Science of Sport: Rugby E-Book

Kevin Till

• Herausgeber: Crowood
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Over the last 20 years the professionalization of both codes of rugby (league and union) has led to increasing demands on players. The Science of Sport: Rugby provides a comprehensive and accessible overview of the science behind preparing for performance in rugby. Using key scientific research and practical applications, the book offers an insight into how science can inform practice to improve player performance. The authors contributing to this book are world leading in their respective fields, ranging from academics researching rugby performance to practitioners delivering this information within the professional game. This new book covers: movement and physiological demands; fitness testing; fatigue and recovery; nutrition; strength and conditioning; injury rehabilitation; decision-making; skill assessments; young rugby players; talent identification and development; referees and finally, coaching planning and practice. This book bridges the gap between theory and practical application and includes forewords by Sir Ian McGeechan, OBE, Kevin Sinfield, MBE and Jamie Peacock, MBE. Illustrated with 38 colour images and diagrams.

Leseprobe

First published in 2015 by The Crowood Press Ltd Ramsbury, Marlborough Wiltshire SN8 2HR

www.crowood.com

This e-book published 2015

© Kevin Till and Ben Jones 2015

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 78500 107 9

CONTENTS

About the Editors

Author Biographies

Introduction

Forewords

1 The Movement and Physiological Demands of RugbyDamien Austin and Tim Gabbett

2 Fitness Testing for RugbyKevin Till and Ben Jones

3 Monitoring Fatigue and RecoveryBen Jones, Jamie Highton and Craig Twist

4 Nutrition and Ergogenic Aids for RecoveryDaniel Owens, Ben Jones,Warren Bradley and Graeme Close

5 Strength and Conditioning for RugbyPaul Comfort

6 Injury Rehabilitation: A Practical GuideDavid Joyce and Emidio Pacecca

7 Decision Making for RugbyDonna O’Connor and Paul Larkin

8 Skill Testing for RugbySharief Hendricks

9 The Young Rugby PlayerDavid Morley and Colin Sanctuary

10 Talent Identification and DevelopmentKevin Till, David Morley, Stephen Cobley, Balin Cupples and Donna O’Connor

11 The Science of Rugby RefereesStacey Emmonds, Amy Brightmore, Stuart Cummings and John O’Hara

12 A Framework for Planning your Practice: A Coach’s PerspectiveBob Muir, Kevin Till, Andy Abraham and Gareth Morgan

References

Index

ABOUT THE EDITORS

Kevin Till is a senior lecturer in sports coaching at Leeds Beckett University. He completed his PhD on talent identification and development in rugby league. He has published numerous academic articles on his research within rugby. Recently, his research interests have revolved around player development within youth rugby, where he now co-leads the Carnegie Adolescent Rugby Research (CARR) project. Kevin is also currently working as a strength and conditioning coach at Leeds Rhinos RLFC and Yorkshire Carnegie RUFC.

Ben Jones is a senior lecturer in sport and exercise physiology at Leeds Beckett University. His PhD explored fluid and sodium homeostasis in rugby players, but more recently he has undertaken and published numerous research articles around adolescent rugby performance and development. Ben also co-leads the Carnegie Adolescent Rugby Research (CARR) project and is head of academy athletic development at Leeds Rhinos RLFC and Yorkshire Carnegie RUFC, overseeing strength and conditioning and sports science provisions to academy players. You can follow Ben on Twitter @23Benjones.

AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES

Andy Abraham is principal lecturer and academic group lead for sports coaching at Leeds Beckett University. He has been engaged in research and teaching in sports coaching since 1997. His principal interests are in coach and coach educator practice, expertise and development. He is a voluntary coach in youth rugby union.

