Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment E-Book

Maan H. Jawad

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 646

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

Still the only book offering comprehensive coverage of the analysis and design of both API equipment and ASME pressure vessels This edition of the classic guide to the analysis and design of process equipment has been thoroughly updated to reflect current practices as well as the latest ASME Codes and API standards. In addition to covering the code requirements governing the design of process equipment, the book supplies structural, mechanical, and chemical engineers with expert guidance to the analysis and design of storage tanks, pressure vessels, boilers, heat exchangers, and related process equipment and its associated external and internal components. The use of process equipment, such as storage tanks, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers has expanded considerably over the last few decades in both the petroleum and chemical industries. The extremely high pressures and temperatures involved with the processes for which the equipment is designed makes it potentially very dangerous to property and life if the equipment is not designed and manufactured to an exacting standard. Accordingly, codes and standards such as the ASME and API were written to assure safety. Still the only guide covering the design of both API equipment and ASME pressure vessels, Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment, 3rd Edition: * Covers the design of rectangular vessels with various side thicknesses and updated equations for the design of heat exchangers * Now includes numerical vibration analysis needed for earthquake evaluation * Relates the requirements of the ASME codes to international standards * Describes, in detail, the background and assumptions made in deriving many design equations underpinning the ASME and API standards * Includes methods for designing components that are not covered in either the API or ASME, including ring girders, leg supports, and internal components * Contains procedures for calculating thermal stresses and discontinuity analysis of various components Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment, 3rd Edition is an indispensable tool-of-the-trade for mechanical engineers and chemical engineers working in the petroleum and chemical industries, manufacturing, as well as plant engineers in need of a reference for process equipment in power plants, petrochemical facilities, and nuclear facilities.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Dedication

Preface to the Third Edition

Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition

Acknowledgements

Part 1: Background and Basic Considerations

Chapter 1: History and Organization of Codes

1.1 Use of Process Vessels and Equipment

1.2 History of Pressure Vessel Codes in the United States

1.3 Organization of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

1.4 Organization of the ANSI B31 Code for Pressure Piping

1.5 Some Other Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards in the United States

1.6 Worldwide Pressure Vessel Codes

References

Further Reading

Chapter 2: Selection of Vessel, Specifications, Reports, and Allowable Stresses

2.1 Selection of Vessel

2.2 Which Pressure Vessel Code is Used

2.3 Design Specifications and Purchase Orders

2.4 Special Design Requirements

2.5 Design Reports and Calculations

2.6 Materials Specifications

2.7 Design Data for New Materials

2.8 Factors of Safety

2.9 Allowable Tensile Stresses in the ASME Code

2.10 Allowable External Pressure Stress and Axial Compressive Stress in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

