Sports Coaching E-Book

• Herausgeber: Crowood
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Sport plays a crucially important role in our society and the benefits of participating in sport and physical activity are widely acknowledged in terms of personal health and well-being. Coaching makes a key contribution to sport, helps to promote social inclusion and participation, and assists athletes in achieving performance targets. Accordingly, this authoritative and comprehensive reference work will be widely welcomed. Written by acknowledged experts, it presents a detailed analysis of performance and good coaching practice and performance, and provides a concise overview of the coaching process from a scientific and pedagogical perspective.

Leseprobe

SPORTS COACHING

A Reference Guide for Students, Coaches and Competitors

Edited by Anita Navin

First published in 2011 by The Crowood Press Ltd, Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, SN8 2HR

www.crowood.com

This e-book edition first published in 2011

© Anita Navin 2011

All rights reserved. This e-book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

ISBN 978 1 84797 364 1

Disclaimer

Please note that the authors and the publisher of this book do not accept any responsibility whatsoever for any error or omission, nor any loss, injury, damage, adverse outcome or liability suffered as a result of the use of the information contained in this book, or reliance upon it. Since some of the training exercises can be dangerous and could involve physical activities that are too strenuous for some individuals to engage in safely, it is essential that a doctor be consulted before training is undertaken.

Contents

Acknowledgements

Contributor Profiles

PART 1: PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES IN SPORT COACHING

1 Effective Coaching Behaviour Anita Navin

2 Exploration of the ‘How to Coach’ Skills Anita Navin

3 Athlete-Centred Coaching Kelvin Beeching

4 The Coaching Climate for Learning Anita Navin

5 Planning the Coaching Session Anita Navin

6 Coaching the Individual Child Athlete in Performance Sport Karl Wharton

7 Inclusive Coaching and Differentiation Anita Navin

8 Management of Participant Behaviour Anita Navin and Denise Egan

9 Decision Training as a Coaching Method Anita Navin

PART 2: APPLYING SPORT SCIENCE PRINCIPLES IN COACHING

10 Planning a Training Programme Kelvin Beeching

11 Sport-Specific Fitness Testing in Squash Dr Mick Wilkinson

12 The Role and Importance of Sport Psychology Dr Elizabeth Partington and Dr Sarah Partington

13 Sport Psychology Interventions Dr Elizabeth Partington and Dr Sarah Partington

14 Case Study Examples from Sport Psychology Interventions Jane Lomax

15 Nutritional Guidelines for the Athlete Dr Emma Stevenson

16 Athlete Recovery Emma Cockburn

17 Fatigue Management in the Preparation of Athletes Dr Paula Robson-Ansley and Dr Les Ansley

18 Performance Analysis and the Role of Biomechanics Dr Su Stewart, Kelvin Beeching and Melanie Tuckwell

PART 3: IDENTIFYING AND DEVELOPING TALENT

19 Modelling Long-Term Athlete Development Pathways in Sport Dr David Morley

20 Multi-Skills Contexts and Constraints Dr David Morley

21 A ‘Fit for Purpose’ Approach Within the Rugby Football League Dr David Morley

22 Establishing a Talent Development Pathway Dr David Morley

PART 4: ATHLETE SUPPORT AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

23 The Delivery Structure of High Performance Sport in the UK Claire Bruce and John Porteous

24 The Role of the English Institute of Sport John Porteous

25 An Athlete-Centred Approach to Performance Lifestyle John Porteous

26 Key Athlete Transitions John Porteous

27 Applying Management Principles in Sports Coaching Claire Bruce

28 Competition Preparation and Management Anita Navin

PART 5: PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN COACHING

29 Sports Equity: Policy to Practice Dr Lesley Fishwick

30 Supporting Coach Development Through Mentoring Frederic Pivotti

31 The Coaching Profession and Career Pathways Frederic Pivotti

References

Acknowledgements

The editor, authors and publishers would like to thank the following for their help in the production of this book: David Griffiths, Northumbria University and Team Northumbria for kindly providing photographs; Human Kinetics for the table and diagram in Chapter 1; Prozone for an illustration in Chapter 14; Coachwise for the illustration in Chapter 30; Keith Russell for tables and diagrams in Chapter 6; Cengage Learning for the diagrams in Chapter 25; Steven Pope (ICPE & FIT) for the model in Chapter 26; Kirsty Hay and UK Sport for illustrations in Part IV; Youth Sport Trust for illustrations in Part III; Karl Wharton for providing us with the tables and diagrams in Chapter 6; Su Stewart for a photograph in Chapter 6; Mick Wilkinson for two photographs in Chapter 11; Joanne Davison for allowing us to reproduce a photograph that appears in Chapter 14; Daniel Morand of DARTFISH for granting us permission to reproduce ‘screen dumps’ that appear in Chapter 18; John Parsons for allowing us to publish images of Raising the Bar resources in Chapter 22; John Porteous for supplying three photographs that appear in Chapter 24; and Jeanette Pointon for allowing us to reproduce a photograph that appears in Chapter 28.

Thanks also go to the School of Psychology and Sport Sciences at Northumbria University for supporting the whole project in terms of resource allocation. Thanks also to Helen Bushell for her support of the chapters written by Frederic Pivotti.

Finally, the authors are truly grateful to all athletes who have allowed their profiles and performance issues to be shared in the book, knowing that the review of real-life issues offers the reader useful insights and enhances learning.

Contributor Profiles

EDITOR: ANITA NAVIN

Anita is currently the Head of Department for Sport Development, Management and Coaching at Northumbria University in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and is a lead member for the development of the undergraduate, postgraduate and professional doctorate programmes in sport coaching. Alongside her academic role Anita is an experienced coach and coach educator, and serves as a consultant for England Netball; she is also involved in tutor development and programme reviews for other sports with a consultancy group. Anita is also a technical commentator for netball on Sky television.

Anita has been involved with England Netball for over twenty-five years as a player, coach, scout, tutor and technical expert for the development of the UK coaching certificate. She has coached at International level with the Northern Ireland Netball Association, and is involved in both the England coaching programme for talented athletes and the Netball Super League programme at Northumbria. Because of her expertise in coaching and in the professional development of fellow coaches she has recently been appointed to the International Federation Coaching Advisory Group for Netball. Anita is also a member of the UK Centre for Coaching Excellence Higher Education Advisory Group.