Damien Austin has worked in all three major football codes in Australia, as a high performance coach for the Sydney Swans football club, Sydney Roosters rugby league and Queensland Reds rugby union teams, plus New South Wales Swifts netball side. Damien has completed a PhD specializing in high-intensity activity profiles in professional rugby codes, having previously completed a masters and bachelor’s degree. He has also authored numerous articles in peer-reviewed international journals and presented at a variety of conferences and seminars in strength and conditioning and sports science.

Warren Bradley is a performance nutritionist working with professional athletes at an elite level while concurrently conducting PhD research in sport nutrition. His research is focused on the energy expenditures and intakes of elite rugby players during the pre-season and competitive season, and assessing the metabolic demands of a competitive rugby game while manipulating energy intake. Warren has provided nutritional guidance for professional athletes as a performance nutritionist with Munster Rugby and England Rugby.

Amy Brightmore is currently undertaking research for a PhD in the evaluation of movement and physiological demands of rugby league referees and is a lecturer in sport and exercise physiology at Leeds Beckett University.She is an experienced applied sports scientist, having worked with amateur and professional athletes across a range of sports disciplines.Amy has provided sports science support to the Rugby Football League referees for many years and has worked as the sports scientist for a Premiership rugby union club.

Graeme Close is a reader in applied physiology and sports nutrition at Liverpool John Moores University, where he is the programme lead for the MSc in sports nutrition. His research is focused on the effects of vitamin D deficiencies in athletic performance, the role of antioxidants in the recovery of muscle function, applied nutrition in elite sport and the etiology of age-related loss of muscle mass.Graeme is an accredited strength and conditioning coach (UKSCA), an accredited physiologist (BASES) and on the Sport and Exercise Nutrition register (SENr) as well as being on the SENr board. Graeme is currently the expert nutrition consultant to England Rugby and the lead nutritionist for British Ski and Snowboard as well as working with European and US tour golfers and professional jockeys.

Stephen Cobley received his PhD in developmental and sport psychology from Leeds Metropolitan University in 2009. He is currently a senior lecturer in motor control and skill acquisition and sport and exercise psychology within the Faculty of Health Sciences at the University of Sydney in Australia. His research interests examine developmental factors that constrain learning and performance.This research and applied work has led to the evaluation, modification and writing of athlete and coaching programmes and policy for sport governing bodies and associated organizations. Stephen has co-edited Talent identification and development: International perspectives.

Paul Comfort is the programme leader for the MSc in strength and conditioning at the University of Salford. Paul is an accredited strength and conditioning coach and has combined lecturing with work and research in applied environments across a range of sports including rugby league, rugby union and football for more than a decade.

Balin Cupples is a PhD candidate at the University of Sydney currently exploring contributing factors in successful talent development environments and pathways in rugby league. Balin works full time as head of athlete development with an Australian National Rugby League (NRL) club. In this role, he oversees all aspects of athlete physical preparation from the NRL through to the elite youth performance pathway. Balin is a former professional player who has coached at various levels within rugby league and lectured in sport coaching and administration.

Stacey Emmonds is currently undertaking research for a PhD in the physiological and movement demands of professional rugby league referees and the implications for decision-making. She is a senior lecturer in PE and sports pedagogy at Leeds Beckett University, head of strength and conditioning for the England Women’s rugby league team and head of academy sports science and medicine at Leeds United football club.

Tim Gabbett has twenty years’ experience working as an applied sport scientist with athletes and coaches from a wide range of sports. He holds a PhD in human physiology (2000) and has completed a second PhD in the applied science of professional rugby league (2011), with special reference to the physical demands, injury prevention and skill acquisition in this sport. He has worked with elite international athletes over several Commonwealth (2002 and 2006) and Olympic (2000, 2004 and 2008) Games cycles. He continues to work as a sport science consultant and advisor for several high performance teams around the world. Tim has published more than 150 peer-reviewed articles and has presented at more than 100 national and international conferences.

Sharief Hendricks is a research fellow at the University of Cape Town, Department of Human Biology, Exercise Science and Sports Medicine Division. His research interests include technical and tactical skill development, sport participation, injury prevention, science communication, strength and conditioning, concussion and performance analysis. You can follow him on Twitter @Sharief_H.

