Roman Catholic Theology and Practice E-Book

Gregg R. Allison

• Herausgeber: Crossway
• Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 977

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

 In this balanced volume, Gregg Allison—an evangelical theologian and church historian—helps readers understand the nuances of Roman Catholic teaching. Walking through the official  Catechism of the Catholic Church , Allison summarizes and assesses Catholic doctrine from the perspective of both Scripture and evangelical theology.    Noting prominent similarities without glossing over key differences, this book will equip Christians on both sides of the ecclesiastical divide to fruitfully engage in honest dialogue with one another. 

Leseprobe

ROMAN CATHOLIC

THEOLOGY AND PRACTICE

An Evangelical Assessment

GREGG R. ALLISON

Roman Catholic Theology and Practice: An Evangelical Assessment

Copyright © 2014 by Gregg R. Allison

Published by Crossway

1300 Crescent Street

Wheaton, Illinois 60187

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, except as provided for by USA copyright law. Crossway® is a registered trademark in the United States of America.

Cover design: Dual Identity, inc.

First printing 2014

Printed in the United States of America

Except for Scripture included within quotations from the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Scripture quotations are from the ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. 2011 Text Edition. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture included within quotations from the Catechism of the Catholic Church are from either the Revised Standard Version or the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible; the text of the Catechism does not differentiate between the two versions, and therefore they are not differentiated in this present volume.

Trade paperback ISBN: 978-1-4335-0116-6 ePub ISBN: 978-1-4335-4541-2 PDF ISBN: 978-1-4335-4539-9 Mobipocket ISBN: 978-1-4335-4540-5

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Allison, Gregg R.

   Roman Catholic theology and practice : an evangelical assessment / Gregg R. Allison.

        1 online resource

   Includes bibliographical references and index.

   Description based on print version record and CIP provided by publisher; resource not viewed.

   ISBN 978-1-4335-4539-9 (pdf) – ISBN 978-1-4335-4540-5 (mobi) – ISBN 978-1-4335-4541-2 (epub) – ISBN 978-1-4335-0116-6 (print)

   1. Catholic Church—Doctrines. 2. Catholic Church—Customs and practices. 3. Evangelicalism. 4. Catholic Church—Relations—Evangelicalism. 5. Evangelicalism—Relations—Catholic Church. I. Title.

BX1753

282—dc23            2014001301

Crossway is a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers.

Roman Catholic Theology and Practice is dedicated to several men who have exerted a deep and abiding influence on my life: Roy Allison, who was God’s great gift to be my dear father, who unconditionally loved, counseled, guided, and provided for me; Steve Kovic, who discipled me during my university years and sacrificed his own dream for the sake of my further development; Wayne Grudem, whom God used to form me into a theologian who is unreservedly committed to the truthfulness and clarity of Scripture; Gerry Breshears, who shepherded me as my teaching career was beginning and knew just how to encourage and challenge me; John Feinberg, whose teaching, mentoring, and supervising have made me a better scholar and writer; and Bruce Ware, whose friendship and appropriately timed phone calls were God’s instruments to direct me to the two faculty positions in which I have served. I love you men and am thankful to God for placing you in my life!

Table of Contents

CoverNewsletterEndorsementsTitle PageCopyrightDedicationContentsPreface: Intrigue and CritiqueAbbreviations1 Introduction2 Scripture, Evangelical Theology, and Catholic TheologyPART 1: The Profession of Faith3 The Profession of Faith (Part 1, Section 1, Chapters 1–3)4 The Profession of Faith (Part 1, Section 2, Chapter 1, Article 1—Chapter 3, Article 8)5 The Profession of Faith (Part 1, Section 2, Chapter 3, Article 9)6 The Profession of Faith (Part 1, Section 2, Chapter 3, Articles 10–12)PART 2: The Celebration of the Christian Mystery7 The Celebration of the Christian Mystery (Part 2, Section 1)8 The Celebration of the Christian Mystery (Part 2, Section 2, 259 Chapter 1, Articles 1–2)9 The Celebration of the Christian Mystery (Part 2, Section 2, 299 Chapter 1, Article 3)10 The Celebration of the Christian Mystery (Part 2, Section 2,327 Chapter 2, Articles 4–5)11 The Celebration of the Christian Mystery (Part 2, Section 2,357 Chapter 3, Articles 6–7)PART 3: Life in Christ12 Life in Christ (Part 3, Section 1, Chapters 1–2)13 Life in Christ (Part 3, Section 1, Chapter 3)Conclusion14 Evangelical Ministry with CatholicsGeneral IndexScripture IndexAlso AvailableBack Cover

Preface

Intrigue and Critique

The Catholic Church is everywhere one turns. In terms of its sheer size, the Church claims well over a billion adherents, so the Catholic faithful are present in most parts of the world. Wherever they are found, they are leaders in government, educational institutions, health care, social programs, law, business endeavors, the arts, and much more. The head of the Church, the pope, wields enormous influence on the international stage, not only in terms of spiritual matters but also in the realms of politics, ethics, education, culture building, and the like. Recent scandals—child abuse by priests, the Vatican banking fiasco—have propelled the Church into the limelight with widespread notoriety. Whether for good or for bad, the Catholic Church is in the center of public attention.

This Catholic Church finds itself celebrating the anniversaries of two monumental events in its recent past: Vatican Council II, the twenty-first general council of the Church, was convened from 1962 to 1965. This aggiornamento, or updating, launched the Church on the path of modernization, the process of which continues as the Church celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of Vatican II. One of the most significant results of this journey so far was the 1994 publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, a faithful and systematic presentation of the theology, liturgy, and practice of the Church. (For American Catholics, this Catechism replaced the Baltimore Catechism of 1885.) In 2014 the Church marks and celebrates the twentieth anniversary of the Catechism’s release.

Given the widespread profile of the Catholic Church and the conjunction of these two anniversaries, together with my own long-term familiarity with the Church, I offer this book. Roman Catholic Theology and Practice: An Evangelical Assessment seeks to accomplish two things: first, to note with fascination and appreciation the commonalities between Catholic and evangelical theology—which I shall describe as the intrigue component; and second, to examine the differences between the two, demonstrating how Catholic theology and practice at these points of divergence do not conform properly to Scripture—I’ll call it the critique component. Though I offer this book primarily for evangelicals who want to become familiar with and assess Catholic theology and practice, I nourish a hope that some Catholics will also read it to learn what evangelicals think about Catholic theology and how they assess it. Roman Catholic Theology and Practice does not aim to be an anti-Catholic diatribe, though the critique that is offered is both sustained and pointed. It does not pretend to be an assessment of all things Catholic; indeed, it is quite circumscribed in its scope, focusing on Catholic doctrine and practice as unfolded in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. As such, it does not delve into how the Catholic faith is actually lived out by the faithful, nor does it engage the many faces of the Catholic Church in terms of its national, ethnic, theological, and liturgical varieties. Moreover, I do not claim to speak for all evangelicals or to represent the many versions of evangelical theology; given the expansive nature of evangelicalism, no one person and no one particular theological swath can accomplish that task. As for evangelical responses to this book, I anticipate that some will resonate thoroughly with its assessment, some will complain that it is too intrigued with and appreciative of Catholic theology, and some will object that it has overly criticized Catholicism. In any case, I hope to stimulate my readers’ reflection on and assessment of Catholic theology and practice by holding up the Catholic faith to Scripture and evangelical theology.