DR LES ANSLEY

Les lectured at Kingston University for four years before moving up to Northumbria University in 2007. He graduated with a BSc (Hons) in Sport and Exercise Science from the University of Birmingham. In June 2003 he was awarded his PhD (Physiology) from the University of Cape Town. His early research focused on pacing strategies and fatigue during exercise, and at his first international conference in 2004 he was a finalist for the Young Investigator Award. In 2005 he was awarded a HEFCE Promising Young Researcher grant for an international collaborative project. More recently, Les has developed a research interest in exercise-induced bronchoconstriction.

DR PAULA ROBSON-ANSLEY

Paula was appointed as a Reader in the School of Psychology and Sport Sciences at Northumbria University in 2007. Her current research is focused on the role of the immune system in fatigue and recovery from exercise. Paula graduated from the University of Brighton in 1996, and completed her PhD at the University of Birmingham in 1999 where she investigated the impact of exercise on immune system function. She was a research fellow in South Africa at the University of Stellenbosch and the University of Cape Town, where she formulated and tested a range of nutritional supplements to maintain immune function in endurance sports people, as well as working with a range of athletes on strategies for avoiding overtraining syndrome.

KELVIN BEECHING

Kelvin Beeching graduated with a BA (Hons) degree in Applied Sport Science and Coaching in 2005, and has more recently undertaken a postgraduate degree in his specialist field of coaching science. Kelvin currently works as a Lecturer in sport coaching at Northumbria University. Prior to his appointment there, he worked as a Sport Lecturer in further education. He has a range of coaching experience from working in both participation and performance levels of sport in both football and cricket. He has experience of both coaching and sport science support in professional settings, working with a range of athletes from footballers to ice hockey players.

CLAIRE BRUCE

Claire Bruce is a Senior Lecturer and the programme leader for the Sports Development with Coaching programme at Northumbria University. Having obtained a BA (Hons) in Sport and Recreation Management from Sheffield Hallam University in 1994, Claire went on to work in the business sector. She has over ten years of experience in business management in industry, at both regional and national levels. In 2005 she completed an MSc in Sport Management, her research focusing on an evaluation of the Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme in England. She is currently engaged in research, addressing the impact of computer gaming technology on the sustainability of youth sport participation.

EMMA COCKBURN

Emma was appointed a Graduate Tutor at Northumbria University in 2005. She was herself a successful graduate from Northumbria University, obtaining a BSc (Hons) degree in Applied Sport and Exercise Science in 2003. She is involved in teaching in the fields of sports physiology, sports nutrition, and the application of sports science to coaching and research methods. Currently, Emma is in the final year of her PhD investigating ‘the effects of milk-based protein-CHO supplementation on the attenuation of exercise-induced muscle damage’. Other research interests include the reliability of performance tests, the use of milk as a sports drink, and recovery methods. She is also BASES accredited for physiological support, and coaches at England Hockey Centres.

DENISE EGAN

Denise is currently an Assistant Head Teacher at St Anthony’s School in Sunderland, and has been involved in the coaching and mentoring of trainee teachers and newly qualified staff at the school. She has also been instrumental in the review of teaching strategies to support staff in managing behaviour. Denise was recently awarded a government qualification following her involvement in the national programme for Specialist Leaders of Behaviour and Attendance. She is a successful World Championship and Commonwealth Games coach in netball. She is renowned for putting forward successful teams in National Schools Netball competitions, and her notable achievements include eight players from the school gaining a place in the England squads. Currently Denise is an active Coach Educator and Assessor, as part of the UK Coaching Certificate programme in netball.

DR LESLEY FISHWICK

Lesley is a Principal Lecturer at Northumbria University. She graduated with a BSc (Hons) in Sport Science from Liverpool Polytechnic, and an MA in Physical Education from Dalhousie University in Canada. She was awarded a PhD from the University of Illinois in the USA. Her specialist subject is the sociology of sport, and her current research interests include gender equity, sporting identities, health discourses and sports ethnography. She has written several distance learning modules for the National Coaching Foundation, and was a course tutor. She was a hockey coach at Liverpool Polytechnic, and assistant coach for the women’s soccer team at Dalhousie University.

JANE LOMAX

Jane graduated from Loughborough University with a BSc combined honours degree in Physical Education and Sports Science, and a postgraduate certificate in Education in Physical Education. Jane was a secondary school teacher for seven years, and was a Head of Department and Deputy Head of Sixth Form, before returning to Loughborough University to complete an MSc degree in Sports Psychology and Management Studies. Jane entered into higher education first at Brunel University, moving to her current post at the University of Chichester in 1994. Jane is a BASES-accredited sports psychologist, and has worked as a consultant with performers and coaches from a range of sports. Jane is also involved in coaching the English Universities netball team. She is a Sports Coach UK tutor and is currently working with England Netball as a Tutor and Assessor.

DR DAVID MORLEY

Dr David Morley taught physical education in a number of secondary schools for nearly ten years, and recently held the position of senior lecturer in physical education and sport pedagogy at Leeds Metropolitan University. In his time at Carnegie he led the national strategy for talent development in PE, and was involved in Teacher and Coach Education. David continues to act as a consultant, adviser and project director for PE, sports and educational agencies on projects ranging from multi-skills delivery and curriculum development to talent development in PE and sport. Most recently he has worked with the Rugby Football League and Scottish Football Association on their player development strategies.

He has published extensively in these areas, developed resources, delivered CPD for coaches and teachers, and presented his work at National and International conferences. His latest involvement in nurturing movement competencies is in developing multi-skills within the playground, and he heads a multifaceted, international initiative with ESP (Education and Special Projects) in a bid to make a difference to every child’s involvement in PE, and sport and physical activity.

DR ELIZABETH PARTINGTON

Liz is a Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Psychology at Northumbria University. Liz is a chartered psychologist and a full member of the British Psychological Society (BPS), and also an accredited sport and exercise psychologist with the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences. Liz has conducted sport psychology consultancy with various national and international performers from a range of sports. She spent two years working with the English Badminton Development squad based at Bath University High Performance Centre. Liz was involved in the design of the sports psychology curriculum for the Badminton Association of England World Class Start and Potential programmes, and was a major contributor to the England Badminton mental skills handbook for national coaches.

