numerical reports (e.g., number of fatalities). As such, alternative data mining methods become necessary to describe traffic policies and culture exhaustively with unbiased user-generated content. To this end, the study gathered 1,000,000+ traffic-related tweets describing Kenyan traffic for the same period (2015 – 2021) and performed natural language processing (NLP) and quantitative study of the data.
From the data analysis using NLP, the identified causes of fatalities point to preventable driver errors. Further, as reported through user-generated data, the main challenge is traffic rule observance in various aspects of road monitoring. As such, the most reasonable course of action would be to reform/enhance policing and road monitoring efforts in the country. The main takeaways of the study are:
Road safety concerns: Traffic accidents were identified as a major issue, with commuters reporting a lack of proper infrastructure and inadequate law enforcement as contributing factors.Lack of infrastructure: Poor infrastructure was identified as a major challenge, exacerbated by prevailing weather patterns like rains and property damage to established infrastructure.Inefficient policing, regulations, and enforcement: Commuters reported that regulations and laws were not being enforced effectively, leading to issues such as overloading of vehicles and unsafe driving practices.Vandalism and security issues: Commuters, motorists, and general road users reported incidents of theft and harassment, as well as a general sense of insecurity on the roads, making many users feel unsafe and vulnerable.Disaster preparedness: Commuters reported that there were no proper emergency protocols and that transport providers were ill-prepared to handle emergencies.Poor passenger experience: Commuters/road users reported that the passenger service provided by public service vehicle operators was often poor, with constant complaints touching on noise pollution, recklessness, blatant disregard of traffic rules, and general conduct.Lack of reliable and punctual services: Commuters reported frequent delays, congestion, improper redirection of traffic, and or cancellations of means of transportation, leading to significant inconvenience and wasted time.Inadequate data collection: Incomplete data collection was identified as a problem, making it difficult to assess the situation and develop effective solutions accurately. A complimentary source of data (crowdsourced data) was adopted to formulate the study and draw conclusions.The work recommends fortification of road policing, enhancement in traffic control, and data collection in the face of incidents to aid in modelling and analysis for future planning.
The work, which blended structured and unstructured data, points to the utility of data mining, which would greatly benefit traffic research, particularly African-based studies, that suffer from data inadequacy. The hope is that the investigation and recommendations contained in the book would inform and sensitise policymakers and the greater public on the effects of driving behaviour and tendencies.
The hope is that the investigation and recommendations contained in the book would inform and sensitize policymakers and the greater public on the effects of driving behavior and tendencies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Introduction
Joseph Kamau Muguro1,Paul Waweru Njeri1,Minoru Sasaki2Abstract
The section introduces the complex array of challenges confronting transportation in Kenya, drawing on an extensive examination of existing literature. It highlights key issues such as safety, policing and policy regulations, infrastructure shortcomings, all crucial components of the transportation landscape. By contextualizing these challenges within the framework of sustainable development goals (SDGs), the chapter underscores the urgent need to align transportation practices with broader sustainability objectives. This foundational analysis sets the stage for subsequent discussions aimed at identifying actionable solutions and driving progress toward a more sustainable transport system in Kenya, ultimately paving the way for transformative change in the nation's transportation sector.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Transport drives the economic and social needs of the citizens by making mobility and movement of goods and services available, making it an indispensable aspect of any country's developmental agenda. Since the transport needs of a country are constantly shifting based on travel demands and population growth, transportation planning is a critical consideration. As such, recent trends have been towards realising sustainable transportation. Sustainable transport system targets low- and zero-emission, cost-effective, energy-efficient modes of transportation, which encompasses both public transportation (such as trains, trams, and electric / zero-emissions buses, among others) and private transportation (pedestrians, bikes, scooters, electric vehicles, among others). The targeted advantages of sustainable transportation include fuel and vehicle cost savings, less pollution and emissions from burning fossil fuels, employment growth due to new production systems and transit modes, and increased energy efficiency of the transit modes, amongst others.
A safe and resilient transport system can entail three main blocks: road safety, policing, and road infrastructure. Besides these, policies and technology can be taken as enablers of the smooth operations of a transport system. In this case, policing is an outflow of policies formulated on the legal usage of roads, allocation of transport resources, and management, among others. Technology is an emergent field continuously shaping people's lives in all aspects. In this case, technology use is indispensable for a sustainable transport system to optimise all aspects of transport with issues like traffic, fleet, and monitoring management, among others. The relationship between the five pillars is described in Fig. (1) below. In this case, the most readily discussed aspect of transportation is safety, covering accidents and other collisions emanating from vehicle-human interactions. Road traffic accidents (RTA) are a global public health concern.