All authors owe a debt of gratitude to many other people for their personal counsel, guidance, inspiration, suggestions, editorial help, corrections, and the like; Roman Catholic Theology and Practice is no exception.

Specific contributions from Catholics came from Father James Keleher, my professor for “The Documents of Vatican II” course at St. Mary of the Lake Seminary; Don Pio Iorg, with whom I worked in Lugano, Switzerland; Father Slider Steurnol, who contributed to my Catholic theology classes at Western Seminary; and various priests, monks, and deacons who have contributed to my Catholic theology classes at Southern Seminary. Many thanks go to the original members of Alfa-Omega for giving Nora and me such an incredible opportunity to work with their nascent movement: Don Carlo Stanzial, Mario and Giulia, Ruggiero and Theresa, Lilli, Andrea, Luigi and Anna, Antonio, Margherita, Ninetta, Maria, Sandro and Velia, Sandro and Ornella, Annamaria, Stefano and Emilia, Roberto, la famiglia Poppi di Sorbara, and others who have faded from memory.

Specific contributions from evangelicals came from Dr. Harold O. J. Brown, my professor for “Roman Catholic Theology” at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School; Drs. Kenneth Kantzer and John D. Woodbridge, who shaped so much of my evangelical consciousness vis-à-vis other varieties of Christendom; and Dr. John Nyquist (and Peggy), who was a model of evangelical-Catholic dialogue.

Cru staff members who particularly shaped Nora and me while we were working in a Catholic context were Dennis Becker, campus director of Cru at Notre Dame; Kalevi Lethinen, European director of Cru; his close associates Piryo Salminen and Markuu Happonen; Paul Cowen, national director of Cru in France; Jose Monels, national director of Cru in Spain; and Gioele Baldari, Elfi Thaon de Revel, LeeAnn Weibel, and Donald Malcomb. More recently, sixteen Cru staff participated in my Institute of Biblical Studies elective course “Ministering to Catholics” in July 2013 and permitted me to use them as “guinea pigs” for the rough, rough draft of this book. Their discussion during class, and their insightful written comments on the draft, prompted numerous changes and have made the final product a much better book. Accordingly, I thank Mike Bost, Dawn Dishman, Jessica and Nate Gilbert, Dan Hardaway, Linda Harrah, Bret and Elizabeth Hern, Marci Scholten, James and Sarah Ward, David Westmoreland, Brian and Erin White, and my graduate assistant, Ben McGuire. The students in my most recent “Contemporary Roman Catholic Theology” course at Southern Seminary also deserve thanks for their attentive reading and discussion of a draft of this book. A special thanks goes to our good friend Ann Casas for her suggested improvements.

Colleagues and friends who have encouraged me in both ministry and the writing of this book are Frank Beckwith, with whom I’ve had the privilege of interacting in both print and oral presentation; Rob Plummer, editor of Journeys of Faith, who provided a written platform for Frank and me to exchange views; Chris Castaldo, author of Holy Ground: Following Jesus as a Former Catholic, who knows how to do just that in a winsome, direct way; and Leonardo De Chirico, whose PhD dissertation, published as Evangelical Theological Perspectives on Post-Vatican II Roman Catholicism, was crucial to my understanding Catholicism as a theological system.

Most of all, many thanks go to my family for their support of my life and ministry: Lauren, Troy, Caleb, Ali, and Zoe Schneringer; Hanell, Mike, Anni, Hudson, and Vaughan Schuetz; Luke Allison; and my wife, Nora. She sensed the same call of God, shared the dream of ministering to and with Catholics, labored so incredibly hard with me at Notre Dame and in Italy, left family and friends to move to a new country to learn a new language so as to start and develop a new ministry, discipled scores of women, and always encourages me to follow God’s leading, whether that has been serving on Cru staff, pursuing advanced degrees in theology, teaching at two different seminaries, pastoring, writing books, or being her husband and the father of our children.

Abbreviations

Allison, HT

   

Gregg R. Allison, Historical Theology: An Introduction to Christian Doctrine (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011).

Allison, SS

   

Gregg R. Allison, Sojourners and Strangers: The Doctrine of the Church (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2012).

ANF

   

Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, Philip Schaff, and Henry Wace, 10 vols. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994).

Calvin, Institutes

   

John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford Lewis Battles (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960). (See also the listings below for LCC 20 and LCC 21; references for the Institutes are provided in those sources as well.)

CCC

   

Catechism of the Catholic Church (New York: Doubleday, 1995).

De Chirico

   

Leonardo De Chirico, Evangelical Theological Perspectives on Post-Vatican II Roman Catholicism. Religions and Discourse, vol. 19 (Bern: Peter Lang, 2003).

Grudem, ST

   

Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994, 2000).

Heppe

   

Heinrich Heppe, Reformed Dogmatics, ed. Ernst Bizer, trans. G. T. Thomson (London: Allen & Unwin, 1950).

Kreeft

   

Peter Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (San Francisco: Ignatius, 2001).

LCC 20

   

John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford Lewis Battles (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), in John Baillie, John T. McNeill, and Henry P. Van Dusen, gen. eds., Library of Christian Classics, 26 vols. (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), vol. 20.

LCC 21

   

John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford Lewis Battles (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), in John Baillie, John T. McNeill, and Henry P. Van Dusen, gen. eds., Library of Christian Classics, 26 vols. (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), vol. 21.

LW

   

Martin Luther, Luther’s Works, ed., Jaroslav Pelikan, Hilton C. Oswald, and Helmut T. Lehmann, 55 vols. (St. Louis: Concordia, 1955–1986).

NPNF1

   

Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, Philip Schaff, and Henry Wace, 1st ser., 14 vols. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994).

NPNF2

   

Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, Philip Schaff, and Henry Wace, 2nd ser., 14 vols. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994).