DR SARAH PARTINGTON

Sarah is a Principal Lecturer in the Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences at Northumbria University. She is a chartered sport and exercise psychologist, and a full member of both the British Psychological Society (BPS) and the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES). Sarah is accredited by BASES for psychological support, and has worked with a variety of athletes competing at both national and international level. Her key work has been with England Badminton. She provided regional support for development and performance players based at Bath University High Performance Centre, helped design the sports psychology curriculum for badminton’s World Class Start and Potential programmes, contributed to badminton’s Long-Term Athlete Development Model and co-wrote their mental skills handbook for national coaches.

FREDERIC PIVOTTI

Frederic Pivotti obtained a Master’s Degree in Physical Education and Sports Science at the University of Leuven (Belgium), and specialized as a gymnastics coach. After working as a PE teacher and club coach, he moved on to work for the Belgian Gymnastics Federation as coach education specialist. In 2006 he moved to the UK and became coach education manager for British Gymnastics. He currently works as the coaching system co-ordinator for Welsh Gymnastics, responsible for coaching, workforce development and the development of coach education, mentoring and CPD programmes in gymnastics in Wales.

JOHN PORTEOUS

John Porteous has worked in the sports industry for the past thirty years both lecturing in higher education at Northumbria University (1992–2002 and 2007–the present day), and working in the public and private sport sectors. His latest work experience involved being the National Performance Lifestyle Adviser for the English Institute of Sport (2002–07), where he worked with world-class pathway athletes and national governing bodies of sport to ensure a balanced lifestyle for identified athletes. His research interests focus on sport development, élite athlete transitions and junior golf development. John has worked as a consultant for a range of National Governing Bodies, and also the Youth Sport Trust.

DR EMMA STEVENSON

Emma Stevenson was appointed as a Lecturer in the School of Psychology and Sport Sciences at Northumbria University in October 2006. She completed her BSc (Hons) in Physical Education and Sports Science at Loughborough University in 2002, and stayed to complete her PhD in sports nutrition under the supervision of Professor Clyde Williams. Following this, Emma worked in the School of Biomedical Sciences at Nottingham University. She has also worked as a consultant sports nutritionist for a number of international athletes and squads, including the England women’s football squads, Great Britain ice-skating squads and England Netball.

DR SU STEWART

Su is a Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science at Northumbria University; her work and research is in the area of sports biomechanics, and sports medicine and rehabilitation. She teaches various modules including sports medicine and rehabilitation, biomechanical profiling, and the fundamentals of sports science. Su’s main research and consultancy interests are in the sports science support of élite athletes, in particular international fencers and golfers. She has undertaken consultancy work with a number of élite GB squads and individuals, and works closely with manufacturers on the design and testing of new products.

MELANIE TUCKWELL

A Senior Lecturer at Newport University, Mel is involved in the delivery of a range of sport modules of study, and is programme leader for the MSc Sports Coaching. Previously at Northumbria University, Mel was involved in the development of the undergraduate coaching degree. She was employed with the Welsh Sports Council, where she managed several Olympic sports in terms of policy and coach development. Mel has also coached netball to an international level in Wales, and has contributed to a range of sports in terms of performance analysis. Mel completed a PGCE and MSc at UWIC.

KARL WHARTON

Karl is programme leader for sport coaching, and a Senior Lecturer in the School of Psychology and Sport Sciences at Northumbria University. He joined the university in September 2008, having previously worked for eight years as a national coach for British Gymnastics. He was a teacher of physical education for fifteen years, and was a head of department. Karl’s involvement in coaching contributed to his recent appointment to the International Federation of Gymnastics Coaching Academy as a world expert in coaching pedagogy. He has coached at international level with British Gymnastics, and has produced more than fifty world and European medallists, including three world and four European champions.

DR MICK WILKINSON

Mick is a Senior Lecturer in Sport Sciences at Northumbria University; his area of expertise is the physiology of exercise. His main research area is the physiology of high intensity intermittent exercise, an interest he actively pursues with other members of the Sport Performance and Exercise Regulation research group. His PhD examined the physiological determinants of fitness and performance in squash. Part of this work involved the design and validation of squash-specific fitness tests that have been adopted by England Squash and the England Institute of Sport for the testing of the England national squads. Mick has worked with national and international squash players, and a range of other endurance athletes. He is also an advanced level squash coach, and has worked with players from beginner to professional standard.

PART 1: PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES IN SPORTS COACHING

1

Effective Coaching Behaviour

by Anita Navin

The coach is significant in determining the success and overall impact of an athlete’s experiences in sport (Williams et al., 2003), yet the definition of effectiveness remains inconsistent amongst sport practitioners and organizations. The majority of sport coaches will measure their effectiveness in terms of the ‘value added’ to the performance of a team or an individual, and all coaches will try to encompass behaviours that promote success and personal development. Coaching is often referred to as a complex activity, and in order to be successful a coach must possess both the coaching process knowledge and sport-specific knowledge (Abraham and Collins, 1998). Effective coaching behaviour is often associated with positive outcomes for the performer – for example enjoyment, self-esteem and perceived ability. Bowes and Jones (2006) refer to coaching as ‘comprising endless dilemmas and decision making, requiring constant planning, observation, evaluation and reaction’ (p. 235), and this ability to identify, analyse and control variables that affect athlete performance is central to effective coaching (Cross and Ellice, 1997).

Early research into coach effectiveness suggested that the successful coach provided more feedback in practice; also indicated is the notion that this successful coach used more training and instruction behaviours than the less successful coach (Markland and Martinek, 1988). Research by Tharp and Gallimore (1976) involved the observation of John Wooden the legendary basketball coach from the University of California (UCLA), and used a category-coding system to identify the use and frequency of behaviours. Wooden had a proven ability to consistently produce winning teams, and it was his ability to communicate information, pass on knowledge, detect and correct errors in performance and reinforce behaviours, and his capability to motivate individuals, that received considerable attention when defining effectiveness. Observations of Wooden over fifteen practice sessions revealed that over 50 per cent of behaviours were categorized under verbal instruction, with other notable behaviours being hustles (12.7 per cent), praise (6.9 per cent) and scolds (6.6 per cent). Based on this early research, coach effectiveness was believed to encompass:

Figure 1.1 A coach engaging in the feedback process. (Courtesy of David Griffiths)

Constructive feedbackPrompts and praiseDetection of errors and corrective measures employedHigh proportion of questionsNumerous explanations and clarifying of a task and techniqueVast proportions of a session engaged in instructionManagement of the learning climate (Becker and Wrisberg, 2008).

