Sports Fields E-Book

Jim Puhalla

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1071

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

THE UPDATED, AUTHORITATIVE GUIDE TO SPORTS FIELD MANAGEMENT THAT INCLUDES THE LATEST DEVELOPMENTS IN, AND ON, THE FIELD The updated Third Edition of Sports Fields: Design, Construction, and Maintenance is a comprehensive reference for professionals who are responsible for the design, construction, renovation, and maintenance of athletic facilities. This book contains illustrative examples of specific design elements of the most popular sports facilities. This Third Edition contains new chapters on safety, public relations, and professionalism for future sports field managers, as well as fresh drawings and photos that highlight innovative field layout, grading, irrigation, and drainage. All-new case studies review best practices and techniques for sports fields ranging from youth and high school fields to fields that are designed for professional athletes. This text is also an ideal resource for anyone studying for Sports Field Manager Certification (offered by STMA). * Features new case studies that include design and management best practices for all levels and types of sports facilities * Offers new chapters on safety, public relations, and professionalism for future sports field managers * Includes new illustrations and photos of innovative field layout, grading, irrigation, and drainage * Contains the most recent information on sand-based field systems and synthetic turf * Presents discussions of a range of fields including baseball, softball, football, soccer, lacrosse, field hockey, tennis, and track and field Sports Fields: Design, Construction, and Maintenance, Third Edition is a blueprint for field managers, designers, and builders for successful sports field projects.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

About the Authors

About the STMA

Preface

THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

PART 1: PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TURF CULTURE

CHAPTER 1: Turfgrasses

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 BIOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION

1.3 TURFGRASS TYPES

1.4 TURFGRASS SELECTION

1.5 USING THE TWO-MAP SYSTEM TO SELECT TURFGRASS

1.6 PLANTING TIMES AND RATES

1.7 SOIL PREPARATION

1.8 PLANTING TECHNIQUES

1.9 ESTABLISHMENT

1.10 OVERSEEDING WARM-SEASON FIELDS

1.11 SUSTAINING A MIXED WARM AND COOL SEASON TURFGRASS CANOPY IN THE TRANSITION ZONE

NOTES

CHAPTER 2: Soils and Soil Science

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 SOIL AS A MEDIUM FOR TURFGRASS

CHAPTER 3: Fertility and Fertilizers

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS

3.3 NUTRIENT UPTAKE

3.4 SOIL REACTION

3.5 FERTILIZER ANALYSIS

3.6 FERTILIZER SOURCES

3.7 APPLICATION RATES AND FREQUENCIES

3.8 MICRONUTRIENTS

3.9 BIOSTIMULANTS

CHAPTER 4: Mowing

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 TYPES OF MOWERS

4.3 TURF RESPONSE

4.4 HEIGHT AND FREQUENCY

4.5 PATTERN

4.6 CLIPPING REMOVAL

4.7 EQUIPMENT AND SAFETY

4.8 CHEMICAL GROWTH REGULATORS

CHAPTER 5: Irrigation

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 IRRIGATION AND TURFGRASS CULTURE

5.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TURFGRASS IRRIGATION

5.4 PORTABLE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

5.5 INSTALLED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

5.6 WIRELESS SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

5.7 SUBSURFACE DRIP IRRIGATION (SDI)

5.8. THE USE OF NONPOTABLE WATER FOR SPORTS FIELD IRRIGATION

5.9 KNOW YOUR WATER SOURCE

CHAPTER 6: Drainage

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 SURFACE DRAINAGE

6.3 INTERNAL DRAINAGE

6.4 INSTALLED DRAIN SYSTEMS

6.5 OTHER DRAIN SYSTEM PRACTICES

CHAPTER 7: Aeration and Topdressing

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 AERATING FOR OPTIMAL TURF RESPONSES