Schaff

   

Philip Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, 3 vols. (New York: Harper, 1877–1905).

Schmid

   

Heinrich Schmid, The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, trans. Charles A. Hay and Henry E. Jacobs (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1899).

VC II-1

   

Austin Flannery, gen. ed., Vatican Council II: Volume 1, The Conciliar and Post-Conciliar Documents, new rev. ed. (Northport, NY: Costello; and Dublin: Dominican, 1998).

VC II-2

   

Austin Flannery, gen. ed., Vatican Council II: Volume 2, More Post-Conciliar Documents, new rev. ed. (Northport, NY: Costello; and Dublin: Dominican, 1998).

1

Introduction

Comically speaking, the genesis of this book occurred when I, as a five-year-old, was told by a similarly young (pre-Vatican Council II) Catholic neighbor girl that I was headed straight to hell because I wasn’t Catholic. Greatly upset and fearing for my eternal destiny, I asked my parents if we could go to church, and they promptly responded by taking me to the local United Methodist church. Though that choice did nothing to change the neighbor girl’s assessment of and warning about my future condemnation, it at least started me down the Protestant pathway. After nurturing me on the works of Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, John Wesley, and many others, this road has brought me to the place where I am today: an evangelical systematic theologian of the Reformed Baptist variety.

Seriously, however, the origin of this book began in May 1976, when my fiancée (now wife, Nora) and I were visiting a businessman in Chesterton, Indiana, near South Bend. We had received permission from Campus Crusade for Christ (now Cru) to begin raising support for our future campus ministry with that parachurch organization. During our conversation, in which Nora and I presented our upcoming work, the businessman jokingly exclaimed, “Wouldn’t it be interesting if the two of you were assigned to be Cru staff at the University of Notre Dame.” After a hearty laugh—“Sure, a Protestant missionary movement on the campus of the premier Catholic university in the United States!”—we concluded our presentation and said our thanks and good-byes. Getting into our car to return home, Nora (from the passenger side) and I (from the driver’s side) looked at each other and, together, with a strong, divinely given conviction, said, “God is calling us to the University of Notre Dame.”

After our wedding, honeymoon, and the commencement of our preparation as Cru staff, we received a Placement Request Form as part of our training. One of the questions on this form had to do with where we hoped to be placed. We promptly wrote in our assignment preference: “the University of Notre Dame.” Soon after receiving our response, Cru leaders responsible for staff placement called us in for a little chat. They were quite intrigued that we wanted to go to Notre Dame (ND), as the Cru ministry was just beginning on that campus, and they were looking to assign more staff to join the small initial team. Nora and I, however, failed to meet their three qualifications: we did not come from a Catholic background, we were not veteran staff (who usually are responsible for starting new campus ministries), and we did not have children (so as to be in a similar season of life as the Cru staff couple already working at ND). Strike one. Strike two. Strike three. The Allisons were not going to be Cru staff at Notre Dame.

A bit later, to the same question on the second Placement Request Form, we wrote, “the University of Notre Dame.” Somewhat perturbed, our placement leaders called us in for another conversation, wondering what about the initial “No, you are not going to be assigned to Notre Dame” we didn’t understand. They tried to comfort us with the possibility that we would end up at Notre Dame after we had been on Cru staff for a number of years, but they assured us ND was not in our immediate future. Of course, we assured them that we were willing to go anywhere they assigned us. But deep down inside lingered the firm conviction that God was calling us to Notre Dame.

Accordingly, when the third Placement Request Form was distributed a week or so later, our reply to the now infamous question was “the University of Notre Dame.” The placement leaders’ flustered and emphatic response to what seemed like an intractable stance on our part was, “Perhaps God is calling you to Villanova or some other Catholic university, but you are not going to the University of Notre Dame!”

Another strike three for the second out.

Shortly thereafter, and along with all the new Cru staff, Nora and I received our Placement Envelope. Written on the form inside was our future assignment. Bound by a promise that we would not discuss the enclosed content with anyone else for a period of silence (twenty-four hours, which was to be used solely for the purpose of praying about our assignment), we found an isolated spot outside under a palm tree and nervously yet excitedly ripped open the envelope:

Your mission, should you choose to accept it, is . . . the University of Notre Dame.

After the day-long period of silence—which for us was filled with great thanksgiving verging on giddiness—the Cru placement leaders confirmed with us that our crystal clear call to be on staff at ND outweighed any and all obstacles to our being assigned there. Upon completion of our staff training, Nora and I raised our support, packed our belongings, and moved to South Bend, Indiana, to begin our ministry at the University of Notre Dame.

So began a two-year stint (1976–1978) as part of a Protestant missionary movement on the campus of the most well known and highly regarded Catholic university in America. At the beginning of our second year, more than two hundred and fifty students expressed a desire to be in one of our weekly Bible studies; we ended up being able to accommodate one hundred and fifty of them. Communicating the gospel with clarity, teaching how to read and study the Word of God, discipling new believers, developing leaders in ministry—these core Cru ministries were contextualized for a Catholic university. Indeed, with more than 80 percent of Notre Dame students being Catholic, we learned a great deal about Catholic theology and practice and developed a deep burden for ministering to and with Catholics.

Out of this burgeoning interest in Catholic ministry, Nora and I signed up for a Cru summer project in Rome (1978), where the majority of our first few weeks was spent sharing the gospel with students at the University of Rome. Though we didn’t know much Italian, we quickly learned one phrase that was part and parcel of most of our conversations with Italian young people: “Non credo in Dio” (I don’t believe in God). Because this widely entrenched atheism had not been our experience working with Catholics at Notre Dame, we desperately asked the Italian national director of Cru if he knew any evangelical Catholics. “Do you mean Catholics who have become evangelicals?” he replied. “No,” we clarified, “do you know any Catholics who are Catholics but who believe as we evangelicals believe about the gospel, justification by grace through faith alone, and so forth?” His response caught us by surprise: “Yes. Would you like to meet some?” The next day, as we walked into a meeting of dozens of Catholics who believed as evangelicals believe, we participated in the launch of a Catholic lay evangelization movement called “Alfa-Omega: perché Cristo sia tutto in tutti” (“Alpha-Omega: that Christ may be all in all”). This encounter was the beginning of the fulfillment of a vision implanted several years earlier. Indeed, we committed to return to Italy to work with this movement.