Smoll and Smith (1989) proposed a model of leadership behaviours in sport, which has been applied to the study of sport coaches and their effectiveness. Figure 1.2 outlines the model, which assumes the following:

The coach behaves in a certain wayThe performer perceives and recalls the coach behavioursBased on this perception and recall, the performer has an evaluative reaction to the coach behaviours (see the solid arrow lines on the diagram)Situational factors along with the individual differences of the coach and performer determine the coach’s actual behaviour (see the broken arrow lines on the diagram) and the performer’s perception, recall and evaluation of the behaviourThe effectiveness of the coach is therefore determined and dependent upon the dynamic interactions of all variables presented.

This model of leadership behaviour has been tested using the Coach Behaviour Assessment System (CBAS: Smith, Smoll and Hunt, 1977), which involves the observation of coach behaviour in competition and training. The observations were made using categories noted under either ‘Reactive Behaviours’ or ‘Spontaneous Behaviours’ (seebox/panel on p. 16).

Figure 1.2 Model of leadership behaviours in sport. (Small & Smith, 1989)

While research studies using the CBAS have indicated that the use of instruction varies between coaches, it still appears as the highest scoring category. Lacy and Darst (1989) carried out some early research into coaching effectiveness and noted that skill-related instruction occurred three times more than any other behaviour. Claxton (1988) further confirmed this finding when reviewing the behaviours of tennis coaches. Age has been noted as a significant variable, and when a coach is delivering a session to young performers, Claxton (1988) noted a greater praise-to-scold ratio.

Gallimore and Tharp (2004) have since revisited some of the earlier research cited above, and while using the CBAS in the famous study of coach Wooden, other informal notes recorded during that study have since been made available. Other emerging behaviours of the coach identify the organization of practices and time on task to be important features of an effective session. Performers were often moving fluently between one practice to another, and transition time was kept to a minimum, ultimately maintaining the intensity of training within a session.

Categories of Coaching Behaviours

Class 1: Reactive Behaviours

Responses to Desirable Performances

Reactive Behaviours

Reinforcement (a positive verbal or non-verbal reaction to good effort or performance)Non-reinforcement (no response to good effort or performance)

Responses to Mistakes

Mistake-contingent encouragement (encouragement given to the performer after a mistake)

Mistake-contingent technical instruction (instruction or demonstration on how to correct a mistake)Punishment (a negative reaction, verbal or non-verbal, following a mistake)Punitive technical instruction (technical instruction that follows a mistake given in a hostile manner)Ignoring mistakes (no comments or action taken by the coach)

Responses to Misbehaviour

Maintaining control (reactions to maintain order among the team or group)

Class 2: Spontaneous Behaviours Game-related

General technical instruction (spontaneous, and not given following a mistake)General encouragement (spontaneous, and not given following a mistake)Organization (assigning duties, organizing space and groups)

Game Irrelevant

General communication (interactions not related to the game) (Weinberg and Gould, 2007, p. 214)

The research study also noted the coach consistently modifying practice to ensure that skill execution became more automatic and fluent. Wooden did not believe that drill-like practices were the end, but promoted the notion that drilled practices opened up the opportunity for a performer to apply individual creativity and apply their own initiative. Emerging out of the early studies on coach Wooden was a perception that planning and detailed reflection of individual coach, performer and team performances led to a successful coaching programme.

Becker and Wrisberg (2008) outline the importance of feedback, and revealed that a performer is undoubtedly influenced by the feedback given by the coach. Higher levels of satisfaction are correlated to a high frequency of positive coaching behaviours, which include training and instruction, praise, encouragement, social support and democratic behaviour (Allen and Howe, 1998). Also noted is the notion than a performer’s perceptions of competence appear to correlate to the levels of praise and instruction received in response to a successful performance outcome. It is therefore assumed that the effective coach will ensure equity in levels of feedback to the individuals in a coaching session.

Becker and Wrisberg (2008) looked to extend the research findings linked to the CBAS observation tool, and carried out a research study that addressed the systematic coaching behaviours of Pat Summitt, a successful collegiate female coach (NCAA Division 1) in the United States of America. In this study another observation tool was utilized, namely the Arizona State University Observation Instrument (ASUOI: Lacy and Darst, 1984). This instrument contained thirteen behavioural categories representing three behaviours as outlined below:

Instructional: pre-instruction, concurrent, post-instruction, questioning, manual manipulation, positive and negative modellingNon-instructional: hustle, praise, scold, management and otherDual codes: statements directed to an individual.

The findings of the study revealed that a significant amount of time was devoted once again to instruction, but the amount of questioning was also a significant finding when addressing the coach behaviours.

Coach Summitt’s Behaviours (per cent) after 504 Minutes of Observation

Instructional Behaviours

Instruction

48.12 per cent

Questioning

4.61 per cent

Manual manipulation

0.06 per cent

Positive modelling

2.09 per cent

Negative modelling

0.58 per cent

Non-Instructional Behaviours

Hustle

10.65 per cent

Praise

14.50 per cent

Scold

6.86 per cent

Management

9.34 per cent

Other

3.19 per cent

The study also compared the frequency of the categories directed to either the group or an individual. In contrast to pre- and concurrent instruction, the post instruction was directed mainly to individuals, with hustles, praise and management emerging as being directed mainly to the group. Findings in this study were consistent with the previous investigations, with instruction once again emerging as the highest score (48 per cent). Concurrent instruction appeared as the highest sub-total in this category, and highlighted how much support was being verbalized as players were carrying out a skill.