7.3 AERATION EQUIPMENT

7.4 TOPDRESSING

CHAPTER 8: Thatch

8.1 INTRODUCTION

8.2 DEFINITION OF THATCH

8.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THATCH IN SPORTS TURF

8.4 HOW THATCH DEVELOPS

8.5 MAINTAINING A MANAGED THATCH LAYER

8.6 REDUCING EXCESSIVE THATCH BUILDUP

CHAPTER 9: Turfgrass Stresses and Remedies

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 MECHANICAL STRESSES

9.3 ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES

9.4 WEEDS, INSECTS, AND DISEASES

CHAPTER 10: Wise Use of Chemicals

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 THE LABEL IS THE LAW

10.3 PLANNING AND PERFORMING APPLICATIONS

10.4 RECORD KEEPING

CHAPTER 11: Organic Field Management

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FIELD MANAGEMENT

11.3 PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF ORGANIC FIELD MANAGEMENT

11.4 MAKING AN ADJUSTMENT TO ORGANIC FIELD MANAGEMENT

11.5 TIMING AND SITE CONDITIONS FOR ORGANIC FIELD MANAGEMENT

11.6 ORGANIC FIELD MANAGEMENT INPUTS

11.7 COMPOST AND COMPOSTING

11.8 COMPOST APPLICATIONS ON SPORTS FIELDS

PART 2: NATURAL TURFGRASS SPORTS FIELDS

CHAPTER 12: Baseball and Softball Fields

12.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2 DESIGN

12.3 CONSTRUCTION

12.4 RENOVATION

12.5 MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES

12.6 RULES AND REGULATIONS

CHAPTER 13: Football Fields

13.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2 DESIGN

13.3 CONSTRUCTION

13.4 RENOVATION

13.5 MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES

13.6 RULES AND REGULATIONS

CHAPTER 14: Soccer, Lacrosse, and Field Hockey Fields

14.1 INTRODUCTION

14.2 DESIGN

14.3 CONSTRUCTION

14.4 RENOVATION

14.5 MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES

14.6 RULES AND REGULATIONS

PART 3: OTHER SPORTS SURFACES

CHAPTER 15: Tennis Courts

15.1 INTRODUCTION

15.2 DESIGN

15.3 CONSTRUCTION

15.4 RENOVATION

15.5 MAINTENANCE

15.6 RULES AND REGULATIONS

CHAPTER 16: Track and Field Facilities

16.1 INTRODUCTION

16.2 DESIGN

16.3 TRACK CONSTRUCTION

16.4 TRACK RENOVATION

16.5 TRACK MAINTENANCE

16.6 RULES AND REGULATIONS

CHAPTER 17: Synthetic Turf

17.1 INTRODUCTION

17.2 HISTORY AND INNOVATIONS

17.3 CHOOSING THE RIGHT MANUFACTURER AND INSTALLER

17.4 CARE AND MAINTENANCE

PART 4: ANCILLARY INFORMATION

CHAPTER 18: Surveying the Grade

18.1 INTRODUCTION

18.2 SURVEYING EQUIPMENT

18.3 ESTABLISHING ELEVATIONS

CHAPTER 19: Sand-Based Rootzones

19.1 INTRODUCTION

19.2 CONSIDERATIONS WHEN SELECTING A SAND-BASED ROOTZONE

19.3 SAND-BASED ROOTZONE REQUIREMENTS

19.4 MAINTENANCE

Notes

CHAPTER 20: Paints and Covers

20.1 INTRODUCTION

20.2 PAINTS

20.3 COVERS

Notes

CHAPTER 21: Field Evaluation and Turfgrass Assessment

21.1 INTRODUCTION

21.2 COMPONENTS OF FIELD QUALITY

21.3 AESTHETIC APPEAL AND QUALITY

21.4 BALL AND PLAYER RESPONSE AS AFFECTED BY SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS

21.5 TESTING EQUIPMENT TO EVALUATE THE PLAYING SURFACE

CHAPTER 22: Safety

22.1 INTRODUCTION

22.2 PLAYER SAFETY AND PERFORMANCE

22.3 SPECTATOR SAFETY

22.4 DESIGNING FOR SAFETY

22.5 SAFETY CONCERNS DURING CONSTRUCTION AND RENOVATION

22.6 MAINTAINING A SAFE FACILITY

CHAPTER 23: Environmental Stewardship, Resource Conservation, and Sustainability

23.1 INTRODUCTION

23.2 ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP

23.3 RESOURCE CONSERVATION

23.4 SUSTAINABILITY

Note

CHAPTER 24: Innovations Designed to Promote Natural Grass Fields

24.1 INTRODUCTION

24.2 LIGHTING

24.3 ENHANCED TURFGRASS PERFORMANCE

24.4 INSTANT FIELD REPLACEMENT

24.5 WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY, REMOTE SENSING, AND PREDICTIVE MODELS

CHAPTER 25: Public Relations and Professionalism

25.1 INTRODUCTION

25.2 PUBLIC RELATIONS

25.3 PROFESSIONALISM

Appendix

PART 1 CALCULATIONS

PART 2 EDUCATION IN SPORTS TURF MANAGEMENT

Glossary

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Characteristics of turfgrasses commonly used for sports turf.

Table 1.2 Planting times and rates for sports turf species.

Table 1.3 Germination and establishment periods.

Table 1.4 Perennial ryegrass and annual ryegrass comparisons.

Table 1.5 Overseeding dates.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Essential turfgrass nutrients and functions.

Table 2.2 Soil particle sizes, numbers, and surface areas.

Table 2.3 Site assessment of saline and sodic soils to optimize turfgrass...

Table 2.4 Soil amendments used for mitigating a saline or sodic soil.

Table 2.5 Relative salinity tolerance of turfgrasses having sports turf...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Soil test designations for levels of macronutrients in soils.

Table 3.2 Common sufficiency ranges of nutrients in turfgrass tissues.

Table 3.3 Common lime sources for raising soil pH on athletic fields.

Table 3.4 Approximate quantities of finely ground CaCO3 (lb/1,000 sq ft) to...

Table 3.5 Fertility programs for bermudagrass or seashore paspalum sports...

Table 3.6 Fertility programs for bermudagrass or seashore paspalum sports...

Table 3.7 Fertility program for tall fescue sports fields utilizing WSN s....

Table 3.8 Fertility programs for Kentucky bluegrass, perennial ryegrass, ...

Table 3.9 Fertility programs for Kentucky bluegrass, perennial ryegrass, ...

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Recommended Seasonal Mowing Heights

Table 4.2 Characteristics of Plant Growth Regulators Commonly Used in Spo...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Particle size distribution and sieves of the standard screen sc...

Table 6.2 Sand specification for the sand channel drainage systems.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 The amount of surface area impacted by single passes of various...

Table 7.2 Approximate volumes of material to topdress 1,000 square feet a...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Thatching tendencies of common sports turfgrasses.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Common annual grass or grass-like weeds.

Table 9.2 Common perennial grass or grass-like weeds.

Table 9.3 Weed families and common annual broadleaf weeds.

Table 9.4 Weed families and common perennial broadleaf weeds.

Table 9.5 Common chemical names and trade names of preemergent herbicides.

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Table 9.6 Common chemical names and trade names of postemergent herbicide...

Table 9.7 Common chemical names and trade names of postemergent herbicide...

Table 9.8 Common chemical names and trade names of nonselective herbicide...

Table 9.9 Common chemical names, trade names, and chemical classification...

Table 9.10 Disease-causing factors.

Table 9.11 List of popular fungicides for disease control on sports turfs.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Toxicity classification.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Material list of organic amendments supplying nutrients.

Table 11.2 Material list of mineral amendments supplying nutrients.

Table 11.3 Material list of liquid cocktails supplying nutrients.

Table 11.4 Nitrogen applications for a bermudagrass sports turf grown on n...

Table 11.5 Nitrogen applications for a bermudagrass sports turf grown on s...

Table 11.6 Nitrogen applications for a bermudagrass sports turf overseeded...

Table 11.7 Nitrogen applications for a cool-season sports turf grown on na...

Table 11.8 Nitrogen applications for a cool-season sports turf grown on sa...

Table 11.9 Mowing height and frequency adjustment for building biomass in ...

Table 11.10 Weed species as indicators of problem soil conditions.

Table 11.11 Site condition or management practices associated with turfgra...

Table 11.12 USDA National Organic Program acceptable materials for use as ...

Table 11.13 Insects that damage turf, based on feeding site or turfgrass i....

Table 11.14 Natural control measure of selected turfgrass insects.

Table 11.15 Diagnosing problems associated with composting organic matter ...

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Space requirements.