2.11 Allowable Stresses in the ASME Code for Pressure Piping

2.12 Allowable Stress in Other Codes of the World

References

Chapter 3: Strength Theories, Design Criteria, and Design Equations

3.1 Strength Theories

3.2 Design Criteria

3.3 Design Equations

3.4 Stress–Strain Relationships

3.5 Strain–Deflection Equations

3.6 Force–Stress Expressions

Problems

References

Further Reading

Chapter 4: Materials of Construction

4.1 Material Selection

4.2 Nonferrous Alloys

4.3 Ferrous Alloys

4.4 Heat Treating of Steels

4.5 Brittle Fracture

4.6 Hydrogen Embrittlement

4.7 Nonmetallic Vessels

References

Further Reading

Part 2: Analysis of Components

Chapter 5: Stress in Cylindrical Shells

5.1 Stress Due to Internal Pressure

Problems

5.2 Discontinuity Analysis

5.3 Buckling of Cylindrical Shells

5.4 Thermal Stress

Nomenclature

References

Further Reading

Chapter 6: Analysis of Formed Heads and Transition Sections

6.1 Hemispherical Heads

6.2 Ellipsoidal Heads

6.3 Torispherical Heads

6.4 Conical Heads

6.5 Nomenclature

References

Further Reading

Chapter 7: Stress in Flat Plates

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Circular Plates

Problems

7.3 Rectangular Plates

7.4 Circular Plates on Elastic Foundations

Nomenclature

Reference

Further Reading

Part 3: Design of Components

Chapter 8: Design of Cylindrical Shells

8.1 ASME Design Equations

Problems

8.2 Evaluation of Discontinuity Stresses

8.3 ASME Procedure [2] for External Pressure Design in VIII‐1

Problems

8.4 Design of Stiffening Rings

8.5 Allowable Gaps in Stiffening Rings

8.6 Out‐of‐Roundness of Cylindrical Shells Under External Pressure

8.7 Design for Axial Compression

Nomenclature

References

Further Reading

Chapter 9: Design of Formed Heads and Transition Sections

9.1 Introduction

9.2 ASME Design Equations for Hemispherical Heads

9.3 ASME Design Equations for Ellipsoidal, Flanged, and Dished Heads

9.4 ASME Design Equations for Conical Heads

Nomenclature

References

Further Reading

Chapter 10: Blind Flanges, Cover Plates, and Flanges

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Circular Flat Plates and Heads with Uniform Loading