The study highlights that the expert coach will provide pre-instruction to the group, and post-instruction to the individual to promote greater benefits and confidence in the feedback process. The study also outlines that effective feedback should be brief and concise for an individual. Summitt also identifies the need for high levels of praise to motivate and promote perceptions of competence within a performer. Intensity of training was another feature emerging, and the expert coach is deemed to be someone who is able to replicate the game intensity in a training session, and ensure that all performers ‘practise like they compete’. It is the hustle behaviours that were used by Summitt to ensure that players remained on task and maintained the correct level of intensity.

The literature using the quantitative observation tools did convey some significant behaviours of a successful coach; however, limitations point to the need for future research to use qualitative data. Through gaining the perspectives of players, assistant coaches and the coach himself, the data obtained would have been enhanced.

The context a coach operates within is known to require different approaches and coach behaviours. Participation coaching will focus on the positive affective outcomes, including perceptions of competence and enjoyment, and may also be defined as being episodic, having loose membership and including transient participation. Smoll and Smith (2001) outlined the need to utilize the following behaviours when coaching a young performer:

Use demonstrations frequently to support instruction and explanationsEncourage and praise effort along with performanceProvide feedback immediately after mistakes, and outline initially what was successfulRemove any punishment strategies from the coaching sessionProvide positive reinforcement after any positive behaviourEnsure that expectations and codes of practice are clearly communicated.

In contrast, performance coaching has a higher level of commitment, fosters strong athlete-coach relationships, and will incorporate a significant planning regime for the mid- to long-term control of performance factors (Lyle, 2002). As a result of the complexity of the coaching process for a high performance coach, the literature offers some clarity in terms of coach effectiveness at this level. Gilbert and Trudel (2004) identified that several high-performance coaches were measured on effectiveness, simply in terms of competition outcome and by the number of their athletes selected on to national squads.

There remains a debate as to what control a coach has over the performance outcomes, and a review of the effectiveness of the high performance coach required a close examination of the coach–athlete relationship in action at this level. When assessing coach effectiveness it is vital to assess the impact of the interactions between the coach and the athlete, rather than reviewing the outcomes of performance.

Cote et al. (1999) developed The Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport (CBS-S), which attempted to provide evidence of the élite coach behaviours conveyed in a training session, in competition and in any organizational setting. The CBS-S contained seven dimensions of effective coaching behaviours linked to the élite (high performance) coach.

The Dimensions of Élite Coaching Behaviours

Physical training and planning for competitionThe identification, development and monitoring of athletes’ goalsMental preparation strategies, for example, focus under pressure, confidence building and performing under pressureTechnical skills, including coach feedback, demonstration, and cues givenRapport with the athletes, for example, approachabilityNegative personal rapport, for example, yelling at a performerCompetition strategies concerned with coach-athlete interaction during competition (Cote et al., 1999)

COACHING EFFICACY

Coaching efficacy (Feltz et al., 1999) is described as a multi-dimensional construct, which encompasses the dimensions of motivation, game strategy, technique and character building. The dimensions that were devised based upon the effective coaching behaviours noted in the coach education literature are defined in the box [below].

Dimensions of Coaching Efficacy

Motivation efficacy: The confidence that a coach possesses to influence the psychological state and skills of the athlete

Game strategy efficacy: The confidence of the coach to lead the team to success in competition

Technique efficacy: A coach’s belief about their instruction and ability to detect and correct errors in performance

Character-building efficacy: A coach’s belief in their ability to influence the personal development of an athlete

A coach displaying high levels of coaching efficacy is identified as being highly committed to coaching, and someone who will promote greater athlete satisfaction, performance outcomes and more sportsmanlike behaviours in their athletes. Performers coached by high efficacy coaches in basketball, softball and soccer reported higher satisfaction with their coach, and performance success was notably higher (Myers et al., 2005).

Boardley et al. (2008) carried out a study with male Rugby Union players (mean age 26.5) to establish whether their own levels of effort, commitment, enjoyment, self-efficacy, pro-social and antisocial behaviour in rugby were associated with their perceptions of the coach’s effectiveness through the efficacy dimensions. As expected, athlete perceptions of the coach through all efficacy dimensions have a positive correlation with experiences in rugby.

Within the coach–athlete relationship Lent and Lopez (2002) presented the theory of relational efficacy, of which there are two types: the first is other-efficacy, which relates to ‘an individual’s beliefs about his or her significant other’s ability to perform significant behaviours’ (Lent and Lopez, 2002, p. 264); and the second is relation-inferred self-efficacy (RISE), which is concerned with the notion of questioning how confident is the significant other in my ability? Jackson et al. (2009) investigated the coach–athlete relationship in six élite dyads in an attempt to highlight the factors that contribute to an effective partnership.

The findings indicated a relationship between efficacy perceptions and relationship formation, and where the relationship was effective both parties held strong beliefs about the other’s capabilities. Interestingly, athletes in the study who exhibited high levels of other-efficacy and RISE were deemed more likely to persist with a coach partnership. Individuals who were confident in the coach’s ability were also more effective in communication and would show higher levels of attention, initiate communication, communicate more frequently, and report a greater closeness to their coach. The coaches in the study also highlighted that they would set more challenging goals when they held a high level of confidence in their athletes.

SUPPORTING THE ATHLETE-CENTRED APPROACH

Adopting an athlete or person-centred approach involves coaching the individual, not the skill, always ensuring that the needs and interests of the individual are met. This approach seeks to empower the individual towards achieving personal goals, and educates them to take ownership of learning and solving problems for themselves. This athlete-centred approach places the sporting experience in context as being only one part of the athlete’s life. This holistic approach is set in context from the outset of all coaching, with the other important human experiences being considered – for example education, career, family and health. The coach therefore assumes a holistic view of the individual, and this requires a facilitative inter-personal relationship between athlete and coach.

A successful coach will make the transition through three stages in terms of their behaviour in order to empower the individual and promote self-responsibility. In stage one the coach will coach skills, ensure safety and communicate procedural information, and as a result the environment is coach dependent. In stage two the coach begins to offer collaborative opportunities for the individual which build upon self-management and self-determination skills. At this stage there is a gradual transition from coach dependence to a shared decision-making context. In stage three there is greater athlete-dependence and personal autonomy in the learning process. This coaching approach accepts that experience is defined individually and that to succeed the coach must create a mastery (or task-oriented) climate for learning.