Jamie Highton is currently a lecturer in exercise physiology at the University of Chester, where he completed his PhD examining the effects of nutritional supplementation on performance and recovery associated with multiple-sprint sport exercise. Jamie has provided consultation for elite rugby league teams and governing bodies in nutrition, physiology and testing. He has also published several empirical and review articles on monitoring fatigue, recovery, movement demands and pacing strategies in team sports.

David Joyce is one of the first people in the world to lecture on and hold postgraduate masters degrees in sports science and sports medicine. He has trained, rehabilitated and maintained multiple World and Olympic champions along with more than 100 national champions and 300 national representatives. He is currently head of athletic performance at GWS Giants Australian Football League team and the co-editor of High-Performance Training for Sports.

Paul Larkin holds a research position in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Sydney. He received his PhD in 2013 from the University of Ballarat, Australia, focusing on the decision-making performance of Australian football umpires. Paul conducts applied research in many football codes, with specific interest in talent identification, player development and perceptual-cognitive performance. In his current position Paul is working on an Australian Research Councilfunded project in collaboration with Football Federation Australia.

Gareth Morgan is youth coach educator for the Football Association, having previously been a senior lecturer and MSc sport coaching programme leader at Leeds Beckett University. His research and teaching interests include the areas of talent development, annual/longer-term planning and the development of psycho-behavioural skills through coaching.

David Morley is professor of physical education and youth sport at Liverpool John Moores University. He has led large-scale national evaluations in the fields of talent development, physical literacy and inclusion for a range of national governing bodies (NGBs) of sport and national organizations such as the Youth Sport Trust. He advises and offers consultancy and research support for NGBs of sport and professional sport clubs on establishing developmentally appropriate pathways for children and young people and has previously been seconded to the RFL as head of player performance services.

Bob Muir is a senior lecturer in sports coaching at Leeds Beckett University. His teaching, research and consultancy interests focus on coaching pedagogy and practice, coach education, learning and professional development. He is a highly experienced coach and has consulted for the Rugby Football League as well as British hockey and sailing.

Donna O’Connor is an associate professor and the course co-ordinator of the postgraduate programme in sports coaching at the University of Sydney. A former strength and conditioning coach, Donna publishes and presents on her research interests which focus on sports expertise, and athlete and coach development. Her current project focuses on the development of decision-making skills in players.Donna has worked with a number of teams and coaches in the various football codes in translating theory into practice.She is currently a member of the National Rugby League research board and the World Congress Science and Football Steering Committee.

John O’Hara is currently a reader in sport and exercise physiology at Leeds Beckett University, as well as an accredited sport and exercise physiologist (scientific support) with the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES).He has overseen the delivery of sport science support for the European Super League referees for many years. He is also the lead researcher at Leeds Beckett University for assessing the movement and physiological demands of European Super League referees. He has published numerous journal articles on sport and exercise physiology, including articles related to rugby refereeing.

Daniel Owens attained an honours degree from Liverpool John Moores University before working as a laboratory assistant, researching redox biology and ageing. He is now a doctoral researcher at Liverpool John Moores University investigating the role of Vitamin D in skeletal muscle health. Daniel is also a performance nutritionist for England Rugby Union age-grade teams and has previously worked with British Ski and Snowboard, Thai Boxing Women’s European Champion, Premiership rugby teams and amateur boxers.

Emidio Pacceca is a sports physiotherapist who has graduated with a BSc and a masters in sports physiotherapy at Curtin University in Perth, Australia. He has worked as team physio for a variety of sports including Australian rules football and cricket and is currently the head physiotherapist at Western Force Rugby Union. Prior to his current role, he was a sports physiotherapist/medical coordinator at the Australian Institute of Sport European Training Centre in Italy. Emidio has also been involved with course development and lecturing at Edith Cowan University as well as presenting on courses for the Australian Physiotherapy Association and Sports Medicine Australia.