Problems

10.3 ASME Code Formula for Circular Flat Heads and Covers

Problems

10.4 Comparison of Theory and ASME Code Formula for Circular Flat Heads and Covers Without Bolting

10.5 Bolted Flanged Connections

10.6 Contact Facings

10.7 Gaskets

Problem

10.8 Bolting Design

Problems

10.9 Blind Flanges

Problems

10.10 Bolted Flanged Connections with Ring‐Type Gaskets

Problem

10.11 Reverse Flanges

Problem

10.12 Full‐Face Gasket Flange

Problem

10.13 Flange Calculation Sheets

10.14 Flat‐Face Flange with Metal‐to‐Metal Contact Outside of the Bolt Circle

10.15 Spherically Dished Covers

Problems

Nomenclature

References

Further Reading

Chapter 11: Openings, Nozzles, and External Loadings

11.1 General

11.2 Stresses and Loadings at Openings

Problems

11.3 Theory of Reinforced Openings

11.4 Reinforcement Limits

11.5 Ligament Efficiency of Openings in Shells

11.6 Fatigue Evaluation of Nozzles Under Internal Pressure

11.7 External Loadings

References

Bibliography

Chapter 12: Vessel Supports

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Skirt and Base‐Ring Design

12.3 Design of Support Legs

12.4 Lug‐Supported Vessels

12.5 Ring Girders

12.6 Saddle Supports

Nomenclature

References

Further Reading

Part 4: Theory and Design of Special Equipment

Chapter 13: Flat‐Bottom Tanks

13.1 Introduction

13.2 API 650 Tanks

13.3 API 620 Tanks

13.4 Aluminum Tanks

13.5 AWWA Standard D100

References

Further Reading

Chapter 14: Heat‐Transfer Equipment

14.1 Types of Heat Exchangers

14.2 TEMA Design of Tubesheets in U‐tube Exchangers

14.3 Theoretical Analysis of Tubesheets in U‐tube Exchangers

14.4 ASME Equations for Tubesheets in U‐tube Exchangers

14.5 Theoretical Analysis of Fixed Tubesheets

14.6 ASME Equations for Fixed Tubesheets

14.7 Expansion Joints

14.8 Tube‐to‐Tubesheet Junctions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 15: Vessels for High Pressures

15.1 Basic Equations

15.2 Prestressing (Autofrettaging) of Solid‐Wall Vessels

15.3 Layered Vessels

15.4 Prestressing of Layered Vessels

15.5 Wire‐Wound Vessels

Nomenclature

References

Further Reading

Chapter 16: Tall Vessels

16.1 Design Considerations

16.2 Earthquake Loading

16.3 Wind Loading

16.4 Vessel Under Internal Pressure Only

16.5 Vessel Under Internal Pressure and External Loading

16.6 Vessel Under External Pressure Only

16.7 Vessel Under External Pressure and External Loading

References

Bibliography

Chapter 17: Vessels of Noncircular Cross Section

17.1 Types of Vessels

17.2 Rules in Codes

17.3 Openings in Vessels with Noncircular Cross Section

17.4 Ligament Efficiency for Constant‐Diameter Openings

Problems

17.5 Ligament Efficiency for Multidiameter Openings Subject to Membrane Stress

Problems

17.6 Ligament Efficiency for Multidiameter Openings Subject to Bending Stress

Problems

17.7 Design Methods and Allowable Stresses

17.8 Basic Equations

Problems

17.9 Equations in the ASME Code, VIII‐1

Problems

17.10 Design of Noncircular Vessels in Other Codes

Problems

17.11 Forces in Box Headers due to Internal Pressure

References

Further Reading

Chapter 18: Power Boilers

18.1 General

18.2 Materials

18.3 General Design Requirements

Problems

18.4 Formed Heads under Internal Pressure

Problem

18.5 Loadings on Structural Attachments

Problem

18.6 Watertube Boilers

18.7 Firetube Boilers

References

Appendix A: Guide to ASME Code

Appendix B: Appendix BSample of Heat‐Exchanger Specification Sheet

Appendix C: Sample of API Specification Sheets

Appendix D: Sample of Pressure Vessel Design Data Sheets

Summary

Data Sheet for Reinforcement Calculations (UG‐37, ‐40)

Reinforcement Calculation for 4 in. Nozzle in Dished Head

Summary

Appendix E: Sample Materials for Process Equipment

Material Specifications

Appendix F: Required Data for Material Approval in the ASME Code

Appendix G: Procedure for Providing Data for Code Charts for External‐Pressure Design

Data Needed by the SG External Pressure for the Preparation of Code Charts for External‐Pressure Design

Appendix H: Corrosion Charts

Appendix I: Various ASME Design Equations

Appendix J: Joint Efficiency Factors

Appendix K: Simplified Curves for External Loading on Cylindrical Shells

Appendix L: Conversion Tables

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Appendix 10

Table J.1 Maximum allowable joint efficiencies

a)

for arc‐ and gas‐welded joints.

Table J.2 Joint efficiencies for cylindrical shells.

Table J.3 Joint efficiencies for heads.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Multiplying factors on materials' properties to determine maximum allowable tensile‐stress or design‐stress intensity values for the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Stress categories.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Approximate cost of materials

a

used in pressure vessel construction.

Table 4.2 Aluminum alloy designation.

Table 4.3 Temper classification for aluminum alloys.

Table 4.4 Copper alloys.

Table 4.5 Commercial names for some nickel alloys.

Table 4.6 Effect of alloying elements in steel.

Table 4.7 Some approximate

K

IC

values.

Table 4.8 Shape factors for common configurations.

Table 4.9 Impact text temperature differential.

Table 4.10

K

IC

values and ratios.

Table 4.11 Temperature‐reduction values.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Values of functions

A

βx

,

B

βx

,

C

βx

,

D

βx

.

Table 5.2 Various discontinuity functions.

Table 5.3 Various functions of short cylinders.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Membrane forces and deflections in spherical shells.

Table 6.2 Approximate force and deflection functions for spherical segments.

Table 6.3 Membrane forces and deflections in conical shells [3].

Table 6.4 Forces and deflections in conical shells due to edge loads.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Limits of

Z

functions.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Classification of stresses.

Table 8.2 Stress categories and limits of equivalent stress.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Stress intensity factors for various ratios of applied stress.

Table 11.2 Reinforcement calculations for 3 1/2 in., 4 in., 5 in., and 6 5/8 in. nozzles on a 66 in. ID steam drum

a

.

Table 11.3 Factor

K

1

for elliptical heads.

Table 11.4 Length values.

Table 11.5 Values of

f

N

,

f

s

, and

f

Y

.

Table 11.6 Sample calculation of maximum ligament factor.

Table 11.7 Stress index

I

.

Table 11.8 Summary of membrane stresses at various locations.

Table 11.9 Summary of bending stresses at various locations.

Table 11.10 Summary of membrane plus bending stresses at various locations.

Table 11.11 Summary of stresses due to internal pressure and external loadings.

Table 11.12 Flexibility factor

k

and stress intensification factor.

Table 11.13 Stress‐range reduction factors

f

.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Allowable stress for some bolts.

a

Table 12.2 Bolt dimensions and clearance bolting data.

Table 12.3 Properties of concrete.

Table 12.4 Various parameters as a function of

k

.

Table 12.5 Ring‐girder coefficients.

Table 12.6 Moments and forces at two locations around the ring girder.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Various standards requirements for flat‐bottom tanks.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Some TEMA requirements of classes R, C, and B exchangers.

