Research Methods for Everyday Life E-Book

Scott W. VanderStoep

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Research Methods for the Social Sciences
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 595

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2008

Beschreibung

This book offers an innovative introduction to social research. The book explores all stages of the research process and it features both quantitative and qualitative methods. Research design topics include sampling techniques, choosing a research design, and determining research question that inform public opinion and direct future studies. Throughout the book, the authors provide vivid and engaging examples that reinforce the reading and understanding of social science research. "Your Turn" boxes contain activities that allow students to practice research skills, such as sampling, naturalistic observation, survey collection, coding, analysis, and report writing.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

List of Tables

Table of Figures

Table of Exhibits

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dedication

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Introduction

CHAPTER 1 - UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

TYPES OF RESEARCH

RESEARCH PROPOSALS

RESEARCH ETHICS

GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH SPSS

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 2 - THE WHO, HOW, AND WHY OF RESEARCH

WHO: SELECTING A SAMPLE

HOW: SELECTING A RESEARCH STRATEGY

WHY: DOING RESEARCH THAT MAKES A DIFFERENCE

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 3 - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: MEASUREMENT AND DATA COLLECTION

MEASUREMENT: TURNING ABSTRACTIONS INTO VARIABLES

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD MEASURES

COLLECTING DATA

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 4 - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: DESCRIPTIVE AND CORRELATIONAL DESIGNS

BASIC CONCEPTS

CAUSATION AND PREDICTION

DATA GATHERING

DATA ANALYSIS

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 5 - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: BASIC EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

EXPERIMENTAL VALIDITY

TYPES OF VARIABLES

CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTS

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

DATA ANALYSIS

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 6 - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: ADVANCED EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

BASIC CONCEPTS

REPEATED-MEASURES DESIGNS

COMPLEX DESIGNS

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

DATA ANALYSIS

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 7 - WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?

TELLING A STORY . . . QUALITATIVELY

TWO WORLDVIEWS ON RESEARCH: REALITY AND KNOWLEDGE

COMPARISON OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

CRITIQUE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

CRISIS OF REPRESENTATION

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 8 - PLANNING YOUR QUALITATIVE STUDY: DESIGN, SAMPLING, AND DATA ANALYSIS

DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 9 - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS: ETHNOGRAPHY, PHENOMENOLOGY, CASE ...

ETHNOGRAPHY

PHENOMENOLOGY

CASE STUDY

TEXTUAL ANALYSIS

APPLIED RESEARCH METHODS: ACTION AND EVALUATION RESEARCH

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 10 - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TOOLS: INTERVIEWING, FOCUS GROUPS, AND OBSERVATION

THE FIRST TOOL: DEFINING THE CONTEXT

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TOOLS: HOW TO COLLECT DATA

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 11 - PRESENTING YOUR RESEARCH FINDINGS

PRESENTING YOUR RESEARCH WITH A POSTER

PRESENTING YOUR RESEARCH IN AN ORAL PRESENTATION

PRESENTING YOUR RESEARCH IN A PAPER

REDUCING BIAS IN RESEARCH REPORTING

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A - A SAMPLE MANUSCRIPT FROM A QUANTITATIVE STUDY

APPENDIX B - A SAMPLE MANUSCRIPT FROM A QUALITATIVE STUDY

GLOSSARY

INDEX

Table of Figures

FIGURE 1.1. Classic research process model

FIGURE 1.2. Quantitative versus Qualitative Research

FIGURE 1.3. SPSS screen showing labels

FIGURE 2.1. Selecting a simple random sample

FIGURE 2.2. Generating random numbers using SPSS

FIGURE 2.3. Data from a repeated independent samples study

FIGURE 3.1. Simple scatterplot screen in SPSS

FIGURE 3.2. Simple scatterplot

FIGURE 3.3. Creating a bar graph in SPSS

FIGURE 3.4. Reliability analysis screen in SPSS

FIGURE 4.1. A scatterplot of a positive correlation

FIGURE 4.2. A scatterplot of a negative correlation

FIGURE 4.3. Descriptive statistics of test anxiety scores for students in “Science and Technology in Everyday Life” class

FIGURE 4.4. Frequency distribution of test anxiety scores for students in “Science and Technology in Everyday Life” class

FIGURE 4.5. Bivariate correlations screen in SPSS

FIGURE 4.6. Pearson correlation coefficients using SPSS

FIGURE 4.7. Cross-tabulations and chi-square statistics using SPSS

FIGURE 4.8. Crosstabs screen in SPSS

FIGURE 5.1. Conducting an ANOVA in SPSS.