Colin Sanctuary currently works as the performance director for the Newcastle Knights National Rugby League team in Australia. Previously he was the performance director for the Newcastle Knights High Performance Unit, head of sports science support for Wakefield Trinity Wildcats and head of sports science support with Durham County Cricket Club. He has also worked as a lecturer at York St John University. Colin successfully attained his PhD in 2007, which examined ‘Factors required for success in professional cricket’. He is an accredited strength and conditioning coach. He has also co-supervised postgraduate students from the UK and Australia and has published articles based on his applied work in professional rugby league and cricket.

Craig Twist is a reader in applied sports physiology at the University of Chester. His primary research interests revolve around the applied physiology of rugby league and recovery after fatiguing exercise. Craig is an accredited sport and exercise scientist with the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences and also serves as a consultant to the Rugby Football League and several elite sports teams.

INTRODUCTION

Over the last twenty years the professionalization of both codes of rugby has led to increasing demands on players and a greater spectacle for the supporter. Science has played a large part in this development. Professional rugby clubs around the world now employ a number of scientific staff with the aim of optimizing players’ performance and this practice will only continue to increase over the coming years as coaches and players look for that extra edge to their performance.

Having worked in both professional rugby league and union for the past decade, it is clear how the ever-evolving science has influenced (and continues to influence) our practice. The need to provide coaches and players with cutting-edge information is key to the success and longevity of a practitioner. Alongside the increasing application of science within practice, the interest and development of research within rugby has also increased dramatically in recent years. Owing to their research, each of the contributing authors in this book has had a significant impact on the development of the game. A number of groups around the world undertake and publish research, continually updating the body of knowledge of how performance can be improved in rugby. This research aims to provide an evidence base to help practitioners understand the most effective ways of improving player performance.

The challenge for the practitioner across all levels of the game is to use this research evidence base effectively in practice with their players on a daily basis. This book aims to bridge the gap between theory, research and practical application of science within rugby. The book’s chapters not only provide an overview of the latest cutting-edge research for specific disciplines within rugby but also provide a case study of how this research is applied or recommendations for how it can be applied in practice. Consequently, this book is essential reading for anyone within the sport, from high-level international practitioners to students wanting to learn more about sport science and its application within rugby.

Kevin Till and Ben Jones

FOREWORDS

Sir Ian McGeechan, OBE

There is no doubt that rugby in the last decade has become more intense and more physically and mentally demanding for the players. Because of this evolvement of the sport, coaches and players now need the best knowledge and information to make meaningful decisions to help them perform at the top of their game. Hence, understanding how science can now help to determine the best results for match and training performance is vital for all involved in the sport.

As a coach, it is now critical to measure the playing demands, and understand the differences between individuals and positions in order to be able to plan monthly and weekly training to create the most effective and repeatable outcomes. Once a coach has this knowledge it is important that it can be shared and acted upon by all the support staff involved in the programme.Player’s bodies need continuous conditioning and nutritional interventions to support training activity and recovery. In addition, medical staff need to analyze player injury management and rehab to ensure a healthy player. As a coach, using information from sports science and analysis allows a clear picture of the strengths and weaknesses of the skills to be targeted or interpretations in controlling contact. The better this becomes the more impact a player will have on a game. From this clarity comes confidence to play with a positional mental approach. Psychologically we, as coaches, are producing stronger players.

As an ex-schoolmaster, I am also conscious we must map and plan the programmes for young developing players. We must understand the physical and mental requirements of players developing in the game from fifteen to adulthood. Science now allows us to plan that progress better than ever and give young players the best pathway for success.Whether delivering rugby as a coach, playing it or developing through it, or indeed as part of the essential support service behind it, I believe it is now so important for everyone to have the complete picture, which books such as this provide.

If we do this together, then the sport is in good hands.