Table 14.2 Maximum stress, psi.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Importance factor

I

p

.

Table 16.2 Values of

F

a

and

F

v

.

Table 16.3 Values of

α

and

z

g

.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Bending stress values in rectangular headers.

Table 17.2 Membrane stress in rectangular headers.

Table 17.3 Values of

C

1

and

C

2

as a function of geometry.

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Maximum allowable working pressure for steel flues for firetube locomotive boilers.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure A.1 Guide to ASME Section VIII, Division 1.

Figure A.2 Guide to ASME Section I.

Appendix 10

Figure J.1 Welded‐joint categories.

Figure J.2 Joint efficiencies.

Appendix 11

Figure K.1 Moment

M

(

x, φ

)

(

d

o

/

M

c

) due to an external circumferential moment

M

c

on a circular cylinder.

Figure K.2 Membrane force

N

(

x, φ

)

(

d

o

T

/

M

c

) due to an external moment

M

c

on a circular cylinder.

Figure K.3 Moment

M

(

x, φ

)

(

d

o

/

M

L

) due to an external longitudinal moment

M

L

on a circular cylinder.

Figure K.4 Membrane force

N

(

x, φ

)

(

d

o

T

/

M

L

) due to an external moment

M

L

on a circular cylinder.

Figure K.5 Bending moment

M

(

x, φ

)

due to an external radial load

P

on a circular cylinder.

M

x

/

P

on longitudinal axis,

M

φ

/

P

on transverse axis.

Figure K.6 Bending moment

M

(

x, φ

)

due to an external radial load

P

on a circular cylinder.

M

φ

/

P

on longitudinal axis,

M

x

/

P

on transverse axis.

Figure K.7 Membrane force

N

(

x, φ

)

T/P

due to an external radial load

P

on a circular cylinder (transverse axis).

Figure K.8 Membrane force

N

(

x, φ

)

T/P

due to an external radial load

P

on a circular cylinder (longitudinal axis).

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Firetube boiler explosion in shoe factory in Brockton, Massachusetts in 1905.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Stress resultants at a point within a homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic body.

Figure 3.2 Cross section of a shell wall subjected to stretching and bending loads.

Figure 3.3 Shear deformations of a unit cross section.

Figure 3.4 Forces in a unit cross section.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Steel–concrete vessel.

Figure 4.2 Corroded carbon steel tubesheet.

Figure 4.3 Corroded titanium tubesheet.

Figure 4.4 Crack in a Carpenter 20 tube weld.

Figure 4.5 Tensile and yield strength.

Figure 4.6 Creep strength.

Figure 4.7 Rupture strength.

Figure 4.8 Iron–iron carbide equilibrium diagram.

Figure 4.9 Pearlite structure.

Figure 4.10 Charpy V‐Notch specimen.

Figure 4.11

C

v

energy transition curves.

Figure 4.12 Fracture analysis diagram.

Figure 4.13 Diagram of specimen used in the Robertson crack‐arrest test.

Figure 4.14 Generalized fracture analysis diagram.

Figure 4.15 Isothermal lines of lowest one‐day mean temperature (°F).

Figure 4.16 Elastic stress distribution near the tip of a crack.

Figure 4.17 Impact‐test exemption curves. Assignment of materials to curves.

Figure 4.18 Thickness–temperature relationship for SA 302‐B material.

Figure 4.19 Charpy V‐notch test requirements.

Figure 4.20 Membrane‐stress correction factor.

Figure 4.21 Bending‐stress correction factor.

Figure 4.22 Shape factors.

Figure 4.23

K

IC

test data.

Figure 4.24 Temperature reduction.

Figure 4.25 The Nelson chart.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Free‐body diagram of a cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure.

Figure 5.2 Thin cylindrical shell.

Figure 5.3 Cross section of a thick cylindrical shell.

Figure 5.4 Stress distribution in a thick cylinder due to internal pressure.

Figure 5.5 Stress distribution in a thick cylinder due to external pressure.

Figure 5.6 Comparison of formulas for hoop stress in a cylindrical shell.

Figure 5.7 Longitudinal pressure and stress.