Table 12.2 Square footage of skinned area and grass area.

Table 12.3 Recommended warning track dimensions.

Table 12.4 Dugout sizes for different levels of competition.

Table 12.5 Bullpen sizes for different pitching distances.

Table 12.6 Warm-season maintenance program.

Table 12.7 Cool season maintenance program.

Table 12.8 Baseball field dimensions.

Table 12.9 Softball field dimensions.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Sample field inspection report.

Table 13.2 Warm-season maintenance program.

Table 13.3 Cool-season maintenance program.

Table 13.4 Football field dimensions.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Warm-season maintenance program.

Table 14.2 Cool-season maintenance program.

Table 14.3 Minimum and maximum dimensions for high school and college socc...

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Suggested questions prospective customers of new synthetic turf...

Table 17.2 Scheduled maintenance of synthetic turf with an infill system.

Table 17.3 “As needed” activities to maintain field integrity ....

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Minimum depth required to create adequate aeration porosity.

Table 19.2 Final physical properties of a sand/peat mix.

Table 19.3 Confidence intervals for subsequent mixes.

Table 19.4 Example rootzone showing calculated acceptable ranges (based on...

Table 19.5 Sod-soil to rootzone sand compatibility recommendations.

Chapter 23

Table 23.1 Conventional field management practices and sustainable results.

Appendix

Table A.1 Course lengths required to calibrate 1/128th of an acre (340 ...

Table A.2 Comparing inches to tenths and hundredths of a foot.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 The four morphological types of turfgrasses: (a) bunch-type, ...

Figure 1.2 The location of turfgrass growing points: (a) bunch-type turf...

Figure 1.3 The variation in turfgrass leaf anatomy: (a) rolled leaf, (b)...

Figure 1.4 Nodes on turfgrasses with (a) compressed stems or (b) elongat...

Figure 1.5 A schematic representation of turfgrass physiology.

Figure 1.6 Key substrates and nutrients that support their formation and...

Figure 1.7 Seashore paspalum has a “striping” ability from m...

Figure 1.8 Cool-season turfgrass zones, based on high temperature exposu....

Figure 1.9 Warm-season turfgrass (bermudagrass) zones, based on low temp...

Figure 1.10 The daily freeze-thaw cycle of late winter in the North crea...

Figure 1.11 Bermudagrass sprigs, like this one, can be successfully planted ...

Figure 1.12 This sprigging machine creates small furrows into which the spri...

Figure 1.13 Big-roll must be installed using a machine to maneuver the heavy...

Figure 1.14 The base turf of this bluemuda playing field is bermudagrass but...

Figure 1.15 A bluemuda field during winter dormancy of bermudagrass will not...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Soil matrix.

Figure 2.2 Soil textural triangle.

Figure 2.3 Relationship between soil pH and nutrient availability.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Mowing with dull blades will cause the blade ends of the plants t...

Figure 4.2 This field was mowed when the soil was wet, causing visible ruts ...

Figure 4.3 This type of front-end rotary mower is one of the most common mac...

Figure 4.4 This view of a reel mower shows the blades, roller, and bedknife ...

Figure 4.5 The attractive striping pattern on this Kentucky bluegrass footba...

Figure 4.6 Dunkin' Donuts Park in Hartford, Connecticut, won the 2018 STMA M...

Figure 4.7 The previous use of a PGR mixed with line paint enhances perennia...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Installed irrigation systems provide the most effective combinati...

Figure 5.2 Automatic irrigation system pop-up rotor heads like this one have...

Figure 5.3 A properly installed sprinkler head will be flush with the finish...

Figure 5.4 A 2-wire decoder system valve box showing a decoder with a serial...

Figure 5.5 At valve boxes, looping conventional control wire will provide mo...

Figure 5.6 A pitot tube with pressure gauge is used to check the operating p...

Figure 5.7 The use of subsurface drip irrigation for athletic fields is incr...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 This soil profile shows layering of soil, which can prevent the d...

Figure 6.2 This section of a pipe drain shows how the system has become so c...

Figure 6.3 Design detail for subsoil pipe drain systems. It is important to ...

Figure 6.4 Design detail for interceptor drain systems. Water flowing into t...

Figure 6.5 Design detail for a trackside sand drain system.

Figure 6.6 A sand channel drain (using a 2-inch perforated pipe) installed o...

Figure 6.7 A vertical drain being connected to a collector drain to allow wa...

Figure 6.8 Design detail for sand channel drainage system using a 2-inch pip...

Figure 6.9 Installation of the sand-slit drain system.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 This core (or “hollow-tine”) aerator is designed to remove deep c...

Figure 7.2 This sample soil profile shows a sand channel created through the...

Figure 7.3 This solid-tine aerator with quaking action aggressively relieves...

Figure 7.4 Deeply penetrating solid tines like these help to fight the most ...

Figure 7.5 Deep drilling aerators remove soil to a consistent depth, and in ...

Figure 7.6 The DryJect® aerates soil by injecting a stream of high-...

Figure 7.7 Air injection systems such as the airter® are equipped w...

Figure 7.8 Spiking equipment allows water and air to reach the turfgrass roo...

Figure 7.9 Slicers have an effect similar to that of spikers and can be succ...

Figure 7.10 The 16-in. blades of the Shockwave™ create narrow channels for w...

Figure 7.11 Topdressing helps to level the surface of a field and can be use...

Figure 7.12 Leveling the field with a leveler attachment after topdressing w...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 A Kentucky bluegrass sod with an established thatch layer of at l...

Figure 8.2 Topdressing with sand adds density to the thatch layer, providing...

Figure 8.3 A vertical mower assists the dethatching process, severing latera...

Figure 8.4 As drastic as frase mowing is in removing the vegetation from a b...

Figure 8.5 A recycling dresser provides the benefits of both vertical mowing...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Even on a sand-based field designed to resist compaction, this be...

Figure 9.2 Frost damage on bermudagrass.

Figure 9.3 Excessive clippings are not only unsightly but they can damage th...

Figure 9.4 Netted veins are characteristic of most broadleaf weeds.

Figure 9.5 Grasses, unlike broadleaf weeds, have parallel veins on their lea...

Figure 9.6 The presence of goosegrass, prostrate knotweed, and path rush ind...