FIGURE 6.1. Selected statistical output from a two-way ANOVA

FIGURE 6.2. Two-way ANOVA with significant interaction

FIGURE 6.3. Estimated marginal means of MEASURE_1

FIGURE 7.1. Sophie Calle’s exhibition at the Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy, July 2007

FIGURE 9.1.

FIGURE 9.2.

List of Tables

TABLE 1.1 Elements of a Good Proposal

TABLE 2.1 Margin of Error as a Function of Sample Size

TABLE 2.2 Benefits and Drawbacks of Various Research Designs

TABLE 3.1 Types of Data

TABLE 3.2a Frequency Distribution of Nominal Data (One Variable)

TABLE 3.2b Cross-Tabulation of Nominal Data (Two Variables)

TABLE 3.3a Frequency Distribution of Ordinal Data

TABLE 3.3b Cross-Tabulation of Ordinal Data with a Nominal Variable

TABLE 3.4 Data-Collection Methods

TABLE 4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Options for Administering Surveys

TABLE 4.2 Summary of Type I and Type II Errors

TABLE 6.1 Results of a Complex Design with Two Independent Variables

TABLE 6.2 Interaction Effects in a 2 × 2 Complex Design

TABLE 6.3a Example of a Latin Square Design with Three Levels of the Repeated-Measures Variable

TABLE 6.3b Example of a Latin Square Design with Four Levels of the Repeated Measures Variable

TABLE 6.4 Example of All-Possible-Orders Counterbalancing

TABLE 6.5 Interaction Effects in a Mixed Design

TABLE 7.1 Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Research

TABLE 9.1 A Comparison of Qualitative Characteristics of Research

TABLE 10.1 Closed- vs. Open-Ended Questions

TABLE 10.2 Multiple- vs. Single-Issue Questions

TABLE 11.1 Statistical Designations for Reporting Analyses in Tables and Results Sections

Table 1

Table 2

Table of Exhibits

EXHIBIT 1.1 Informed Consent Document

EXHIBIT 1.2 Debriefing Letter from Researchers Sent to Interviewees

EXHIBIT 2.1. Selecting a Systematic Sample

EXHIBIT 9.1 An Example of a Transcript for a Conversation Analysis

EXHIBIT 10.1 Avoid “Why?” Questions

EXHIBIT 11.2 Citation Format for APA Style

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataVanderStoep, Scott W. Research methods for everyday life : blending qualitative and quantitative approaches / Scott W. VanderStoep, Deirdre D. Johnston. p. cm.

eISBN : 978-0-470-47871-4

1. Social sciences—Research—Methodology. 2. Psychology—Research—Methodology. 3. Qualitative research. 4. Social sciences—Research—Statistical methods. 5. Psychometrics. I. Johnston, Deirdre D. II. Title. H62.V323 2008 001.4’2—dc22

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

SCOTT W. VANDERSTOEP is Professor of Psychology, Chair of the Psychology Department, and Director of Academic Assessment at Hope College, Holland, Michigan. He has a PhD in education and psychology from the University of Michigan. He is published extensively in the area of college student learning and thinking. His recent research appears in Teaching of Psychology, Encyclopedia of Classroom Learning, and Journal of Educational Psychology. He is the author (with Paul Pintrich) of Learning to Learn: The Skill and Will of College Success, published by Prentice-Hall (2008), and the editor of Science and the Soul: Christian Faith and Psychological Research, published by University Press of America (2003). His current research focuses on the development of psychological profiles of young athletes who suffer from overuse injuries. He teaches courses in developmental psychology, psychology and religion, and advanced data analysis.