After our return to the United States following the summer project, we raised support for our new assignment, completed three months of international staff training, and, moving to Firenze, studied Italian for six months before settling down in Rome. For the next three years (1979–1982), Nora and I were Cru staff embedded in Alfa-Omega. I served as the movement’s first training center director, helping prepare Catholic laypeople in how to share the gospel, lead Bible studies, disciple new believers, prepare leaders, organize evangelistic meetings, train Bible study leaders, and the like. We also led weekly Reading Groups of the Gospel that, meeting during the week, would focus on the text of the Gospel reading for the upcoming Sunday mass while teaching a very simple inductive Bible study method consisting of the reading of the text, observation, interpretation, application, and prayer. Our goal was to expose Catholics to the person and work of Jesus Christ as presented in the Gospels so that they could embrace the good news of salvation. Following Alfa-Omega evangelistic campaigns in parishes in Sorbara and Nonantola (near Modena, in the province of Emilia-Romagna, in northern Italy), Nora and I would remain behind for several weeks to help train Bible study leaders to work with the hundreds of residents who signed up to be in weekly Reading Groups of the Gospel.

Along with our ministry within Alfa-Omega came numerous opportunities to work with priests, meet one of the bishops of the Province of Rome, attend a “private” audience with Pope John Paul II (along with 9,998 other invitees), sneak the Jesus film into what was then called Yugoslavia, speak before hundreds of Catholic clergy (bishops, priests, monks, nuns, and seminary professors) on the topic “The Importance of the Bible in Ministry,” train other Cru staff for similar ministries with Catholics, and much more.1

In addition to this robust experience ministering to and with Catholics, when working on the MDiv degree at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (1982–1985), I took a class, “The Documents of Vatican II” (S212; Fall 1983), at the nearby St. Mary of the Lake Seminary. Though this course was the extent of my formal training in Catholic theology and practice in a Catholic higher education context, I took a seminar on Roman Catholic Theology (DST 845A; Winter 1991) during my PhD studies at Trinity, regularly taught the Catholic theology elective course at Western Seminary (1994–2003), continue to regularly teach it at The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, where I am Professor of Christian Theology (2003–present), and attempt to keep up with developments in Catholic theology through reading and writing. My writings that interact with Catholic theology and practice are, “The Bible in Christianity: Roman Catholicism,” in the ESV Study Bible (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2008), 2613–2615; “The Theology of the Eucharist according to the Catholic Church,” in The Lord’s Supper: Remembering and Proclaiming Christ until He Comes, ed. Thomas R. Schreiner and Matthew R. Crawford (Nashville: B & H Academic, 2010), 151–192; and “A Response to Catholicism,” in Journeys of Faith, ed. Robert Plummer (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2012), 115–128.

This introductory background sketch serves to highlight two points: First, though I do not have a Catholic background, I am an evangelical theologian whose experience with Catholic theology and practice is more extensive and personal than that of most evangelicals. Hopefully, this familiarity puts me in a position to be a trustworthy guide for evangelicals who desire to know about Catholicism. Second, my experience helps to explain the purposes of this book, which are twofold. One purpose is to highlight the commonalities between Catholic and evangelical theology, agreements or similarities that prompt intrigue. These shared doctrines and practices—e.g., the Trinity; the full deity and full humanity of Jesus Christ; worship and prayer—need to be recognized and appreciated, and they lead to thanksgiving for a limited yet real unity between Catholicism and evangelicalism. The other purpose is to underscore the divergences between Catholic and evangelical theology—disagreements or dissimilarities that require critique. These doctrinal and practical disparities—e.g., apostolic succession, transubstantiation, the immaculate conception of Mary, praying for the dead in purgatory—are serious points of division that must be faced honestly and sorrowfully, yet with a humble conviction that avoids minimizing the substantive distance between Catholicism and evangelicalism.

Such a book is intended for two primary and two secondary audiences. As for its primary audience, the first group consists of evangelicals who desire to become familiar with Catholic theology and assess it in terms of both Scripture and evangelical theology. The second group is evangelicals who wish to know better their own evangelical theology as compared with and contrasted to Catholic theology. As for the book’s secondary audience, the first group consists of Catholics who want to learn what evangelicals think about Catholic theology and how they assess it. The second group is Catholics who want to learn evangelical theology as it is compared with and contrasted to Catholic theology, perhaps because they are moving toward embracing the evangelical faith.

It should be underscored that this book is not intended as a rabid anti-Catholic diatribe. Though it will strongly critique certain Catholic doctrines and practices, this criticism must be placed in the context of intrigue—the book’s appreciation of and thanksgiving for the many commonalities between Catholic and evangelical theology. Furthermore, it must be emphasized that this book is not intended as an ambiguous presentation emphasizing the similarities and minimizing the divergences between the two theological positions in an attempt to promote some type of “lowest common denominator” ecumenism. Though it will underscore with gratitude the many agreements between Catholic and evangelical theology, such approbation must be placed in the context of critique—the book’s negative evaluation of certain Catholic doctrines and practices against which evangelical theology does and must take a strong stand.

To accomplish this task, I have designed Roman Catholic Theology and Practice to be a walk through the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Beginning in chapter 3 of this book, for each section of the Catechism, I first describe in summary form and without comment the Catholic theology or practice addressed in that section; then I offer an assessment of that Catholic theology or practice from the perspective of both Scripture and evangelical theology. In chapter 2, I explain my interpretive approach to Scripture and outline the evangelical theological perspective that I use throughout the book. In that chapter I also address my understanding of and approach to Catholic theology as a system that is characterized by two axioms: the interdependence between nature and grace, and the Catholic Church as the ongoing incarnation of Jesus Christ. I then briefly set forth how these two tenets manifest themselves in concrete Catholic doctrines and practices. I conclude this chapter with an assessment of the two axioms.

Following closely the structure of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, chapters 3 through 6 will cover its first part, entitled, “The Profession of Faith,” because it describes Catholic theology as it is professed in the Apostles’ Creed (with a few additions from the Nicene Creed). Chapters 7 through 11 treat the second part of the Catechism, “The Celebration of the Christian Mystery,” which explains the Catholic Church’s sacramental economy and seven sacraments. Chapters 12 and 13 discuss the third part of the Catechism, on “Life in Christ,” which presents salvation, law, grace, justification, merit, and the like. Conclusions and applications will be drawn in chapter 14. The chapter divisions in this book are somewhat random and do not follow the divisions (noted according to their Part, Section, Chapter, Article, and Paragraph numbers) within the Catechism itself; rather, my chapter divisions are used to divide the large amount of Catholic theology and practice into manageable portions for readers.