Figure 9.7 Clover in the turf is a sign of low nitrogen fertility in the soi...

Figure 9.8 Annual bluegrass.

Figure 9.9 Annual sedge.

Figure 9.10 Southern crabgrass.

Figure 9.11 Foxtail.

Figure 9.12 Goosegrass.

Figure 9.13 Dallisgrass.

Figure 9.14 Yellow nutsedge.

Figure 9.15 Purple nutsedge.

Figure 9.16 Leaf blades of purple nutsedge (left) and yellow nutsedge (right...

Figure 9.17 Tufts of wild garlic emerging in the spring in a mixed cool seas...

Figure 9.18 Spurweed.

Figure 9.19 Prostrate spurge.

Figure 9.20 Henbit.

Figure 9.21 Dandelion.

Figure 9.22 White clover.

Figure 9.23 Buckhorn plantain.

Figure 9.24 Curly dock.

Figure 9.25 Virginia buttonweed.

Figure 9.26 Typical insect anatomy.

Figure 9.27a Many insects undergo a developmental process known as “complete...

Figure 9.27b Some insects develop by “incomplete metamorphosis,” hatching as...

Figure 9.28 Prepare a soap flush by adding 1 ounce of liquid detergent to ev...

Figure 9.29 Apply the soapy water to an area of approximately one square yar...

Figure 9.30 The EPA's Bee Advisory Box provides important information on how...

Figure 9.31 The larvae of the sod webworm with its characteristic spots over...

Figure 9.32 Dozens of pellets of insect frass (feces) are a distinct sign of...

Figure 9.33 Surface disruption characteristic of the mole cricket.

Figure 9.34 The southern mole cricket has oversized front legs that allow it...

Figure 9.35 The white grub can often be recognized by its characteristic “C”...

Figure 9.36 A few of the many adult beetles that develop from grubs. Many of...

Figure 9.37 An immature (nymph) chinch bug (top) and an adult chinch bug (bo...

Figure 9.38 Cutworm damage resembles the mark left by a golf ball.

Figure 9.39 The fall armyworm can be identified by its characteristic black ...

Figure 9.40 Fire ant mound on the turf.

Figure 9.41 Turf disease triangle.

Figure 9.42 Magnified view of nematode.

Figure 9.43 Dollar spot can be identified by the hourglass-shaped tan/brown ...

Figure 9.44 Leaf spot on this Kentucky bluegrass is mostly just of cosmetic ...

Figure 9.45 If leaf spot has progressed to the “melting out” phase even very...

Figure 9.46 Spring dead spot appears as the turf is emerging from winter dor...

Figure 9.47 Large patch incited by Rhizoctonia solani on Latitude 36 bermuda...

Figure 9.48 Pythium blight can be detected during the morning hours by the c...

Figure 9.49 Type 2 fairy ring creates a large dark circle in the turf with m...

Figure 9.50 Rust pustules on the blades of zoysiagrass.

Figure 9.51 Slime mold resembles ashes on the blades of the grass.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 On a windy day the only way to minimize drift is to use a wind s...

Figure 10.2 A commercial applicator with two sprayers in operation was a cos...

Figure 10.3 Aluminum baking pans placed on 2-foot centers are being used to ...

Figure 10.4 Knowing the spacing of the catch pans, one can quickly make a vi...

Figure 10.5 A spreader skirt attached to a broadcast spreader provides a qui...

Figure 10.6 This inexpensive catch pan was constructed by cutting a 2-inch-d...

Figure 10.7 Choose the appropriate nozzle to ensure that spray coverage is o...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 A schematic diagram of the breakdown, release, and cycling of nu...

Figure 11.2 A 1-inch depth of compost being applied for preplant soil incorp...

Figure 11.3 A fall application of composted chicken litter on a tall fescue ...

Figure 11.4 The spring growth and color response of this tall fescue athleti...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 The most commonly used field design; elevations noted in feet.

Figure 12.2 A crowned field from second base through the outfield; elevation...

Figure 12.3 A preferred contour plan for a field with surrounding walls or b...

Figure 12.4 A skinned area design for use with the overall field design in F...

Figure 12.5 A skinned area design for use with overall field designs in Figu...

Figure 12.6 Alternative infield design with raised mound and home plate for ...

Figure 12.7 The regulation pitcher's mound. The radius of a regulation pitch...

Figure 12.8 This cross section drawing views the mound by slicing it from fr...

Figure 12.9 A skinned infield with skin material in foul territory (left) an...

Figure 12.10 Multiple-field layout with home plates at four corners of squar...

Figure 12.11 Multiple-field layout with home plates back to back; elevations...

Figure 12.12 This easy-to-perform DIY test allows for the comparison of skin...

Figure 12.13 A thin layer (½ inch to 1 inch) of bagged clay is u...

Figure 12.14 The width of the warning track on variously sized fields.

Figure 12.15 An interceptor drain with a perforated pipe covered with gravel...

Figure 12.16 Baseball field irrigation system (90-foot bases) adapted from a...

Figure 12.17 Softball field irrigation system (60-foot bases) adapted from a...

Figure 12.18 Shop drawing to assist in construction of the infield. Note tha...

Figure 12.19 String lines being used to denote the grade and as a separator ...

Figure 12.20 String lines are being used to check the infield grade and for ...

Figure 12.21 A cone laser is being used to laser grade the outfield in the o...

Figure 12.22 Stakes and string lines can be utilized to grade and shape the ...

Figure 12.23 A concrete block with the base sleeve anchor is placed in a hol...

Figure 12.24 Exact dimension and alignment is achieved by using a string lin...

Figure 12.25 Lip removal using a power rake. The wheels of the power rake ma...

Figure 12.26 Smoothing the surface after 2 inches of amendment was rototille...

Figure 12.27 Dragging should be conducted at low speeds, and should begin 12...

Figure 12.28 Standing water on the skinned area is one of the most common pr...

Figure 12.29 A hill cannot be seen in this photograph. Everything looks norm...

Figure 12.30 By placing a pipe in the grass leading to the skinned area, the...

Figure 12.31 This drawing shows the existence of a hill and puts you standin...

Figure 12.32 The proposed grade is a solid line and the existing grade is a ...

Figure 12.33 Soil is being removed to restore positive surface drainage.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Crowned field; elevations noted in feet.