DEIRDRE D. JOHNSTON is Professor of Communication and Chair of the Communication Department at Hope College, Holland, Michigan. She has a PhD in communication studies from the University of Iowa. She is published extensively in the area of work-family research and was nominated for the 2005 and 2007 Rosabeth Moss Kanter Award for Excellence in Work-Family Research. Her most recent research appears in Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Mass Communication and Society, Human Communication Research, and Sociological Focus. She is the author of The Art and Science of Persuasion, published by McGraw-Hill, and is currently working on a book entitled Global Communication Ethics: An Exploration of Nonviolent Communication and Sustained Dialogue in Cross-Cultural Engagement. She teaches courses in research methods, communication theory, intercultural and gender communication, and persuasion.

To our childrenAmy, Mark, & AlliEllie & Anneka

PREFACE

Both of us came of age in our respective social science disciplines (VanderStoep in psychology and Johnston in communication) in an era when quantitative techniques dominated the research landscape. Both of us were well trained in experimental design and advanced statistical techniques. Although we still hold these research strategies in high regard, a new generation of social science students is learning an eclectic approach to social science methodology that includes both qualitative and quantitative methods. By the time you reach the end of this book, we hope you will feel comfortable attempting all of the methodologies we describe. Research can be intimidating, and some of the techniques we describe are complex. Even long-time researchers do not feel completely comfortable with all of the techniques in this book; instead, they specialize in certain techniques. Nonetheless, we believe the hands-on approach of this book—highlighted mostly through the Your Turn activities—will make you feel more comfortable with actually doing research as opposed to simply reading about it.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

At Hope College, we received support from our colleagues in the departments of psychology and communication, respectively. John Shaughnessy in Hope’s Psychology Department was particularly helpful. As an author of an enduring research methods textbook, he was able to give keen insight and good counsel when it seemed like the project would never get finished. We are also particularly grateful to our long-time Dean of Social Sciences, Nancy Miller. She hired both of us at Hope College and provided extra encouragement for this project. She will retire in 2008 after serving as dean for 24 years.

We are also grateful to two of Hope’s best students, Jessica Gartner and Anne Hoekstra. They read the entire manuscript from cover to cover and provided great feedback that only students can give. Their honesty kept us humble and made the book better. Our office managers, Linda Koetje from Communications and Kathy Adamski from Psychology, provided support for many aspects of the book, including reference checking, formatting, and preparation of the materials.

We were friends long before we were co-authors. Thus, our families have endured endless conversations at social gatherings regarding this book. Our children stay busy when our attention turns away from them and toward the pages of this book. Our spouses, Jill VanderStoep and Jim Dumerauf, balance their own professional lives and provide testimony to what it means to be great spouses.

We are grateful to Andy Pasternack at Jossey-Bass, who first met us through an unsolicited manuscript that was dropped off at his booth at the American Psychological Association. He was willing to take a chance on this project when other publishers were not. Associate Editor Seth Schwartz provided guidance in bringing the book to publication standards.

To all students or faculty who want to comment, correct, or suggest ideas for future editions, please contact us at [email protected] or [email protected].

Scott VanderStoep Deirdre Johnston

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this book is to help you become effective consumers and producers of research. We live in a world where the amount information available increases exponentially each year. One of the most important skills that you can bring to the workforce in the 21st century is the ability to interpret and evaluate existing data. In addition, the 21st-century workforce needs people who can produce valid and reliable data, accurately interpret trends and patterns, and summarize findings in a way that others can understand. We take the title—Research Methods for Everyday Life—seriously; we will introduce you to a variety of everyday examples that highlight the need to understand social science research.

This book will help you develop your quantitative and qualitative research techniques by exploring questions about human social behavior that will provoke your curiosity and connect with the experiences of your life. Throughout the book you will find real-life examples of practitioners using various research methodologies to answer questions in various lines of work, including psychology, sociology, education, business, political science, kinesiology, anthropology, and communication studies. You will also have the opportunity to engage in hands-on applications in which you actually do research. This is accomplished with numerous Your Turn boxes inserted in each chapter. The Your Turn exercises provide the opportunity to practice and apply the research methods and concepts presented in a chapter. The skills that you will practice during the exercises in the Your Turn boxes include sampling, naturalistic observation, surveying, coding, analysis, and report writing. In addition, you will have the opportunity to work with actual data and learn to analyze data statistically using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences).