For ease in following the flow of the Catechism, two structural notes may be helpful: From broadest to narrowest divisions, the Catechism moves from Part to Section to Chapter to Article, with some Articles being further divided into specific topics with Paragraph headings. For example, Part 1, “The Profession of Faith,” is subdivided into two sections: Section One, treating “I Believe”—“We Believe”; and Section Two, covering The Creeds. This Section Two is further subdivided into twelve Articles, one of which is Article 3 on the doctrine of the person of Jesus Christ, entitled, “He Was Conceived by the Power of the Holy Spirit, and Was Born of the Virgin Mary.” This Article 3 is further subdivided into three Paragraphs treating “The Son of God Became Man” (Paragraph 1), “Conceived by the Power of the Holy Spirit and Born of the Virgin Mary” (Paragraph 2), and “The Mysteries of Christ’s Life” (Paragraph 3).

The second structural note is that every paragraph in the Catechism is consecutively numbered for easy reference. Here I use the word “paragraph” in a different sense than how it was just used as part of the overall structure of the Catechism—specifically, a Paragraph as a subheading under an Article. In contrast, “paragraph” is now used in a grammatical sense to refer to a series of sentences marked off by indentation and each of which expresses a self-contained idea or theme. Used in this grammatical sense, each paragraph of the Catechism is numbered, and throughout my book I will refer to these paragraph numbers (e.g., CCC 813) as I describe and assess each main idea or theme of Catholic theology and practice. It should be noted that paragraph numbers are different from page numbers. These paragraph numbers are the same for all versions and languages of the Catechism, while page numbers vary.

Three versions of the Bible are used in this book. Because citations of Scripture found in the Catechism are taken from the Revised Standard Version and the New Revised Standard Version, whenever the Catechism is quoted and a biblical citation is embedded in that quotation, it will come from either the RSV or the NRSV.2 All other citations of Scripture will come from the English Standard Version.

_____________

1 The claim by Dave Armstrong that I was “an undercover saboteur trying to find fault with Catholicism” during my ministry with Alfa-Omega is completely unfounded and false. I firmly deny the accusation (see http://art-of-attack.blogspot.com/2011/08/brief-refutation-of-gregg-r-allisons.html).

2 Because the Catechism makes no attempt to distinguish which version is being quoted, I will not indicate the version.

2

Scripture, Evangelical Theology, and Catholic Theology

My assessment of Roman Catholic theology and practice will be on the basis of both Scripture and evangelical theology, so this chapter will begin with a brief explanation of Scripture and its interpretation and will then concentrate on a presentation of evangelical doctrine. Additionally, it will propose for the purpose of understanding and assessment an approach that considers Catholic theology as a coherent, all-encompassing system with two major features: the nature-grace interdependence, that is, a strong continuity between nature and grace; and the Christ-Church interconnection, that is, an ecclesiology (a doctrine of the church) that views the Catholic Church as the ongoing incarnation of Jesus Christ. These axioms will also be assessed.

Scripture and Its Interpretation

According to evangelical theology, Scripture consists of sixty-six books—thirty-nine in the Old Testament and twenty-seven in the New Testament—and is interpreted according to a grammatical–(redemptive) historical–typological method.1 This hermeneutic, or interpretive approach, focuses on the grammar of biblical passages, noting the meaning and function of words, the relation of words and phrases in sentences, the genre in which the text is written, the development of arguments, the flow of narratives, the imagery of poems and figurative expressions, allusions to earlier passages, and the like.2 This hermeneutic also focuses on the historical context in which the biblical passages were written, seeking to understand the socio-politico-economic-cultural background of texts, their authors and audiences, and the purposes for which the texts were written, all with the aim of interpreting them in that context and with those purposes.3 Specific attention to the redemptive-historical context of the biblical passages is important for understanding their place in the progressive revelation of God, their connection to earlier passages, their anticipation of later passages, their connection to the biblical covenants, and the point they seek to drive home about Jesus Christ.4 This interpretive approach focuses additionally on typology, or intentional relationships between an earlier person/place/institution/thing (the type) and a later person/place/institution/thing (the antitype), a structure that emphasizes the unity of Scripture and its promise-fulfillment or anticipation-consummation theme.5 Evangelical interpretation does not follow the Roman Catholic “four-sense” approach to understanding Scripture, which seeks to discern four meanings—literal, allegorical, tropological, and anagogical—in most if not all biblical passages.6 This view of Scripture and its interpretation stands as the base of the first element by which Catholic theology and practice will be assessed. The second element will be evangelical theology, to which we will now turn our attention.

An Evangelical Vision of Life with God and Human Flourishing

As for evangelical theology, one must understand first of all that evangelicalism is not a church or a denomination but a massive broad-tent movement that encompasses thousands of churches and ministries from many different theological persuasions: Reformed, Lutheran, and Arminian; covenantal and dispensational; Pentecostal/charismatic and non-Pentecostal/non-charismatic; proponents of infant baptism and supporters of believer’s baptism; complementarians and egalitarians; and much more. Given this amazing theological spectrum, it is not possible to define and present one evangelical theology; evangelical theologies—plural—are the reality. However, so as to avoid confusion in my evaluation of Catholic theology and practice, I will set forth and focus on a typical expression of evangelical theology—the one outlined below—while noting, where appropriate, important divergences within evangelical theology. To ward off an anticipated criticism by Catholics, this theological diversity is not a “problem” just for evangelicalism. Catholic theology itself “suffers” from the same reality as it embraces Augustinianism and semi-Augustinianism; progressive, liberation theology and conservative, Opus Dei theology; male-only priesthood proponents and supporters of women priests; inerrancy and non-inerrancy; inclusivism and exclusivism; and the like. The “problem” of theological diversity is not inherent in evangelicalism, nor is it confined therein, for it is encountered within Catholicism, despite claims to the contrary.

Accordingly, I proceed with a typical expression of evangelical theology, which I’ll call “a vision of life with God and human flourishing.”

God eternally exists as three persons—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—each of whom is fully God, yet there is only one God. Eternally existing, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are characterized by dynamic, loving relationships (John 17:24–26), mutual glory giving (John 17:4–5), and purposing (e.g., 1 Pet. 1:20–21), part of which included the decision to bring into existence our visible, tangible universe. This plan was actualized as the triune God created the world and everything in it ex nihilo, or “out of nothing” (Gen. 1:1; Heb. 11:3). Light and darkness, the dry land and the seas, the sun, moon, and stars, trees and plants, the fish, birds, land animals—everything was formed (Gen. 1:2–25), seemingly in preparation for a final, special, climactic creature; indeed, this being would be more like God than any other created being. God created human beings in his image and according to his likeness (Gen. 1:26–31), which means we both reflect God and represent him in the world in which we live. As for the reflective element, we human beings display God in whose image we are created, mirroring his love, justice, truth-telling, faithfulness, mercy, power, wisdom, and the like—always imperfectly, partially, and intermixed with sin because of our fallen reality. The representational aspect consists of two functions (Gen. 1:28): procreation (“be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth”), which means that most of us are or will be married and have children; and vocation (“subdue [the earth] and have dominion”) or civilization building, which means that we work in such professions as education, politics, business, health care, construction and manufacturing, the arts, and so forth (e.g., Gen. 4:17–22).7 We contribute to human flourishing by using our God-given human abilities. Through reflecting God (displaying glimmers of his character) and representing him (establishing a family and building civilization) we engage in the ultimate of purposes: glorifying God.