Sir Ian McGeechan OBE

Kevin Sinfield MBE and Jamie Peacock MBE

Having both played at the top level of rugby league for more than a decade, as well as both captaining our country, we understand the importance of science for rugby. Since starting playing professionally almost twenty years ago, the development of the science within the game has been fundamental to maintaining and developing our performances over our careers. Collectively, this has led to us winning fourteen Super League Grand Finals, four Challenge Cup Finals and seven World Club Challenges, while making more than 950 Super League and eighty-eight international appearances. During our playing careers, the intensity of the competition has increased significantly. As a result of this, our preparations for a season and for each game is a detailed plan, preparing us to perform optimally week in, week out.

Our preparations now include looking carefully at the demands of training and playing through wearing GPS technology. We are regularly fitness tested and have individual recovery and nutritional programmes to support our recovery and training. Strength and conditioning, injury management and rehab are a major part of our training week, alongside developing the technical and decision-making aspects of our rugby. Also, we have seen the detail that coaches go into when planning and delivering our training and match preparation.The development of youth players is now a major focus in preparing them for Super League competition. All these areas are covered in this book, which shows the level of detail that science now plays in the preparation of a Super League player.

The current research in rugby is also impressive but the exciting part within the sport is seeing that research being used in clubs by practitioners and coaches. As such, it is important that all coaches, old and young, keep up to date with the latest research and apply it to their practice. This book should therefore act as a key resource for students entering into rugby and coaches who have worked in the game as long as we have played.

We both recommend this as the practitioner’s handbook and look forward to seeing how science continues to progress the sport over the next two decades.

Kevin Sinfield MBE and Jamie Peacock MBE

CHAPTER 1

THE MOVEMENT AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DEMANDS OF RUGBY

Damien Austin and Tim Gabbett

INTRODUCTION

Rugby is a sport that involves skill, ball play, tackling, kicking, team work, positional specific play and the ability to read the opposition. Based on this, rugby has large technical, tactical and physical demands.There are two codes of rugby: rugby league and rugby union. Both rugby codes are international field sports that involve competitions across various levels and age groups, from amateur to elite. Although the objectives of both codes are the same, there are fundamental differences that impact upon the two sports.

Rugby League

Rugby league consists of two teams of thirteen players (and four interchange players) who compete for two halves of forty minutes (modified for junior competitions based on age), separated by a ten or fifteen-minute half-time recovery. The laws of the game dictate that a team has a set of six tackles to progress the ball over the opposition’s try line and score a try. A player is considered tackled when he is in possession of the ball and either held stationary or put to the ground by the opposing team. The attacker then plays the ball between their feet to progress to the next phase of play; the same team is then allowed to pass (only backwards), run or kick the ball until the next tackle. Up to two players from the opposing team are permitted to stand in front of the tackled player, known as markers, while the rest of the team must retreat 10m. Possession of the ball is relinquished either after the sixth tackle is completed, the opposing team kicks, makes a mistake or a law of the game is infringed (i.e. a penalty). Points are scored via grounding the ball over the opposition’s try line through conversions, penalties or drop kicks. The successive interchange of ball possession means players are required to attack and defend throughout the game (Gabbett, 2005).

Fig. 1.1: Rugby league playing position structure. The red team represents the playing positions (P–prop, H–hooker,SR–second row, L–loose forward, SH– scrum half, FE – five-eight, C–centres,W– wings and FB–fullback). The blue team represents the numbers worn by each of the individual playing positions.

The thirteen players are split across nine different playing positions in a team and with each position there are different playing demands (Austin and Kelly, 2013, Austin and Kelly, 2014, Gabbett, 2005). Player numbers and positions are shown in Figure 1.1. Positions are generally classified based on role similarities; forwards (two props, one hooker, two second row and one loose forward) and backs (one scrum half, one stand-off/ five-eighth, two centres, two wingers and one fullback) or further classified as hit-up forwards (inclusive of front row forwards), wide-running forwards (second row and loose forward), adjustables (hooker, scrum half, stand-off/five-eight) and outside backs (centres, wings and fullback).