According to Arai (1997), empowered athletes move through four stages: of becoming self-aware, connecting and learning, taking action, and contributing to their own learning. The effective coach will adopt the following strategies to empower a performer:

Ask meaningful questionsPromote an understanding of why the athlete must be part of their own learningProvide support and be an information source for athletes to add personal choice to the tasksSupport an athlete’s ideas, and question and support self-expressionBe a facilitator, and encourage the growth of the athlete in the final stage.

(Kidman, 2005)

Coaching is a complex system, and literature highlights the need for coach education to focus more closely on the ‘interactive and social nature of coaching’ (Bowes and Jones, 2006, p. 243). In summary, early research indicated a number of factors which related to coaching effectiveness, namely:

A high frequency of feedbackHigh levels of detection, correction and reinstructionHigh levels of questioningThe ability to manage and maintain order in the training and competition environment.

Effective coaching is also related to the coach’s ability to react to the needs of the individuals in a session. The ability to plan and reflect upon individual coaching sessions has frequently been cited as a tool that would contribute to coach effectiveness and therefore should be encouraged in all coach education programmes. Trends in coaching in the last decade appear to conflict with the earlier notion of drill and repetition, and critics do believe that this approach should ‘take second place to assisting learners to construct meaning and understanding’ (Gallimore and Tharp, 2004, p. 133). Certainly the empowerment approach to coaching has emerged as a priority in more recent years, but the need for coach instruction, modelling and performance-related feedback must not be underestimated, particularly in the early stages of learning.

2

Exploration of the ‘How to Coach’ Skills

by Anita Navin

CREATING A POSITIVE ENVIRONMENT

The ‘how to coach’ skills – often referred to as the ‘coaching process’ or ‘craft-based skills’ – provide a set of guiding principles for the delivery of an effective coaching session. To be successful a coach must know about the technical and tactical components that impact upon performance, and have the necessary communication and interpersonal skills. A coach might be the technical expert or the most conscientious and effective in the planning phase, but he will only succeed if he can apply the craft-based skills in the delivery of the coaching session. Effective organization of the working environment, together with good communication skills, contribute to individual satisfaction and performance improvement within the sports setting. It is the ‘how to coach’ skills that provide the strategies and an essential ‘tool kit’ for the coach. The ‘how to coach’ skills reviewed in this chapter provide guidance on creating a positive climate, the organization of resources, presentation of information, and coach relationships/interventions with the participants.

The ‘How to Coach’ Skills

SafetyBuild rapportFunOrganizationExplanationDemonstrationObservationAnalysisFeedback

Figure 2.1 The coach in action. (Courtesy of David Griffiths)

SAFETY

Initially, the coach must ensure that the working environment is free from hazards and risks. According to Rink (1993), safety takes precedence over all other concerns. Martens (2004) presents a step-by-step guide to represent the risk management process. First, the coach should assess the risks within the coaching environment by considering the participants, the intended activity, the equipment, coaching methods and the working environment. An evaluation and overall assessment of the risks should take place, and often a risk assessment proforma utilized by the coach would identify the impact of the risk in terms of a low, medium or high rating. The rating relates to the likelihood of the risk leading to an injury, and how frequently the coach believes this could occur. The coach is required to make a decision in relation to the intended action, and most often he will eliminate the risk from the coaching environment.

If the risk cannot be eliminated, the coach must accept the risk and implement an approach to safeguard all participants. A coach will decide either to avoid the activity due to the high risk factor with a particular group and associated environment, or to accept the risk and work to the safe practice principles outlined in this chapter. Reinforcing the safety issues with participants, and conveying the code of behaviour for them to work to, will support the coach in ensuring safe and effective practice.

Figure 2.2 The swimming coach operates in a high-risk environment.

Risk Assessment

Step 1: Identify the risks

Step 2: Evaluate the risks

Step 3: Select an approach to manage the risk

Step 4: Implement the approach

The Environment

The coach should check the working space; the following guidelines identify the specific aspects a coach should consider before, during and after the coaching session:

Check for any debris on or around the working areaEnsure there is access to a telephone in case of emergencyKnow the first aid procedure at the venueIf outdoors, monitor the temperatureThe weather can affect the outdoor working area, so check the ground surface, particularly if there has been rain or frost, or if there are fallen leavesSecure all fixed equipment, and store equipment not in useEnsure that the lighting is adequateCheck that emergency exits are not obstructed, and that fire procedures are knownEnsure that participants know how to carry equipment safelyAlways check any equipment that has been assembled by others prior to using it Always clearly demonstrate the working area and boundaries to those taking part in the sessionEnsure that the equipment to be used is appropriate to the age and ability level of the groupStore equipment intended for use in a safe place during the sessionDistribute all equipment in a safe and systematic way, making sure that large numbers of people do not all descend on an equipment store or one location to collect equipment at any one timeEnsure that equipment is put away safely at the end of the session, and that participants follow the routines as communicated by the coach.

Participants

A coach should carry out a check with all individuals in terms of their readiness to participate. It is essential that the coach is briefed and informed of any injuries or illness a participant may have sustained, and that asthmatic participants have their inhalers with them at all times. Participants should remove all jewellery and tie long hair back, and they should be wearing appropriate clothing and footwear for the session. They must not be allowed to chew gum during the session, but all should be encouraged to have water bottles with them, and to drink to help rehydration. A coach must ensure that no young person leaves the session unsupervised.

All planned activities and progressions should be appropriate to the individuals in a session, and to promote a safe and productive working environment the coach should establish and reinforce rules and safe practice routines with the participants.

Safety Checks

Assess risks associated with the participants, environment and equipmentA coach should perform the same checks throughout a sessionEnsure participants remain ‘on task’ and in the correct areaEnsure the learning activities and progressions are appropriate

BUILDING RAPPORT

Interpersonal skills are of paramount importance, given the complexities of human interaction that should feature within the coaching environment. As Lyle (2002, p. 151) indicates: ‘The danger of focusing on performance and performance outcomes, and the potential for emphasizing organizational rewards and goals above individual interests, have highlighted the human and interpersonal aspects of coaching as areas of concern.’ A coach should get to know the participants, should appreciate their needs and individual differences, acknowledge their efforts, and be an active listener. According to Weinberg and Gould (2003), active listening enhances communication, and the coach should pay full attention to the speaker, make eye contact with the participants and use a nodding gesture to demonstrate understanding. A coach who actively listens may summarize what has been said with lead-in questions to the speaker: for example, ‘What you are telling me is ...’.