As divine image-bearers, we are hardwired with an innate sense of God (Acts 17:22–34), witness his eternal power and divine nature through what we observe in the created order (Rom. 1:18–25), experience further testimony of his goodness as he providentially cares and provides for us (Acts 14:8–18), and possess an intuitive sense of right and wrong through our conscience (Rom. 2:12–16). Through these modes of general revelation, we know that God exists, we know something about his attributes, and we know some basic moral principles that render us accountable before him. Because of this universal revelation of God, we should worship and honor him as God, give him thanks and depend on him for our very existence, and obey the moral sense in our heart.

Tragically, all image-bearers of God have fallen into sin and live in a world that is not the way it is supposed to be. Personally, we fall short of the glory of God (Rom. 3:23); that is, we do not worship and honor God as we should, we do not give him thanks and depend on him as we should, and we (often, not always) do not obey our moral sense of right and avoid doing what our moral sense indicates is wrong, as we should. All of this is evidence of our alienation from God. Still, our fallenness does not end here: We are also alienated from other human beings, consumed with ourselves rather than concerned about others, in competition with them, experiencing relational brokenness. Furthermore, we are alienated from ourselves, being darkened in our understanding, chasing after things that will never satisfy, even being self-deceived.

Indeed, we may not even be aware of our present condition of sinfulness: Our conscience may be calloused; we may judge ourselves morally upright by comparing ourselves to others who are worse than us; we may even engage in doing good works (this element does not necessarily mean that we are religious, but often being religious and being part of a faith community that emphasizes doing good contributes to this element), leading us to conclude that we have gained God’s favor. Deep down inside, however, we know we are not fine: we have a disturbing sense of our own hypocrisy, and though we may hope that God will look favorably on us and our good works, we suspect—rightly—that a perfectly holy and just God does not grade on the curve, and that even the most momentous of human achievements, let alone the meager efforts of most human beings, cannot avail before a perfect God. So, we are not in a good state, nor are we merely in a neutral position; rather, we are in dire straits. We come into this world weighed down with original sin, and we manifest that reality throughout life: guilty before God, pervasively corrupt in nature (our mind, emotions, will, body, motivations, purposing—everything is marred), and incapable of rectifying our guilt and reorienting our sinful nature from self-centeredness to God-centeredness, from the life of self to life with God.8

In this tragic world of fallen human beings, God intervened to rescue his image-bearers. At the heart of this redemption is Jesus Christ, the eternal Son of God who, through a miracle wrought by the Holy Spirit, was conceived by the Virgin Mary and became incarnate (Matt. 1:18–25; Luke 1:26–38), taking on human nature (Phil. 2:5–7). As the God-man, Jesus lived a perfect life under the law of God (Gal. 4:4), performed miracles to demonstrate his deity,9 walked in the power of the Holy Spirit (Luke 4:16–21; Acts 10:38; e.g., Luke 4:1), announced and inaugurated the kingdom of God (Mark 1:14–15), taught the masses (e.g., Matthew 5–7), discipled a handful of men (Matt. 10:1–4), faced temptations and trials as every other real and fully human being does yet he never once sinned (Heb. 2:14–18; 4:14–16), flourished in his relationship with God (e.g., Matt. 11:25–27), enjoyed intimate personal relationships with people of all kinds (e.g., Mark 2:15–17), and rendered visible the invisible God (Col. 1:15; John 14:8–9; Heb. 1:3). Shortly before his death, Jesus was betrayed by a close friend, abandoned by his disciples, charged with and convicted of blasphemy though innocent, beaten, and finally crucified on a cross; his body was laid in a garden tomb, where it reposed for three days (e.g., Matt. 26:47–27:66).

On the third day, this once-crucified-and-buried Jesus rose from the dead through the power of God. For forty days he appeared to his disciples, after which he ascended back into heaven (Acts 1:2–3, 9–11) and sat down at the right hand of the Father, from which position he exercises all power and authority as the cosmic head of all created things (Eph. 1:19–21), directs the church or the body of which he is head (Eph. 1:22), intercedes for his followers (Heb. 7:25; Rom. 8:34), and prepares an eternal future for them (John 14:2–3). And he is poised to return again to earth, this time not as a suffering servant in shame and humiliation but as the triumphant King of kings and Lord of lords with power, might, and glory (Revelation 19).

This work of redemption, and how it becomes actualized in the lives of sinful people, is communicated through another means of divine revelation: special revelation, especially Scripture. This written Word of God is characterized by the following attributes: It is inspired, or breathed out by God (2 Tim. 3:16; 2 Pet. 1:19–21); that is, the Holy Spirit superintended the writers of the Bible in such a way that, preserving their personalities, writing styles, theological emphases, and grammatical abilities, they wrote exactly what God wanted them to write. Because this Word is God-breathed, it is wholly true (inerrant) in all it affirms (John 17:17), whether it addresses the person and work of Jesus Christ, the existence and nature of angels, the creation of the universe, the history of the Jewish people, the eternal destiny of both the righteous and the wicked, and so forth. Because it is God-breathed, Scripture is authoritative; that is, it is to be believed and obeyed (Rom. 6:17), just as God himself is to be believed and obeyed. It is effective, igniting faith (Rom. 10:17), exposing sin (Heb. 4:12–13), exhibiting the proper path on which to walk, saving hardened sinners, transforming and remaking ruined lives, always accomplishing the purpose for which God gives it (Isa. 55:10–11). Scripture is sufficient, containing everything people need to know in order to be saved and to live in a way that fully pleases God (Ps. 19:7–11; 2 Tim. 3:16–17). It is necessary, that is, needed for fallen human beings to understand the way of salvation, to know God’s will, and to acquire wisdom for godly living (Matt. 4:4; 1 Pet. 2:1–3). Indeed, without Scripture, the church would not exist or be able to exist. Scripture is clear, written in such a way that ordinary human beings who possess the normal acquired ability to understand written/oral communication can read Scripture with understanding or, if they are unable to read, can hear Scripture read and comprehend it (Deut. 29:29). Finally, Scripture consists of sixty-six books—thirty-nine in the Old Testament and twenty-seven in the New Testament. These books compose the biblical canon, or proper list of writings that God wanted included in his inspired (God-breathed), truthful (inerrant), authoritative, effective (powerful), sufficient, necessary, and clear Word.