Rugby Union

Rugby union consists of two teams of fifteen players (and up to seven interchange players) who also compete for two halves of forty minutes (modified for junior competitions based on age), separated by a ten or fifteen-minute half-time recovery. Rugby union is a territorial game in which the aim is to progress the ball over the opposition’s try line by running with the ball, kicking the ball and/or passing the ball by hand (only backwards) to another team member. The team in possession of the ball has an unlimited tackle count and may lose possession through an error (e.g. dropping the ball, losing possession in a ruck), penalty infringement or through kicking the ball. Points can be made through scoring tries, penalty kicks, drop goals or conversions.

Rugby union matches can be restarted via scrums, line-outs, kicks or a tap, depending on the infringement or how possession was conceded. A breakdown occurs when the defending side stops the player with the ball, either by bringing them to ground (a tackle, which is frequently followed by a ruck) or by contesting possession with the ball carrier on their feet (a maul). In a maul the ball handler remains on his feet and once any combination of at least three players have bound a maul has been set. A ruck is similar to the maul but the ball has gone to ground with at least three attacking players binding themselves on the ground to secure the ball. Should the ball leave either side boundary of the field, a line-out is awarded against the team that last touched the ball. Forward players from each team line up a metre apart, perpendicular to the touchline and between 5m and 15m from the touchline, while the hooker of the team that didn’t play the ball last throws the ball from the sideline, down the centre of the two forward lines. The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty, in which case the side that gained the penalty throws the ball in.

Fig. 1.2: Rugby union playing position structure. The red team represents the playing positions (P–props,H–hooker, SR–second row, L – lock, F – flanker,SH–scrum half, FH–fly half,C–centres, W – wings and FB–fullback). The blue team represents the numbers worn by each of the individual playing positions.

The fifteen rugby union players are split across ten playing positions with player numbers and positions shown in Fig. 1.2. Positions are generally classified, based on role similarities, into forwards and backs. Forwards are classified as either front row forwards (inclusive of two props and one hooker) or back row forwards (two second row, two flankers and one lock), while backs are classified as inside backs (one scrum half, one fly half) and outside backs (two centres, two wingers and one fullback).

Both rugby codes are characterized by intermittent, high-intensity exercise in which players are expected to frequently run at high speeds and engage in physical contact with opposing players (e.g. scrums, rucks, mauls and tackles) (Austin et al., 2011a, Austin et al., 2011c). Due to the game demands, physical performance is very important and therefore players require high levels of strength, power, speed, agility and endurance (Baker and Newton, 2006, Gabbett et al., 2007). The impact of professionalism and rule changes over the last two decades have resulted in more intense matches and, at the elite levels of the game, players are now quicker, stronger and possess greater endurance than elite players who competed before the game turned professional (Duthie et al., 2003b).

Understanding the differences in physical qualities and the match demands of players throughout different levels of competition are vital for coaches in the planning of training and player development. The first aim of this chapter is to detail the physical characteristics of players competing at different levels that are considered important to rugby performance, such as anthropometry, speed, muscular strength, power and aerobic capacity. The second aim is to then outline and compare the movement (such as distance covered, high-intensity efforts) and physiological (for example, heart rate) match demands of rugby league and rugby union. The chapter then uses a practical applications section to show how this information can be used by coaches working within rugby.

RESEARCH OVERVIEW

Physical Characteristics

Table 1.1 (rugby league) and 1.2 (rugby union) provide an overview of the physical characteristics of rugby players across various ages (junior and senior) and playing levels (amateur to elite).

(Austin and Kelly, 2013, Austin and Kelly, 2014, Baker and Nance, 1999, Baker, 2001a, Baker, 2001b, Comfort et al., 2011, Gabbett, 2000, Gabbett, 2002b, Gabbett, 2002a, Gabbett et al., 2007, Gabbett et al., 2011c, Till et al., 2014d).