Fig. (1)) Ingredients of sustainable road transport systems. Source authors.According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 1.35 million people die annually due to RTAs [1]. As per the statistics by WHO and other sources, the fatality rate is the highest in African countries, with an indexed estimate between 25-34 per 100,000 population [2-4]. World Bank, through the Global Road Safety Facility (GSRF), estimated the fatality rate of the country to be 27.8 per 100,000 people as of 2016 [5].
According to the year 2020's RTA trend analysis, Kenya's fatalities and injuries have increased by 26% and 46.5%, respectively, compared to 2015 [6]. Incidences involving vulnerable road users (pedestrians, motorcyclists, cyclists, passengers, and pillion passengers) have reported an increase of over 300% over the same period. RTAs are estimated to cost a country between 5 - 10% of the gross domestic product in terms of Medicare, repairs, and loss of productivity, with 93% of all world accidents occurring in low- and middle-income countries [1, 3, 5, 7]. The impacts make accidents a social issue worth considering for all stakeholders. Despite this, research on RTA is minimal or insufficient compared to the impacts and trends in most African countries. The chief issue among the issues compiling the RTA challenge is the availability of traffic-related data. Africa faces incomplete RTA data capturing, hindering effective planning and policy adjustments to curb the menace.
Proactive policing and quality data-gathering mechanisms are also central to improving road safety. From the literature, developing countries hardly have any traffic data and weak institutions, which leads to a deteriorating RTA situation [8]. The reported literature focuses on small-scale surveys with hardly any sensor data to validate the findings except surveys and hospital/police reports [9-12]. The data collected from hospitals and police reports only touches on major incidents (accidents) since that is when motorists involve authorities; minor collisions and or traffic flow are hardly documented [13]. Alternative data mining methods become necessary to quantify traffic trends and culture. A research paper looked at the traffic data available to the public through the police and transport agencies and found the data to be limited in its coverage and grossly underreported [6].
To further disintegrate the problem of road traffic and related studies, literature has focused on user-generated data, with Twitter data ranking the highest. In this regard, user data is perceived as a complementary source that enriches conventional modes of data gathering like cameras and inductive sensors with the advantage of ubiquity, that is, non-geo-limited live data [14]. Using user-generated data makes it possible to get inexpensive and widespread information on recurrent and non-recurring traffic conditions (e.g., traffic trends and unpredictable incidents such as crashes).
In the section below, a historical state of transport in the country touching on policy, safety, infrastructure, and policing activities is investigated from the literature review.
1.2. Transport Issues in Kenya in the Last Decade
There is still a significant research need for inquiries to understand the intricacies of RTA in many African countries. There are no definitive answers as to what is at the heart of traffic issues and accidents in the country, and as such, more intensified inquiries that cut across all the facets of transport should be investigated.
The following is a literature review of all publicly available literature touching on Kenyan transportation issues from 2000 to date. In this case, keywords and search phrases that suggest an aspect of transportation in Kenya (or neighbouring African countries in some cases) were highlighted for further review. The objective was to formulate issues actively reported or highlighted as needing attention. The review of the works has been summarised into general categories for a glance, as shown in Table 1 below.
In the reviewed literature, authors focused on different aspects of transport in the country, ranging from roads and infrastructure, RTAs, access to hospitals and emergency centres, and trauma in accidents. In the categorisation, we grouped the general issues being addressed into RTAs, traffic flow, environment pollution, data collection strategies, ITS research, law enforcement and policy-related inquiries (policing), emergency response, roads and infrastructure, road users, public service vehicles (PSVs) and safety. From the above, we make the categories and discuss the following issues in subsequent topics.
Accidents, safety, and emergency responseRoad infrastructure and environmental pollutionPolicies and policing (law enforcement)Road users and PSVsTraffic flow and congestionData collection and integration of intelligent transport systems1.3. Study Objectives
The work is a phenomenological study of road transport in Kenya, which can be exported as a representative country and situation for many African countries. The work entails various data collection strategies from multiple sources to formulate a comprehensive picture of the state of road transportation in the country. Thus, the issues discussed are drawn from ongoing research trends, public outcry inferred from structured and unstructured user-generated data, and best international practices to manage and improve transport. The objective is to perform in-depth data analysis from all the focus areas highlighted in the literature review above to identify the issues affecting road transport in Kenya and offer potential solutions.
The main focus areas of the discussion are listed below.