Figure 13.2 Flat field sloped side to side; elevations noted in feet.

Figure 13.3 Four-row football field irrigation system.

Figure 13.4 Traditional (pipe drain) football field drainage system. Native ...

Figure 13.5 A crowned football field sand channel drain system.

Figure 13.6 A side-to-side sloped football field sand channel drain system....

Figure 13.7 Topdressing the field provides a good opportunity to level the f...

Figure 13.8 Solid-tine aerating helps to relieve compaction in the middle an...

Figure 13.9 Survey worksheet to record existing and proposed elevations. Wri...

Figure 13.10 Detail of inbounds lines (hash marks) and yard lines.

Figure 13.11 A lot of fields looked like this year after year at the end of ...

Figure 13.12 This 1½-inch-thick layer of thatch is from the old Cle...

Figure 13.13 An old-fashioned farmer's plow is being used to turn over the c...

Figure 13.14 This is the same field as the one shown in Figure 13.11 after m...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 A five-row irrigation system for large soccer fields.

Figure 14.2 Sand channel drains can be used to target problem areas where wa...

Figure 14.3 A dormant, ryegrass-free bermudagrass base would provide a much ...

Figure 14.4 Portable goals and alternative color field striping provide the ...

Figure 14.5 Male and female soccer field dimensions and lines for high schoo...

Figure 14.6 Male lacrosse field dimensions and lines for high school and col...

Figure 14.7 Female lacrosse field dimensions and lines for high school and c...

Figure 14.8 Male and female field hockey dimensions and lines for high schoo...

Figure 14.9 An example of a surface leveler designed to be used as a levelin...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Irrigation system for porous tennis court surfaces.

Figure 15.2 Design detail for subsurface drainage under the court and interc...

Figure 15.3 Installation of subsurface drains under the court and an interce...

Figure 15.4 Installation of asphalt surfacing material. The gravel in the fo...

Figure 15.5 Tennis court layout.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 This unnecessary catch basin and swale are just a few feet behin...

Figure 16.2 Grading plan for a field with a surrounding equal-quadrant 400-m...

Figure 16.3 Field irrigation system design.

Figure 16.4 Using too few catch basins on a facility can lead to unsightly l...

Figure 16.5 Trackside sand drain system.

Figure 16.6 Sand channel drain system.

Figure 16.7 Equal-quadrant track layout.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Using a Clegg Impact Soil Tester to determine the Gmax of the fi...

Figure 17.2 Decompacting the infill using a GSK Aerator on a synthetic turf ...

Figure 17.3 Using a Verti-Top machine to stand up fibers. Turf before groomi...

Figure 17.4 A rotating brush or broom to install and sweep-in crumb rubber i...

Figure 17.5 Samples of debris removed from field surface using a Redexim Ver...

Figure 17.6 A torn seam found on an older field that requires regluing.

Figure 17.7 Operation of an installed irrigation used to cool the field surf...

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 A rotary laser level is being used for marking proposed grades o...

Figure 18.2 Standard grade rod in feet and tenths/hundredths of a foot.

Figure 18.3 Direct elevation rod in feet and tenths/hundredths of a foot.

Figure 18.4 Establishing elevations from a benchmark using a standard rod.

Figure 18.5 Direct elevation rod detail.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Ideal soil as depicted in soil texts, showing an even balance of...

Figure 19.2 Traffic damage due to divots on Division I football stadium fiel...

Figure 19.3 Effect of average particle size on porosity.

Figure 19.4 High-sand soil profile showing excessive organic matter buildup....

Figure 19.5 A ten-year-old high-sand rootzone that has received 0.7 inches o...

Figure 19.6 Organic matter content in the surface in. of the rootzone as aff...

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Line painting on a football field must be performed carefully to...

Figure 20.2 Stencils provide a convenient way to paint crisp yard-line numbe...

Figure 20.3 A pattern stencil (or template) in development to allow precise ...

Figure 20.4 After the design of the logo has been transferred with the templ...

Figure 20.5 While increases in temperature and moisture due to covering with...

Figure 20.6 Spring greening of Kentucky bluegrass is accelerated by four to ...

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Professional baseball sets the standard for attractive striping ...

Figure 21.2 The Clegg Impact Tester (or Clegg Hammer) measures surface hardn...

Figure 21.3 The shear vane for testing traction.

Figure 21.4 The dial penetrometer for testing for soil compaction.

Figure 21.5 Soil moisture sensor.

Figure 21.6 Turfgrass soil thermometer.

Figure 21.7 Synthetic turf infrared thermometer.

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1 This catch basin is located near the edge of the field and has a...

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 Environmental stewardship, resource conservation, and sustainabi...

Figure 23.2 The RainTank system under construction at Lancer Park (Longwood ...

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1 A portable grow-light system delivers appropriate light quality ...

Figure 24.2 Heating ribbons underneath the infield skin at the Michigan Stat...

Figure 24.3 The 1½-inch thick mass of stems and roots that comprise...

Figure 24.4 The single tray “rolling field” in Glendale, AZ,...

Figure 24.5 a and b a and b. A thermal imaging camera working with a sta...

Appendix

Figure A.1 Sample granular fertilizer label

Figure A.2 Sample liquid fertilizer label

Figure A.3 To achieve a 40 percent overlap, look for the end of the fertiliz...

Guide

Cover

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Sports Fields

Design, Construction, and Maintenance

Third Edition

James C. Puhalla

Sports Field Consultant Boardman, OH, US

Jeffrey V. Krans

Mississippi State University – Retired Meridian, MS, US

J. Michael Goatley, Jr.

Virginia Tech Blacksburg, VA, US

This edition first published 2020

© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Edition History

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1e, 2006); John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2e, 2010)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of James C. Puhalla, Jeffrey V. Krans and J. Michael Goatley, Jr. to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Puhalla, Jim, author. | Krans, Jeff, author. | Goatley, Mike, author.

Title: Sports fields : design, construction, and maintenance / James C. Puhalla, Jeffrey V. Krans, J. Michael Goatley.

Description: Third edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2020. | Includes index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019057871 (print) | LCCN 2019057872 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119534754 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119534723 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119534747 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Athletic fields—United States—Design and construction. | Athletic fields—United States—Maintenance and repair. | Sports facilities—United States—Design and construction. | Sports facilities—United States—Maintenance and repair. | Turf management—United States.