Research Methods for Everyday Life: Blending Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches is an introductory undergraduate text that highlights and explains the essentials of research methods. We focus on the essentials of research methods to help undergraduates understand and engage the research in their social science disciplines, to instruct students in conducting their own primary research, and to prepare students for advanced or graduate study. We reduce students’ anxiety about research methods by presenting the essentials of research in a way that is easy for students to read and understand. We include stories, examples, real-life applications, and skill-development exercises. We include the essentials necessary for a solid undergraduate grounding in research methods; however, we exclude advanced terminology, difficult theoretical issues, and complex data analysis procedures.

This textbook features both quantitative and qualitative methods. Each approach receives four chapters of coverage. The chapters on quantitative methods cover measurement, correlational designs, basic experimental designs, and advanced experimental designs. The qualitative chapters cover introduction to qualitative methods, design and analysis, qualitative methods (ethnography, phenomenology, case study, textual analysis, and applied research), and qualitative research tools (focus groups, interviewing, observation). In addition, the first chapter gives the reader a general overview of the research process.

The second chapter of the book covers the “who, how, and why” of research designs. Specifically, it introduces: (1) sampling techniques, (2) choice of a research design, and (3) determination of a research question that will inform public opinion and direct future studies. The book takes you chronologically through all stages of the research process, with ample opportunity along the way to practice the necessary skills.

The most complex material is found in Chapters 5 and 6. Students and instructors may find that portions of those chapters do not fit into their course in research methods. However, given the variety of approaches to teaching an introductory methods course, we include it and encourage you to engage with this more difficult material. The final chapter describes ways to disseminate your research findings through writing and public presentations.

Regardless of your major, your goals for life after graduation, or the level of affection (or contempt) you have for social science research, we hope that the material found in these pages will make difficult concepts easier to understand, and also increase your appreciation for and interest in being a competent researcher.

CHAPTER 1

UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Understand theories, hypotheses, and where research questions come from.

• Understand the fundamental research distinctions of qualitative vs. quantitative, basic vs. applied, and traditional vs. action research.

• Understand the elements and importance of a research proposal.

• Understand the elements and importance of research ethics.

• Obtain an introduction to basic SPSS terminology and operations.

Some students do not like research. Those who pursue degrees in social sciences such as psychology, communication, sociology, anthropology, or education do so with a passion for understanding the human condition, and often with a desire to be of service to humankind. For some of these energetic students, a course in how to conduct social research is not a top priority. Why should students care about a research class, especially if they have no plans to become researchers after college?

It is crucial to remember that research is, for social scientists, the fundamental way the people in their field understand human beings. Furthermore, the practical applications of that research and those understandings by teachers, social workers, and therapists are also based on research. For example, why do facilities that treat substance abusers use one kind of therapy instead of another? Because research on the treatment of substance abuse has demonstrated that certain techniques are more effective than others (Kaminer, Burleson, & Goldberger, 2002). Why might it be ineffective for grade-school teachers to rely too heavily on rewards and reinforcements to motivate students? Because research suggests that extrinsic rewards cause children to choose less difficult academic tasks (Harter, 1978). How do parents decide whether spanking is an effective form of discipline? Most likely they read books on parenting—and it is hoped that those books are informed by research. Research suggests that spanking results in higher immediate compliance with parents’ demands, but also more aggression on the part of the spanked children in the long run (Gershoff, 2002). Such conclusions in research are not always straightforward, however; other researchers have looked at the use of spanking as a discipline technique and found it not to be as detrimental as supposed (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002). As you will discover through this book, research involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, and not all researchers agree on the meaning of the same research evidence.

Whether or not you ever conduct your own research study, whether you need to make crucial decisions at your place of employment, or whether you are dealing with a family member who needs psychological help, understanding and interpreting social science research is crucial to effective and informed citizenship. This book will help you develop the skills you need. It will do so in two ways.