From this divine revelation of Scripture, fallen human beings come to know about and understand the gospel, which is the work of salvation that God accomplished in Christ and its actualization in human lives. As for the accomplishment of salvation, the focal point of the gospel is the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (1 Cor. 15:1–4). By means of his atoning sacrifice, Jesus Christ paid the penalty for sin as a substitute for sinners; that is, Christ died in our place, for us (Eph. 5:2). His death overcomes four desperate consequences of human sin: as an expiation, it removes the liability to suffer death and eternal punishment due to guilt before God (Heb. 10:5–18); as a propitiation, it assuages the furious wrath of a righteously angry God (Rom. 3:23–26); as reconciliation, it removes the enmity between God and human beings by means of the mediation of Christ, restoring friendship between formerly opposing parties (2 Cor. 5:17–21); and as redemption, it frees sinful human beings enslaved under sin from such bondage through the payment of a purchase price or ransom, the blood of Christ (1 Pet. 1:18–21). Through this atonement as expiation/propitiation/reconciliation/redemption, Christ accomplished salvation for sinful human beings. The satisfactory nature of this sacrifice was confirmed when the Father raised his Son from the dead, for the resurrection signified that Christ had accomplished everything necessary for salvation (Rom. 1:4; 4:24–25). Additionally, through his death and resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan (Heb. 2:14–18) and triumphed over all created things (Eph. 1:19–21; Col. 2:15), a cosmic victory that will be fully manifested at the end of this age, when he comes again in conquering power and glory.

As for the actualization of this divine plan of salvation, the focal point of the gospel is on God’s gracious work that is apart from any and all human effort and merit. This multifaceted application consists of the following mighty acts of God:

Election, or the sovereign, gracious, and eternal choosing of some people to be rescued from their sins and experience salvation, not conditional on anything they are or do but because of the good pleasure of God to save some of his image-bearers out of the hellish nightmare into which all have fallen. This divine decision is inscrutable and mysterious, personal and not random or fickle, gracious and unconditional, not dependent on human personality, religious inclinations, works, or any other such matters (Eph. 1:4; 2 Tim. 1:9).10 Though an eternal and hidden choice, election becomes actualized through a series of mighty acts of God that take place in space and time, and from this application the divine choice can be known (1 Thess. 1:4–5).

Conviction of sin is the mighty work of the Holy Spirit (John 16:8–11) convincing unbelievers of their sin (specifically, their unbelief in Jesus), self-righteousness (their futile attempts to please God and merit salvation through engaging in good works, attending church, and the like apart from divine grace), and faulty judgment (assessing people by mere appearance and worldly standards). Through this convicting work of the Spirit, unbelievers stand exposed and guilty before God, sensing their need for salvation.

Effective calling is the mighty act by which God draws to himself his people, a summons that will certainly result in their embrace of salvation (Rom. 8:29–30). This calling is noncoercive yet sure, and it comes through the communication of the gospel message (2 Thess. 2:13–14).

Regeneration is the mighty work by which the Holy Spirit causes people dead in sin to be born again (John 3:1–8; Titus 3:5). Where once there was nothing but unresponsiveness to the things of God, new spiritual life exists; people are new creatures (2 Cor. 5:17), changed in their very being so as to be children of God (John 1:12).11

Justification is the mighty act by which God declares sinful people to be not guilty but righteous instead, being forgiven of their sins and having the righteousness of Christ accredited to them. Justification is grounded on the grace of God as accomplished by the atoning death of Christ, by which God justly announces that the penalty for sin has been paid and thus sinful people are not guilty (Rom. 3:25). Because of the divine demand for perfect righteousness, the perfect righteousness of Jesus Christ, achieved through his obedience in life and in death, is credited to sinful people. This declarative act is not based on any inherent goodness or any personally achieved righteousness of fallen human beings (Rom. 3:19–22), and it does not make them actually righteous; rather, the righteousness of Jesus Christ is imputed to their account. This gracious, mighty act of God is appropriated by faith (Gal. 2:15–16), and sinful people are justified completely, such that they will never face the condemnation of God (Rom. 8:1).

Adoption is the mighty work by which God brings sinful people into his family and embraces them as his children (Eph. 1:5).

Union with Christ is the multifaceted mighty act that includes believers being in Christ (Rom. 6:1–11), or identified with his death, resurrection, and ascension; Christ being in his followers (Gal. 2:20); and all believers being one in Christ (John 17:21–23).

All of these mighty acts of God—conviction of sin, effective calling, regeneration, justification, adoption, and union with Christ—are actualized at the beginning of God’s gracious work of salvation. The human response to this multifaceted action is conversion, which entails hearing and understanding the gospel message, repentance from sin (turning from it, renouncing it, and purposing not to live anymore in sin; Luke 24:46–47; Acts 17:30), and faith (believing that Christ died for one’s sins, trusting in his work for salvation, and forsaking all human effort and relying on Christ and Christ alone; Eph. 2:8–9; Rom. 10:9). Repentance and faith are not a human work, nor are they a merely human response. As evangelical virtues, they are tied to the evangel, or gospel, and are thus prompted by grace (Acts 18:27) and urged by the messengers of the gospel (1 Cor. 3:5; 2 Cor. 5:17–21). But they are the proper and necessary human response to the gospel. Indeed, without genuine repentance and faith, there can be no salvation.

Yet, salvation is much more than an individual matter, for the mighty works of God that rescue fallen human beings also lead redeemed people into the church. The particular mighty act involved is the baptism with the Spirit: Jesus baptizes (John 1:33) new believers with the Holy Spirit (Luke 3:15–17), thus incorporating them into his body, the church (1 Cor. 12:13). Christians are joined with both the universal church and a local church.12

The universal church is the fellowship of both the deceased believers who are presently in heaven and the living believers from all over the world. This universal church (at least its living members) is manifested (by Christ, its head, and the Spirit) and manifests itself (through Christians associating themselves with one another) in local churches. These communities are led by qualified and publicly recognized pastors or elders who have the responsibilities of teaching sound doctrine (1 Tim. 3:2; 5:17; Titus 1:9), governing (1 Tim. 3:4–5), praying (especially for the sick; James 5:13–18), and shepherding (protecting their flock and leading through exemplary lifestyles; 1 Pet. 5:2–3). These assemblies are also served by deacons (1 Tim. 3:8–13), qualified and publicly recognized members who serve Jesus Christ in the many church ministries. Local churches regularly gather to worship God, proclaim his Word through the reading and preaching of Scripture, celebrate the ordinances of baptism and the Lord’s Supper, engage non-Christians with the gospel, exercise spiritual gifts, disciple their members, care for people through prayer and giving, exercise church discipline, and stand both for and against the world by helping the poor and marginalized through holistic ministries. Local churches also are strongly connected and cooperate with one another for high-impact ministries in their cities.