Classification: LCC GV413 .P85 2020 (print) | LCC GV413 (ebook) | DDC 796.4206/8—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019057871

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019057872

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: Courtesy of James C. Puhalla, background © magann/Getty Images

About the Authors

Jim Puhalla of Boardman, Ohio, is a Sports Field Consultant who provides design, consulting, and construction supervision. His knowledge of sports field management came through hands-on experiences as a landscape and sports field design/build contractor. He owned and operated a company that specialized in sports field design, construction, and maintenance from 1990 through 2012, and a landscape company from 1977 through 2003. Although he retired from sports field construction and maintenance in 2013, he still enjoys sharing his experiences with others who have similar goals in creating safe, more useable sports facilities.

Jeff Krans is a former Professor of Agronomy at Mississippi State University in the Golf and Sports Turf Management program. He received his PhD from Michigan State University in 1975, an MS degree from the University of Arizona in 1973, and his BS degree from the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point in 1970. Jeff taught and advised students in the Golf and Sports Turf Management program, and conducted research in turfgrass breeding and physiology from 1975 to 2002. Jeff remains an avid supporter of high-quality natural turf for safe sports for participants and spectators.

Mike Goatley is Professor and Extension Turfgrass Specialist in the School of Plant and Environmental Sciences at Virginia Tech. Mike received his PhD from Virginia Tech in 1988, his MS degree from the University of Kentucky in 1986, and his BS degree from the University of Kentucky in 1983. He taught and advised students in the Golf and Sports Turf Management program at Mississippi State from 1988 to 2003 before moving to Virginia Tech. Mike serves as the outreach coordinator for agronomic turf sciences in Virginia, and his research interests focus on turf selection and management strategies that promote environmental stewardship. He served as president of STMA in 2012 and 2013 and received STMA's William H. Daniel Founder's Award in 2008 and Harry C. Gill Founder's Award in 2016.

About the STMA

STMA is the not-for-profit professional association for the men and women who manage sports fields. Since 1981, the association and its 30-plus local chapters have been providing education, information, and sharing practical knowledge in the art and science of sports field management. Its more than 2,500 members oversee sports fields and facilities at schools, colleges and universities, parks and recreational facilities, and professional sports stadiums. The membership's goal is to manage natural turf and synthetic surfaces to produce safe and aesthetically pleasing playing surfaces for athletes at all levels of playing abilities. STMA also has the support of commercial members that furthers the industry through continuous advancements in technology.

The STMA Mission:

To be the recognized leader in strengthening the sports turf industry and enhancing members' competence and acknowledgement of their professionalism.

Preface

Like so many aspects of contemporary life, our athletic and leisure pursuits are becoming increasingly influenced by economic and logistical factors. Construction and maintenance budgets are squeezed ever more tightly. The explosion in athletic opportunities for girls and women has doubled the use of some facilities, and sent planners scurrying off to build thousands of new ones. The popularity of personal injury lawsuits has forced insurance premiums higher and led insurers to insist on greater uniformity in the design and construction of sports facilities.

All of these factors have their impact on the construction and maintenance of sports fields. Tighter budgets mean less money for after-the-fact repairs and greater insistence on building it right the first time. Increased pressure on the facilities means that unplayable fields create twice as many rescheduling headaches as they used to. The threat of lawsuits demands greater attention to the safety of the facility itself.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK

This book is designed to provide a comprehensive technical reference source for those who are responsible for the design, construction, renovation, or maintenance of sports fields. In order to address these issues, the chapters that follow will illustrate specific design elements of all popular sports facilities and explain how those elements are integrated in a successful project; explore commonly encountered sports field problems and suggest appropriate solutions; and provide practical guidance for continuing maintenance programs.

While soil and climate variations will sometimes create unique local challenges for those charged with building or maintaining sports facilities, the principles shared on these pages should provide a basic plan of action and a set of practical design criteria usable throughout North America and in similar geographies throughout the world.

How to Use This Book

Part 1, Principles of Sports Turf Culture, offers information on which to base sound decisions regarding the nurture and maintenance of sports turf. This portion of the book deals with such matters as turfgrass and soil science, cultural practices, and stresses placed on turf year-round and during sports competition. To achieve the fullest possible value from this volume, it's advisable to begin by reading these chapters.

Part 2, Natural Turfgrass Sports Fields, provides guidance on the design, construction, renovation, and maintenance of particular types of sports fields. Each chapter combines similar facilities, based on the design and construction strategies and performance expectations of the turf. For example, Chapter 14 covers soccer, lacrosse, and field hockey fields. Field dimensions are provided at the end of each chapter.

Part 3, Other Sports Surfaces, provides guidance on other types of sports facilities for which a designer, contractor, or facilities manager might be responsible, like tennis courts, track and field, and synthetic turf. Proper design and construction techniques can be particularly important for these facilities, which must be easily maintained in a wide range of usage and weather circumstances.

Part 4, Ancillary Information, covers miscellaneous related topics, including surveying, sand-based fields, turf paints and covers, field evaluation and turfgrass assessment, environmental stewardship, safety, innovations to promote natural grass fields, and public relations and professionalism.

The appendix at the end of the book consists of two parts. The first part considers calculations that are most commonly used by designers, contractors, and maintenance personnel. The second part looks at examples of how the STMA helps sports field managers keep up with the latest trends.

Throughout the text, we have worked to make this book as useful as possible to those who are charged with keeping sports fields safe, playable, and beautiful, and to those students who are preparing for a career in this rewarding field. These pages share much of the latest in academic research and development of the science of sports turf, but present these latest findings in the form of practical advice for the real world. It is our fondest hope that the result of this book will be a new generation of safe, competitive, and easy-to-maintain sports facilities for people of all ages.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of many academic and professional leaders whose advice and counsel have contributed to the completion of this book.

We are appreciative for the detailed advice of the following academic colleagues: Dr. Donald Waddington of Pennsylvania State University, Andrew McNitt of Pennsylvania State University, and Dr. Coleman Ward (deceased, Professor Emeritus) of Auburn University. In particular we acknowledge Dr. McNitt for the development of Chapter 19, “Sand-Based Rootzones.”