(Appleby et al., 2011, Argus et al., 2009, Argus et al., 2010, Argus et al., 2011, Argus et al., 2012, Austin et al., 2013, Cunniffe et al., 2009, Durandt et al., 2009, Fletcher and Jones, 2004, Green et al., 2011a, Hansen et al., 2011b, Hansen et al., 2011a, McMaster et al., 2013a, McMaster et al., 2013b, Pienaar and Coetzee, 2013, Smart et al., 2013,Tobin and Delahunt, 2014).

ANTHROPOMETRY

Owing to the physical demands (movement and collision) placed on rugby players, they tend to have a physical stature related to their playing level and playing position (Atkins, 2006, Gabbett, 2014b). Although not always consistent, as the playing level increases players are taller and heavier, with a reduced sum of skinfolds (Quarrie et al., 1996, Smart et al., 2013). Forward positions commonly have higher body mass than backs, which is largely due to the repetitive nature of the position using mass and force in individual ball carries to a defensive line (Gabbett et al., 2010, Waldron et al., 2013).

SPEED

In both rugby codes, the ability to accelerate over short distances (up to 20m) is very important. Running speed has generally been shown to increase with age and playing level. In relation to playing position, backs will generally have a greater running speed than forwards, especially at longer distances (approximately 40m). This is due to their increased opportunity to be involved in broken play, which can allow open field space and hence use their ability to use maximum running velocity over distances greater than 40m (Comfort et al., 2011). Forwards have a greater emphasis on tackling and ball carrying involving efforts at distances of approximately 10–15m.

MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND POWER

Strength and power are important for both rugby codes due to the collision nature of the sport. Strength and power have been shown to increase with age and playing level. The most common tests of strength used in rugby are the back squat (lower body) and bench press (upper body), with the vertical jump the most common test for power. Forwards generally have greater absolute strength than backs.

AEROBIC CAPACITY

Due to the eighty-minute duration of rugby matches, the distance covered at low intensity and the intermittent involvement in high intensity activities, such as sprinting, tackling and scrummaging, means aerobic capacity is essential to performance.The aerobic capacity of elite athletes has been shown to be greater than lower playing standards. The only exception to this is for rugby union forwards, in particular front row forwards, who have been shown to have a lower aerobic capacity than other positions across different playing standards. This is most likely due to their increased body mass.

(Austin and Kelly, 2014, Austin and Kelly, 2013, Cahill et al., 2013, Cunniffe et al., 2009, Deutsch et al., 2007, Duthie et al., 2003a, Duthie et al., 2006, Gabbett, 2012, McLellan et al., 2013, Roberts et al., 2008).

Movement and Physiological Demands

Understanding the movement and physiological demands of any sport is integral to developing training programmes to advance a player’s ability in order to meet or exceed the demands of the game. The understanding of match demands has been achieved through the use of time-motion analysis, previously through video analysis and, more recently, with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) worn by individual players in matches and training sessions. Players wear an individual GPS unit positioned between the scapulae inside a vest. The GPS units have been shown to be a valid and reliable measure of distances and speeds at low to high-intensity running (Austin and Kelly, 2013, Austin and Kelly, 2014). Players’ GPS data can be downloaded via specific software for future and in-depth analysis of a player’s or a team’s movement demands.

The awareness of the distinct differences in the types, duration and frequency of high-intensity activities, such as sprinting, tackling or repeated high-intensity efforts, is essential to understanding the demands of rugby (Duthie et al., 2003a, Duthie et al., 2005). The ability to develop and analyze skill drills and conditioning programmes allows coaches to monitor closely the physical demands and movement patterns specific to rugby.