Two other mighty works of God accompany these acts and continue throughout the rest of life. Sanctification is the cooperative work of God and Christians (Phil. 2:12–13) by which ongoing transformation into ever-increasing Christlikeness takes place, particularly through the working of the Holy Spirit (2 Cor. 3:18; Gal. 5:16–23). Unlike the other divine works, which are monergistic (due to “one” [Gk. mono] who “works” [Gk. ergon], that is, God alone), sanctification is a synergistic (“working [Gk. ergon] together [Gk. sun]”) process, with God working in ways that are proper to his divine agency (e.g., convicting of sin, empowering by the Spirit, willing and working to accomplish his good pleasure) and Christians working in ways that are proper to their human agency (e.g., reading Scripture, praying, mortifying sin, yielding to the Spirit).

Perseverance is the mighty act by which God powerfully protects Christians through their ongoing exercise of faith so as to bring them securely into possession of the fullness of their salvation when Christ returns (1 Pet. 1:5). Because the preserving power of God is foundational for this process; because saving faith, by definition, perseveres fully throughout life (1 John 2:18–19); and because Scripture is replete with affirmations and promises of the resolute will of God to save completely all those in whom he has initiated his redemptive work (e.g., Rom. 8:28–35; Phil. 1:6), Christians enjoy the privilege of the assurance of their salvation.13

As Christians journey through life, they await several more mighty acts of God on both a personal and a cosmic level. Personally, as they age, suffer, become sick, and draw inexorably toward death, they anticipate with joy, and without becoming overwrought by fear, their homecoming. Homecoming is the mighty act of God at the end of life by which Christians slough off their body and go to be with the Lord. They pass immediately from this earthly life into the presence of God, though as disembodied beings (2 Cor. 5:1–10). Accordingly, they wait eagerly for the next mighty act of God, their glorification, which is the completion of their salvation when Christ returns (Phil. 3:20–21). Glorification features the resurrection of the body; disembodied Christians receive their glorified body—imperishable, glorious, powerful, and completely dominated by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 15:42–44).

Cosmically, the consummation of this present age will begin with the return of Jesus Christ. Descending from heaven, accompanied by his faithful people, the King of kings and Lord of lords will crush his enemies and manifest himself as the triumphant, sovereign Ruler (Revelation 19). Depending on their eschatology (view of the future), Christians believe either that the sovereign Ruler will exercise his reign for a thousand years—the millennium (Rev. 20:1–6)—on earth before inaugurating the new heaven and new earth, or that immediately after his triumphant return he will establish the new heaven and new earth. Accompanying these cosmic events are other future mighty acts of God: the final judgment (Acts 17:30–31), in which God will evaluate the works of all people (2 Cor. 5:10) and express either his remunerative justice through rewarding good deeds, or his retributive justice through the condemnation of evil deeds, leading to the eternal punishment of the wicked (Matt. 25:46). The ultimate mighty work of God will be the removal of this present heaven and earth and all it contains (2 Pet. 3:10) and the establishment of a new heaven and new earth (Revelation 21–22) in which there will be no more sin, no more suffering and disease, no more death, but in which redeemed human beings, fully renewed in the image of God, will dwell forever as worshipers of the Lord.

Catholic Theology as a Coherent, All-Encompassing System

It will be on the basis of Scripture and evangelical theology as outlined immediately above that this assessment of Catholic theology and practice will be carried out. Such an assessment will not be the first time evangelical theology has evaluated Catholicism, but this approach will be unique, for two reasons. First, the structure it will follow is a walk through Catholic systematic theology as articulated in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. As far as I know, evangelical theology has never undertaken an assessment of Catholic theology and practice in this manner. Second, most evangelical assessments of Catholic theology and practice have focused nearly exclusively on comparing agreements and differences between the two positions in an isolated, disconnected way—an atomistic approach resulting in Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation, purgatory, the immaculate conception of Mary, and apostolic succession being described and critiqued as separate, unrelated beliefs. While such an approach has warrant and indeed is necessary, it is incomplete because it fails to understand the systemic nature of Catholic belief. Accordingly, this assessment will be different in that it will treat Catholic theology as a coherent, all-encompassing system and will evaluate it with this starting point. Thus, the remainder of this chapter will argue for viewing Catholic theology as a coherent, all-encompassing system; next it will detail the two axioms on which this Catholic doctrinal system is built (the nature-grace interdependence and the Christ-Church interconnection), assessing each of these two major tenets in turn. The bulk of the book (chs. 3–13) will walk through the Catechism offering agreements and expressing differences on a topic-by-topic basis while tying the evangelical disagreements to the evangelical critique of the Catholic doctrinal system grounded on its two axioms.

This systemic approach, necessary because Catholic theology is a coherent, all-encompassing system, owes much to the original and insightful conviction of Leonard De Chirico. His modified doctoral dissertation, entitled Evangelical Theological Perspectives on Post-Vatican II Roman Catholicism, evaluates several evangelical theologians and evangelical-Catholic dialogues and underscores that their appraisals of Catholicism suffer from an exclusively or nearly exclusively atomistic approach to Catholicism14—an evaluation of individual doctrines and practices viewed as discrete issues. He considers the advantages of a systemic approach to be the following: (1) It permits an evangelical assessment of Catholic theology that views the latter as a “stable yet dynamic pattern which enables the system to hold together different elements which other theological orientations [such as evangelical theology] consider to be incompatible”;15 and (2) it prepares an evangelical appraisal to “address it as Roman Catholicism, i.e. a religion enjoying or claiming to enjoy Catholic breadth and vision as well as institutional and historical particularity.”16

When viewed from a systemic point of view, the assumption is that Catholic theology is “a complex unity, it really has a central core and its vast phenomenology [concrete manifestations] expressed by it can be legitimately thought of in terms of this core element.”17 De Chirico convincingly demonstrates that Catholicism as a system is unified but not uniform; indeed, as he underscores, within the systemic unity of Catholic theology an amazing degree of diversity exists and flourishes. Because of its unity and diversity, Catholicism is a dynamic system that is able to assimilate new ideas, increase in complexity, hold in tension disparate elements, and significantly develop without altering its basic unified identity. Moreover,