Thanks to Dr. Victor Maddox, Wayne Philley, and Dr. Maria Tomaso-Peterson, all of Mississippi State University, for providing photographs, information, and manuscript reviews. Thanks to Virginia Tech faculty Dr. Shawn Askew, Dr. David McCall, and Dr. Tom Kuhar for manuscript review specific to the latest in pest management strategies and tools, and thanks to many university and industry colleagues for providing multiple photographs cited throughout this book. Thanks to Bart Prather of Mississippi State University, Tra Dubois of World Class Athletic Surfaces for advice on painting athletic fields, and to the team at Carolina Green Inc. for their assistance with Chapter 17, “Synthetic Turf.”

Thanks also to the many sports organizations and sanctioning bodies for sharing their specifications and field construction information, which have helped to make this volume comprehensive. These organizations are listed individually at the ends of their respective chapters.

PART 1PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TURF CULTURE

Sports turf fields and related facilities are designed to meet two basic requirements: they must be large enough and/or the necessary shape to allow the particular sport to be played according to its recognized rules and regulations, and they must have a surface that allows the players to compete safely and at a reasonable level of competition. Because many sports turf surfaces are also used for nonsports activities (like band practice), the surface must be durable enough to withstand the stresses associated with those nonsports functions.

As any sports fan will agree, player performance depends in large part on the quality of the turf surface. But a fields manager must also keep in mind that safety, as well as performance, is dependent on turf quality. Each of these important considerations is dependent on three turf characteristics: traction, hardness, and evenness.

Traction is obviously critical to generating and controlling speed, making sharp changes in direction, and stopping. In addition to reducing a player's ability to avoid or (in the case of contact sports) to control collisions, poor traction can lead to muscle pulls and a variety of other common injuries.

Hardness can allow players to perform at maximum speed, but can also affect players' ability to cut sharply and increase injury from falls and tackles.

Evenness, along with hardness, is a major factor affecting ball response, which includes the height and direction of bounce, as well as the trueness and speed of roll. In many turf sports—and perhaps in most—predictable ball response is necessary to support the desired level of competition.

Just as good teams are created by careful attention to detail, good turf comes from practicing effective turfgrass cultural and management strategies. In the following chapters we will consider the underlying principles of turfgrass biology, selection, and establishment; soil science, including fertility and fertilizers; cultivation and thatch management; organic field management; irrigation and drainage; pesticide use and safety; turfgrass stresses; and even proper mowing techniques.

Whether reading sections of the text as a class assignment or flipping it open to address a particular sports turf concern, the reader will find that our advice is first to seek the health of the turf and its enfolding culture, and all the rest (playability, economy, aesthetics) will be added onto it. Manage the culture correctly, and pest problems will be minimized.

CHAPTER 1Turfgrasses

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Turfgrass is a designation given to a very small group of grasses that have a unique combination of plant morphology (form) and adaptation to a defined set of cultural practices. The morphology requisites of a turfgrass are prostrate or compressed stems at, near, and/or below the soil surface (tillers, stolons, and/or rhizomes), compressed leaf sheaths and blades (diminutive growth habit), tolerance to high plant compatibility (high stand density), and robust production and growth of branching stems (a knitted growth habit). In combination with these requirements, all turfgrasses must tolerate low and frequent shoot defoliation (withstand close and frequent mowing), have high vegetative plasticity (a plant's ability to contract or enlarge its shoot structure depending on mowing pressure), and control their vegetative to reproductive transformation (seedhead formation) regardless of mowing pressure, nitrogen level, irrigation, and chemicals that regulate plant growth, and the like.

Botanists have catalogued over 10,000 species of grasses worldwide. Within that classification, there are primarily 12 grass species that fall under the turfgrass label. Out of that number, only 6 grass species are recognized for sports turf application. This elite group of sports turf must possess the preceding turfgrass criteria plus three other important features. The sports turf species must have excellent traffic tolerance, rapid recovery from divoting and injury, and high tensile or sod strength. In some instances, a combination of turfgrass species are used to obtain all or most of these features.

To become better sports turf managers, we first need to familiarize ourselves with turfgrass biology, selection, and planting. In this chapter, we will begin by looking at turfgrass growth and development. Then we will turn our attention to the procedures of choosing, planting, and establishing the best sports turf possible. Finally, we will discuss the overseeding of warm-season sports fields that are used during the fall and winter months. This information will set a foundation that will help the field manager to understand how maintenance practices, pest controls, and environmental stresses affect the quality of sports turf.

1.2 BIOLOGY AND IDENTIFICATION

Turfgrass biology is the study of the vital plant processes necessary for turfgrass growth and development. These processes are divided into the categories of morphology, anatomy, and physiology. Turfgrass morphology is the outward form or structure of the turfgrass plant. Turfgrass anatomy consists of the inner cell, tissue, and organ structures that combine to form the whole plant. Turfgrass physiology refers to the metabolic events and pathways that formulate the life processes of the plant. The underlying ability of grasses to survive and persist as turf is due to their specialized morphology, anatomy, and physiology.

Turfgrass cultural practices determine the grasses' ability to adapt as a turf. These practices include mowing and seasonal renovations practices, such as aeration, vertical mowing, and so on. An understanding of turfgrass biology and turf cultural practices allows us to predict a turfgrass response to these cultural practices, and to have a better understanding of how turf can be managed to help it tolerate injury by pests or by mechanical or environmental stresses.

Out of the 12 grasses commonly used as turfgrasses, the 6 species used in sports turf situations are cool-season species Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort., nom. cons. syn. Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), and creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L. syn. A. palustris Huds.); and warm-season species bermudagrass (Cynodon spp.) and seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum Sw.), as shown in Table 1.1. Two others warm-season species, buffalograss [Bouteloua dactyloides (Nutt.) J. T. Columbus, syn. Buchloe dactyloides L.] and zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.), are sometimes used for sports turf, but infrequently.

Table 1.1Characteristics of turfgrasses commonly used for sports turf.

Turfgrass Species

Strength as Sports Turf

Limitation as Sports Turf

Bermudagrass (

Cynodon

spp.)

Strong indeterminate rhizomes and stolons (excellent sod knitting), robust vegetative growth and recuperative ability, excellent wear resistance, and good surface resiliency.