SMILE AND MAKE EYE CONTACT WITH EACH PARTICIPANT ADOPT A PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH

LEARN AND USE PARTICIPANT NAMES SHOW INTEREST AND RESPECT THE NEEDS OF ALL PARTICIPANTS

Figure 2.3 Guidelines for building rapport. (Courtesy of David Griffiths)

A coach should make every effort to speak with all participants in a session, and show respect to everyone irrespective of their ability level. The power of non-verbal communication – a smile, for example – must not be underestimated, and a coach who smiles and engages with the participants is more likely to create a supportive climate for learning. A coach must also consider that up to 70 per cent of communication is often defined as non-verbal.

FUN

The fun factor must not be underestimated within a coaching session, and whilst a productive and safe environment must be maintained, fun practices and activities will motivate and engage participants. To make a session fun, the coach should apply the good practice principles outlined below:

Ensure participants are active quickly:

Know your session planEquipment should be organized and easily accessedPlan explanations, and use cue words to reduce talk timeParticipants should have all they need for the session (kit, drinks bottle and any personal equipment required).

Learning activities should be varied and challenging for all:

Differentiate in planning for all performance levelsAvoid repetition of the same warm-up, practice and groupingsMake a conscious effort to offer a novel idea or different task in each session planned.

Promote activities so that all participants can be actively involved:

Keep group sizes small to reduce any waiting time in long queuesPlan for odd numbers in the practicesEquipment should be organized for the numbers in the sessionMake adaptations if an individual is repeatedly over- or under-challenged on a task.

Feedback should be positive, and should reward effort along with performance outcomes:

Praise individuals who commit fully to the task and always give of their best in a sessionIf there is an error in terms of performance offer corrective feedback or questions to tease out what the individual should do.

Figure 2.4 A fun environment will promote learning and enhance participant motivation. (Courtesy of Northumbria University)

ORGANIZATION

A coach must be an effective organizer of all resources, and this is a vital consideration within the planning phase. The coach must plan how they will support the participants, and manage the working area and equipment. An effective coach will also have a contingency or back-up plan should there be fewer or more participants, a reduced working area, or indeed problems with equipment. When organizing individuals into groups and allocating working areas, the coach should strive for smooth transitions between practices and regroupings. Effective organization will address the following issues:

Planning:

Know the number of participants, and note how you will run a practice with a greater or lesser number of participantsClearly note how the working area will be sectioned, and try and maintain a similar set-up, therefore maximizing the time spent in a learning activityPlan the process for allocating or collecting equipment in a sessionComplete any organizational steps prior to a group arriving for the session if possible.

Safety considerations:

Complete a risk assessment for a coaching venueCheck the working area before commencing delivery of a sessionDo not use faulty equipmentReduce the area of work if there are hazards close by.

Grouping participants:

Organize groups randomly or by abilityBe sensitive when grouping by ability, and set realistic challenges for each group accordinglyPlan groups in advance, and progress logically (for example twos to fours, threes to sixes).

Group size:

Consider the intensity and involvement of all participantsSmaller groups maximize involvementIf the activity is intensive a larger group offers more recovery/rest time, thus encouraging high quality practiceSmaller groups contain fewer communication channels between participants, therefore discussion is easier.

EXPLANATION

Success as a coach is manifested in the art of communication, and a coach must understand how to send an effective message to participants. A breakdown in communication is often the result of too much or too little information, or because of misinterpretation, or as a result of the coach not communicating sufficient information. The content of the message should be appropriate to the age level of the participants, and conveyed in user-friendly language. A coach should plan what is to be communicated, and should ensure that all participants are attentive and free from distraction. Explanations should be simple, brief and direct, and a coach should use appropriate questions at the end of an explanation to check that everyone has understood. Exemplar questions might be:

What will you now focus upon in the practice?How many in each group?Where will players stand to start the practice?

A coach should avoid asking the question ‘Do you understand?’ as this will often prompt individuals to respond with a ‘yes’, even though they require more information. Participants often feel reluctant to expose their lack of understanding in the whole group context, and a coach should avoid such exposure by appropriately worded questions.

DEMONSTRATION

Demonstrations present a visual picture of the task organization/practice context and the technical/tactical information to be learned. A demonstration and a concise explanation will often be connected together, and can be used before participants practise a skill, intermittently throughout the skill development phase or as a conclusion to a particular practice or phase in the session.

The explanation when combined with a demonstration should be concise and incorporate learning cues, often referred to as a key word or phrase that summarizes and identifies the main features of a skill or task. The learning cues presented must be appropriate to the age and experience of the participants, and be concise and accurate in order to assist the individual in the learning process. A coach may decide to break down a skill into the three phases of preparation, execution and recovery in order to identify the key learning cues. Using action words or verbal labels can assist a performer and support the retention of key information.

Bandura (1977) outlined the importance of ‘vicarious experiences’ – also known as modelling or demonstration in conjunction with the theory of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is associated with an individual’s perceptions of their own ability to perform a task successfully, and can be referred to as a situation-specific form of self-confidence. The demonstration is deemed to be one of the most important sources of self-efficacy information for a novice or intermediate performer. Observing a fellow participant complete a demonstration of a difficult task can reduce anxiety in others.

In order to understand fully the importance of demonstration, a four-stage process has been outlined in literature (Bandura, 1974; McCullagh, Weiss and Ross, 1989); a summary is presented below:

Attention

Ensure that all participants can see and hear, and are free from distraction (they are not facing the sun, not involved in other activities)Introduce the skill to focus the participants and gain interestAs the coach, direct attention to the key elements of the skillFocus upon one or two key points or cues.

Retention

The demonstration should be observed more than once and from different angles if requiredQuestion participants on the key points/cues given, to check that they have understoodA coach should repeat the same cues with each demonstration to improve retention.