Rugby League

PLAYING TIME

Throughout the eighty minutes, backs will generally play all the match unless injured or replaced for tactical reasons, while the forwards are generally interchanged with replacement players and can play between forty and eighty minutes. The differences in playing time occurs due to forwards generally having a higher involvement in collision events and their greater physical size impacting on fatigue throughout the match (Austin and Kelly, 2014). During a match, the total time the ball is in play at an elite standard was fifty-five minutes, while junior elite was fifty minutes (Gabbett, 2012). This ball-in-play time impacts on the physical demands placed on players, as the greater duration of ball-in-play means increased absolute running and collision demands (Gabbett, 2014a).

TOTAL AND RELATIVE DISTANCE

Total or absolute distance is the distance achieved over the completed period of time, while relative distance refers to distance covered divided by the total playing time, represented as metres per minute (m/min). While similar relative distances (m/min) are performed, differences have been found between positions for absolute distances covered. The greatest distance (5,500–8,000m) is covered by outside backs, followed by adjustables (6,000–7,000m), and hit-up forwards (3,500–6,000m [Austin and Kelly, 2014, Gabbett, 2012, Gabbett and Seibold, 2013]). Sub-elite players cover 4,000–7,500m per match, while junior elite players cover substantially less total distance (4,000–5,000m [Gabbett and Seibold, 2013, McLellan et al., 2013]). Amateur rugby league players have also been found to cover 5,000–6,000m in a match (Duffield et al., 2012).

HIGH-INTENSITY RUNNING

High-intensity running is generally defined as speeds >18km.h–1 and is considered integral to the game, and these high-intensity efforts occur at critical times during match play (Austin et al., 2011c, Gabbett, 2014b). It has been shown that high-intensity running accounts for 300–450m for props, 300–550m for wide-running forwards, 450–700m for adjustables and 650–950m for outside backs of the total distance achieved during a match (Austin and Kelly, 2013). There is a greater frequency of high-intensity running in backs compared to forwards.The differences in high-intensity running in backs covering greater distances can be due to various reasons, such as more space for backs to run before contact with the opposition, chasing a kick, line breaks or because of the greater playing time experienced by backs (Austin and Kelly, 2014, Gabbett, 2012).

REPEATED HIGH-INTENSITY EXERCISE

A repeated high-intensity exercise (RHIE) bout was defined as three or more sprints and/or tackles with fewer than twenty-one seconds recovery between each high-intensity effort (Austin et al., 2011c). The ability of players to perform RHIE is recognized as being central to elite performance in rugby league. They occur at critical phases of a match (Austin et al. 2011b) and diminish a player’s ability to perform high-intensity running in the period after a RHIE bout (Gabbett, 2014b, Johnston et al., 2014a, Johnston et al., 2014b). Hit-up forwards, wide running forwards, adjustables and outside backs have been shown to perform 8–17, 10–12, 2–14 and 3–15 RHIE bouts, respectively (Austin et al., 2011c, Gabbett et al., 2012b, Gabbett, 2014b). Elite junior players have been shown to perform slightly fewer RHIE bouts to elite players (9.7 vs. 13.1 bouts), while amateur players (9.8) also perform fewer RHIE bouts (Duffield et al., 2012, Gabbett, 2014b).

TEMPORAL CHANGES AND PACING

Due to the repetition of high-intensity exercise and the collision nature of rugby league, players experience deteriorates in most physical performance measures during the second half of match play (Austin and Kelly, 2013). During each half, the first ten minutes have been shown to be the more physically demanding, when compared to the final ten minutes of play (Austin and Kelly, 2013). Players have also been shown to ‘pace’ themselves by reducing low-intensity activities in order to maintain their involvement in high-intensity activities (Black and Gabbett, 2014). The decrement in physical performance over time has been shown to coincide with a reduction in the player’s ability to perform skill and technical-related tasks in the final stages of match play (Kempton et al., 2013). Therefore, it is the teams that can maintain intensity and skill level that generally win the matches (Black and Gabbett, 2014).