Primarily warm climatic regions of United States, but cultivars with improved cold tolerance are rapidly expanding it into the transition zone, vegetative propagation only of most improved types, improved seeded cultivars now available touting enhanced density and superior cold tolerance for some cultivars.

Kentucky bluegrass (

Poa pratensis

L.)

Strong determinate rhizomes (excellent sod knitting), robust vegetative growth and recuperative ability, moderate wear resistance, good surface resiliency.

Cool climatic regions (including northern transition zone) of United States, with exception of new hybrid bluegrasses (

P. pratensis

x

P. arachnifera

) that show promise as monostands or when mixed with tall fescues and perennial ryegrasses in the southern transition zone; traditionally considered to have relatively slow establishment from seed but breeding efforts are now provided faster germinating cultivars, thus enhancing this grass's use on heavily trafficked sports fields.

Tall fescue (

Schedonorus arundinaceus

(Schreb.) Dumort., nom. cons. syn.

Festuca arundinacea

Schreb.)

Excellent wear resistance, robust primary and vegetative growth, good surface resiliency, adapted to transition zone of United States either alone or in combination with bluegrass.

Limited to transition or warmer regions of United States, weak determinate rhizomes (poor sod knitting).

Perennial ryegrass (

Lolium perenne

L.)

Excellent wear resistance, robust primary and vegetative growth, prolific tillering, rapid seedling growth, superior mowing aesthetics and good choice for winter overseeding of bermudagrass.

Limited to cool regions of United States (including northern transition zone), lacks rhizomes and stolons (very poor sod knitting), subject to damage from environmental and pest extremes.

Creeping bentgrass (

Agrostis stolonifera

L.)

Tolerates regular mowing at ¼ inch, robust vegetative growth, strong stoloniferous growth habit provides recuperative potential.

Limited to cool regions of United States, drought tolerance is poor, slow seedling growth, lacks shear strength and resistance to divoting, primary use for low cut surfaces including tennis, croquet, etc.

Seashore paspalum (

Paspalum vaginatum

Sw.)

Strong indeterminate rhizomes, good surface resiliency, exceptionally salt tolerant, good visual mowing quality, better low-light performance than bermudagrass.

Limited to the warmest regions of United States, more sensitivity to many pesticides than most bermudagrasses, somewhat slow recuperative potential.

The warm-season species bermudagrass and seashore paspalum are usually planted and maintained alone (or as a “monostand”) except when overseeded with perennial, annual ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. ssp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot) or intermediate ryegrass (Lolium × hybridum Hausskn.) for winter play. However, success is being achieved in some transition zone locations with a perennial two-grass turf where Kentucky bluegrass is established with bermudagrass (commonly referred to as “bluemuda”). The cool season species Kentucky bluegrass, tall fescue, and perennial ryegrass are planted and maintained as either monostands or in combination with one another (as “polystands”). Creeping bentgrass is usually planted as a monostand.

The limited use of buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides results from some of its special characteristics. Buffalograss is a warm-season grass used primarily in arid warm-season, transition, and cool-season regions in the United States. Its limitation is poor wear tolerance, obviously a problem for sports turf. The authors recommend the grasses listed in Table 1.1 as superior choices to buffalograss for sports turf use unless there is not sufficient water for irrigation to support these other choices.

Zoysiagrass (Zoysia sp.) is a warm-season grass in the transition zone of the United States. It has excellent cold and wear tolerances and good adaptation to low-light situations like moderate shade. The most important limiting factor of zoysiagrass as a sports turf is its very slow recuperation from injury or wear. Zoysiagrass cultivars selected for faster lateral growth rates and shade tolerance were promoted for sports turf use for the first time in the late 1990s. However, the poor recuperative potential continues to limit widescale acceptance of zoysiagrass for sports field uses. Efforts continue in the development of new cultivars and management strategies that might broaden the use of zoysiagrass for sports turfs. As research and development in zoysiagrasses continues, it is anticipated that some cultivars will serve as sports turfs, especially for soccer, baseball, and softball. Where adapted for use, keep in mind that both zoysiagrass and buffalograss offer the potential as high-quality, low-maintenance turfgrasses that require minimal inputs (water, mowing, fertility, etc.). While these grasses might not always serve a sports turf use, sports facilities quite often have turf areas particularly suited for low-maintenance grasses.

1.2.1 Turfgrass Morphology

Turfgrass morphology is an important characteristic that allows these grass plants to form a dense, compact community when they are cultivated properly. The morphology of turfgrasses can be categorized into four types: (1) bunch-type, (2) stoloniferous, (3) determinate rhizomatous, or (4) indeterminate rhizomatous (see Figure 1.1). All morphological types are designed to keep the plant's growing points at or below the soil surface.

1.2.2 Turfgrass Anatomy

A critical aspect of turfgrass anatomy is the location of growing points or “meristematic” zones (i.e., zones of cell division). Localized growing points of turfgrass occur at the stem apexes or buds, leaf blade and sheath meristems, nodes, root apexes, and root pericycle (see Figure 1.2).

Buds are the origin of all leaf (including blade and sheath meristems) and stem tissue. Apical buds are located at the apex or tip of a turfgrass stem and axillary buds are located in the axil or internal fold of a leaf sheath. Blade and sheath meristems generate leaf blade and sheath structures, respectively, and the blade and sheath combine to make up the whole leaf. Turfgrasses tolerate close cutting because they are able to maintain their blade meristems close to the soil surface. Cutting too close damages the turf canopy by removing leaf tissue at or below their meristems.

Leaf shape is determined by differences in leaf anatomy among turfgrasses. Turfgrass leaves are either rolled, folded, or filiform (see Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.1The four morphological types of turfgrasses: (a) bunch-type, (b) stoloniferous, (c) determinate rhizomatous, and (d) indeterminate rhizomatous.

Figure 1.2The location of turfgrass growing points: (a) bunch-type turfgrasses, (b) stoloniferous-type turfgrasses, (c) determinate rhizomatous-type turfgrasses, and (d) indeterminate rhizomatous-type turfgrasses.

Figure 1.3The variation in turfgrass leaf anatomy: (a) rolled leaf, (b) folded leaf, and (c) filiform leaf.