Public road safety as witnessed through road accidents, emergency responses, and disaster preparedness.Policing and the role of technology in enhancing law enforcement. Impediments to policing, i.e., corruption and bribery, are also examined.PSV/private vehicle usage trends and the impacts on environmental pollution.Public commuter issues like passenger experience and crimes targeting motorists.Road infrastructure and its impacts on traffic flow.The goal is that the investigation and recommendations in the book would inform and sensitise policymakers and the greater public on improvements towards sustainable transport systems. The work attempts to paint an overview of the country's road transport and transport-related ramifications. An important consideration would be how the work interacts/aligns with the local and global developmental agendas. To this end, the subsequent section gives a summarised outlook of how the issues discussed in this work align/touch on the United Nations (U.N.) 2030 developmental agenda, given that Kenya is a member state in the U.N. community obligated to abide by the UN Charter and other international agreements ratified by the U.N.
The world faces significant challenges that threaten its future, including health, education, climate change, economic inequality, poverty, and social unrest. Sustainable development is the key to overcoming these challenges, and the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) outline the steps to achieving sustainable development.
Sustainable Cities and Communities is the 11th SDG of the U.N.'s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It aims to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable, promoting affordable housing, sustainable transport, and environmental sustainability. In the agenda, sustainable transport refers to using environmentally friendly and energy-efficient modes of transportation that reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve air quality, and promote social inclusion.
Globally, transportation is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, and it is estimated to be responsible for around 24% of global energy-related CO2 emissions as of 2020 [96]. Sustainable transport, therefore, plays a crucial role in achieving the SDGs, particularly those related to climate action, clean energy, and sustainable cities and communities. According to the U.N.'s SGD, promoting sustainable transport in cities involves a range of strategies, including:
Promoting public transportation: Encouraging the use of buses, trains, trams, cycling, and walking. This strategy requires investing in high-quality public transportation systems, such as bus rapid transit (BRT) or light rail systems, improving the frequency and reliability of services and making them affordable.Encouraging electric and hybrid vehicles: Electric vehicles produce significantly fewer emissions than traditional gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles. Promoting the use of electric and hybrid vehicles requires developing charging infrastructure, tax incentives, and subsidies to make them affordable for consumers.Developing sustainable urban planning: Urban planning promotes integrating land use and transportation planning. It involves designing cities and communities to reduce the need for long-distance travel and promotes compact, mixed-use development that is well connected to public transportation.Promoting active transportation: Encouraging walking, cycling, and other forms of active transportation can help reduce the number of cars on the road and promote physical activity, which has many health benefits. The strategy requires the development of safe and accessible infrastructure, such as bike lanes, pedestrian crossings, and sidewalks.Sustainable transport has many benefits, including reducing air pollution, mitigating climate change, and improving public health, promoting social inclusion, and reducing congestion. Achieving sustainable transport requires a collaborative effort between government, private sector, and civil society organisations. Promoting sustainable transport makes it possible to create healthier, livable cities and communities.
1.4. Contribution of the Work Towards SDGs
This section examines Kenya and, by extension, African countries, which are progressing towards sustainable transport SGD, focusing on pollution, health, economic output, and equality/inclusivity. As a phenomenological study, the work looks at the issues related to transport and discusses the problem and potential solutions. The discussion also draws inferential linkages on how a sustainable transport system impacts/leads to the realisation of other SGDs.
1.4.1. Policy Review Geared Toward Climate Action
Sustainable transport solutions such as electric vehicles, hybrid cars, and biofuels help reduce emissions, thus promoting climate action, SDG 13 (Climate Action), and good health and well-being (SDG 3). In this general category, the study looked at pollution sources, enablers, and policies around the issue and proposed policy refinement to remedy the issue.
A study conducted by Kinney et al. in Nairobi, Kenya, in 2009 indicated that PM2.5 ranged from 10.7 μg/m3 at the rural sites to 98.1 μg/m3 on a sidewalk in the city [88]. Authors in a study [97] reported an annual average of 27 ± 6 μgm3, 5X higher than the WHO recommended annual mean value (5 μgm3), while black carbon annual average was at 3.9 ± 1.2 μgm3. According to the National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change report submitted by the Kenyan government, the transport sector is responsible for approximately 8% of the country's total greenhouse gas emissions [98]. From this and other sources, Africa has a high average PM2.5 concentration ranging between 25-65 with a great proportion coming from transport-related activities.
Transport-related air pollution significantly contributes to respiratory diseases, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. In Kenya, most public transport vehicles are old and poorly maintained, emitting high carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and other harmful pollutants. According to the WHO, air pollution accounts for approximately 21,000 deaths in Kenya annually [99]. Improving public transport systems and promoting cleaner transport options, such as electric vehicles, can significantly reduce air pollution and improve air quality, leading to better health outcomes for the population.