Reproduction

A coach must plan appropriate progressions following a demonstration to support the performerIndividuals may not be able to perform the skill being demonstrated because they have not developed the prerequisite skillsA coach must continue to reinforce the key points, and allocate ample time to practise the skill immediately after the demonstrationSlow motion demonstrations may be useful in the early stages of learningObserving a demonstration of someone performing as a non-expert may prompt observational learning and allow the observer to engage in the problem-solving processes the performer would be experiencing.

Motivation

Individuals may lack the motivation to learn a new skill, but if the demonstrator has a high level of skill, social status and competence the participant is likely to be attentiveA coach should praise participants and communicate the importance and relevance of the skill being demonstratedThe demonstration should where possible use individuals from the peer group to present the skill.

When planning a demonstration the coach must carefully consider how the participants will be organized. Often a coach will ensure that all equipment and the working areas for each group have been set up before the demonstration. A coach may elect to use one of the following arrangements to deliver a demonstration, ensuring that all participants can see from the same angle:

Semi-circle formationGroup stand at the sideline of the pitch or court areaGroup position around a key area of the court, for example the key in basketball.

Consideration must be given to the viewpoint that participants should observe, and the positioning of the coach in relation to the group can impact upon the clarity of the demonstration to some participants. A coach who stands close to a group may reduce the visibility of the demonstration to some participants. When arranged in a semi-circle, the coach who stands close to the group will be viewed from the side by participants standing at the end of the semi-circle, compared to the front view for those standing in the middle.

When evaluating the success of a demonstration, the coach should use the following review questions to prompt accurate self-reflections:

Were the organizational issues related to equipment, participant groupings and the working areas covered prior to the demonstration?Was the purpose of the demonstration communicated clearly?What were the coaching points communicated in the demonstration?Was the organization also communicated in the demonstration?Was the demonstration a good model of the movement? Why?How was the group arranged to view the demonstration?How did the coach conclude the demonstration?Was the transition time between demonstration and practice time minimal? Why?

OBSERVATION

Following a demonstration a coach must facilitate the learning process, and this is an essential skill required in order to eventually provide quality feedback. Effective observation relates closely to movement analysis, and a coach should plan how to observe (from different angles, thus see the action more than once), make a decision on what to observe, and identify the critical features and understand the factors that impact upon one’s ability to observe – for example, skill level, the number of participants, the size of the working area, fear and personal knowledge (Barrett 1983).

Observing performance with a large number of participants can prove challenging, and a coach is encouraged to focus on one coaching point or learning cue as they move around the group. The learning cue or coaching point selected should be one covered in the demonstration and explanation of the skill. The coach must have a mental picture of the perfect model of the skill or task, and will use this to form the basis of any observations; they will be non-judgemental at this stage and will build up an overview of what is being observed. Once this information has been obtained the coach is able to diagnose the performance.

Effective Observation

Break down the action to focus on one phase, body part, coaching point or learning cue presentedObserve several timesObserve from different anglesObserve the outcome (Did the participant score a goal? Did the pass reach the intended recipient?)

ANALYSIS

Following the observation stage, a coach must now evaluate the extent to which the skill execution matched the perfect model of the skill or task. Here the coach will also identify aspects of the skill that were performed incorrectly, and will establish the root cause of the error. Factors affecting the error rate of a performer could be a result of primary factors connected to technique, psychological factors (for example, low levels of confidence or high levels of anxiety) or perceptual or decision-making errors, and a coach should strive to identify the root cause.

At this point the coach must make a decision either to take action to remedy the situation, or not to take any action. A coach may decide not to take any action to change the performance because of the time in the season – for example, in basketball, correcting a player’s shooting action just before a competition would not be sensible, and it should be put right in the off season.

Following the diagnosis or analysis stage, the coach is suitably placed to begin the feedback and guidance process.

PROVIDING FEEDBACK

Feedback will provide the participant with knowledge, motivation and reinforcement, and will often promote adherence and full commitment to the learning process. Congruent feedback maintains a focus on the learning cues initially presented to a participant, and limiting feedback to these congruent cues ensures that the learner is not overloaded or presented with additional information not provided at the outset. Only when differentiating for an individual would the coach be expected to offer other cues. This type of feedback offers specific and qualitative information to guide the performer, and is more powerful in terms of learning than the general feedback often used, such as, for example, ‘Good work’. While the general comments are sometimes used for motivating or ensuring that a group remains on task, the general comments do not provide a clear focus for the individuals when engaged with a learning activity.

Feedback should be positively phrased, and while there may be a need to identify what is being executed incorrectly, the coach should strive to ensure that a supportive comment is also provided. This is often where positive, negative and corrective components are integrated; for example, a coach may say: ‘You are trying hard, John, but having problems at the release point of the pass; try extending the arm further forwards, and release the ball in front of the body.’

Giving Feedback

Initially prompt the performer to engage in self-analysisGive congruent feedback in a simple and supportive mannerFocus on only one or two key pointsCheck for understanding at the end of the dialogue with the participant

The expertise required to be successful in the coach role is extensive, and a coach must not only possess the capacity to execute the ‘how to’ coach skills but also display effective inter-personal social skills. The range of expertise for the coach role is extensive, and a coach must not over- emphasize the need for technical and tactical knowledge in a sport at the expense of developing the skills overviewed in this chapter.

3

Athlete-Centred Coaching

by Kelvin Beeching

Being athlete-centred (or empowering one’s athletes) is a common theme in modern-day coaching practices, and has been used successfully in the business world. It is a leadership style that encourages recipients to make decisions and take responsibilities for his/her contribution, as greater understanding is developed through solving problems. A relationship is formed between the athlete and coach (or in business, between the manager and employee) where the power, in terms of decision-making and goal-setting, is shared between them. This form of leadership is used more and more as coaches seek to gain the utmost from their performers. Coaches create a culture within their sessions that focuses on the development of the athlete and facilitates self-reliance. This chapter explores the concept of athlete-centred coaching by first defining it, and then discussing the notion and the benefits associated with such an approach. As in other texts, the terms ‘athlete-centred coaching’ and ‘an empowering approach’ will be used interchangeably throughout this chapter.