African countries are working towards reducing emissions through sustainable transport solutions. For example, the government of Kenya is eyeing to convert all public transport vehicles to electric by 2030 [98]. The plan is to reduce emissions from the transport sector and promote a cleaner environment.
There are still challenges to achieving this goal. For instance, electric vehicles are yet to be fully adopted in the market, pushing their operational cost above what the average user would consider. According to the Global Electric Vehicle (E.V.) Outlook 2021 report by the International Energy Agency (IEA), as of 2020, E.V.s accounted for only 0.2% of Africa's total vehicle stock, compared to 2.5% globally [100]. The report notes that E.V. uptake in Africa is slow due to various challenges, including high upfront costs, limited availability of charging infrastructure, and a lack of supportive policies and incentives. Additionally, as discussed later, the over-reliance on imported second-hand vehicles pushes the actualisation of hybrid and E.V.s in African settings to at least 1.5 decades after they have been globally adopted.
Further, renewable energy costs are still relatively high compared to fossil fuels in most African countries. African countries need to invest in renewable energy infrastructure and rework policies to incentivise the adoption of sustainable transport solutions. In this work, much attention is given to looking at policies in place, e.g., the Traffic (parliamentary) Act, law enforcement practices, regulatory authorities, and other stakeholders, to show how each interacts with the public to shape the state of transportation in the country.
1.4.2. Impacts of Transport on Health and Healthcare Services
Sustainable transport plays a significant role in improving health outcomes in African countries. Proper and efficient transport is a critical factor in achieving the U.N.'s 3rd SDG, which aims to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all ages. In this case, improving transport systems increases access to healthcare, particularly for those living in rural or remote areas. In Kenya, access to healthcare is a significant challenge, with many people living far from healthcare facilities. Improved transport systems can facilitate the movement of medical personnel and supplies, leading to better healthcare outcomes for the population. Additionally, public transport can provide affordable transport options for those who need to access healthcare facilities, particularly in emergencies.
As discussed in this study, RTAs are a leading cause of death and disability in Kenya, with the predominant public mode of transit (PSV) being involved in a significant proportion of accidents. The uncontrolled nature of PSVs in Kenya has also led to many road accidents, injuries, and deaths. Emergency response in Kenya is lacking or under-prepared to face the ever-increasing challenge of traffic-related incidences. In this study, the response of ambulance, post-accident Medi-care, and road rescue centres are looked at from literature and other data sources to assess preparedness levels. RTAs have been shown to adversely affect the economic output of countries with healthcare burdens, disability, and mortality of breadwinners, to name a few.
Improving road infrastructure, enforcing road safety regulations, and promoting safer driving practices can significantly reduce the number of road accidents, leading to improved health outcomes, which goes a long way in support of the U.N.’s SDG 3. Infrastructure and other issues are presented in policing (law enforcement) and policy recommendations in the corresponding chapters of the study.
1.4.3. Assessment of Economic Output from the Transport Sector
Any effort to remedy African countries' social-economic challenges ultimately reduces poverty. Access to transport is essential for poverty reduction as it enables people to access education, healthcare, and job opportunities, which is in keeping with the promotion of SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth). For instance, improving public transportation by reducing travel time (eliminating congestion/traffic jams), establishing a cost-effective commute, and 24-hour safe and accessible transport makes it easier for people to access job opportunities and social services.
PSVs such as Matatus (minibuses), boda-bodas (motorcycles), and tuk-tuks (three-wheeled motor vehicles) are the primary means of transport for millions of Kenyans, particularly in urban areas. The transport industry has been embraced as a form of employment for many youths in the Kenyan economy. However, the public transport sector in Kenya is predominantly uncontrolled, leading to several negative impacts on the environment (pollution and congestion), public health, and safety.
African countries are estimated to lose billions of dollars annually in traffic jams through wasted work hours and fuel consumption. Another consideration point is the safety of passengers and motorists. For instance, Kenyan short-distance public transport closes down at night. Using alternative modes like motorcycle taxis supplements cost-effective transit; however, this presents a security challenge as motorcycles have a long history of perpetrating theft, violence, and other crimes.
Efforts to streamline the industry would enhance economic output, increase safe transit, and provide decent work opportunities. The discussion topics and proposed remedies are highlighted in various book chapters, summarised in Section 1.6.
1.4.4. Equality and Inclusivity in the Transport Sector
In many African countries, women face challenges accessing transport, limiting their access to education, health, and job opportunities. From this study, women in Kenya are particularly vulnerable to the negative impacts of uncontrolled public transport. Women often face harassment, assault, and discrimination when using public transport, particularly in the evening or at night. Additionally, women who work in the informal sector or have low-income jobs often have to use unsafe and unreliable transport options, making it difficult for them to access job opportunities and social services.