Figure 5.8 Radial deflection due to internal and external pressure.

Figure 5.9 Forces in a unit length of a cylindrical shell.

Figure 5.10 Edge force and moment in a cylindrical shell.

Figure 5.11 Longitudinal moment distribution.

Figure 5.12 Cylindrical shell with stiffening ring.

Figure 5.13 Sign convention at point 0: clockwise

θ

and

M

0

are +; outward

w

and

Q

0

are −.

Figure 5.14 Discontinuity forces.

Figure 5.15 Effective length of T‐stiffener.

Figure 5.16 Buckling modes of a cylindrical shell [5].

Figure 5.17 Collapse coefficients of round cylinders with pressures on sides only, edges simply supported;

μ

 = 0.3 [5].

Figure 5.18 Collapse coefficients of round cylinders with pressures on sides and ends, edges simply supported;

μ

 = 0.3 [5].

Figure 5.19 Thermal expansion of infinitesimal element.

Figure 5.20 Rod in a cylindrical shell.

Figure 5.21 Tray in a cylindrical shell.

Figure 5.22 Pipe with abrupt change in temperature.

Figure 5.23 Cylindrical shell fixed at end.

Figure 5.24 Thermal gradient in a vessel skirt.

Figure 5.25 Linear thermal stress distribution in a vessel shell.

Figure 5.26 Linear temperature gradient in a vessel shell.

Figure 5.27 Nonlinear temperature gradient in a vessel shell.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Cross‐section of a spherical shell.

Figure 6.2 Biaxial stress in a unit thin spherical shell.

Figure 6.3 Comparison of stress calculated by various equations.

Figure 6.4 Forces in a unit spherical shell.

Figure 6.5 Deformation in a unit thin spherical shell.

Figure 6.6 Snow load on a spherical head.

Figure 6.7 (a) Membrane and (b) bending forces in a unit thin spherical shell.

Figure 6.8 Discontinuity forces in a spherical head‐to‐cylindrical‐shell junction.

Figure 6.9 Buckling shape of a spherical segment.

Figure 6.10 Minimum envelope of the buckling strength of a spherical shell.

Figure 6.11 Ellipsoidal head.

Figure 6.12 Stress distribution due to internal pressure in ellipsoidal heads.

Figure 6.13 Edge forces in ellipsoidal heads.

Figure 6.14 Conical heads.

Figure 6.15 Discontinuity forces at a conical head‐to‐cylindrical‐shell junction.

Figure 6.16 Discontinuity forces at a head‐to‐ring‐to‐shell junction.

Figure 6.17 Dimensions of a conical section.

Figure 6.18 Conical transition section.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Deflection of a circular plate.

Figure 7.2 Forces in a unit circular plate.

Figure 7.3 Uniformly loaded simply supported plate.

Figure 7.4 Moment distribution for simply supported plate.

Figure 7.5 Moment distribution for fixed plate.

Figure 7.6 Uniformly loaded simply supported plate with a central hole.

Figure 7.7 Forces in a unit rectangular plate.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Structural discontinuities.

Figure 8.2 Stress categories.

Figure 8.3 Primary stress categories.

Figure 8.4 Thermal stress categories.

Figure 8.5 Pressure vessel.

Figure 8.6 Stress orientation at outer surface.

Figure 8.7 Stress orientation at inner surface.

Figure 8.8 Discontinuity forces at the head‐to‐cylindrical‐shell junction.

Figure 8.9 Shear and moment values at the head‐to‐cylindrical‐shell junction.

Figure 8.10 Geometric chart for cylindrical vessels under external or compressive loadings – for all materials.

Figure 8.11 Chart for determining shell thickness of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external pressure when constructed of carbon or low‐alloy steels (specified yield strength 30 000–38 000 psi inclusive) and types 405 and 410 stainless steels.

Source

: Reprinted from Ref. [3].

Figure 8.12 The ASME VIII‐1 method for determining the maximum allowable external pressure on cylinders.

Figure 8.13 Diagrammatic representation of variables for design of cylindrical vessels subjected to external pressure.

Figure 8.14 Effective length of the stiffener.

Figure 8.15 Effective length of T‐stiffener.

Figure 8.16 Various arrangements of stiffening rings for cylindrical vessels subjected to external pressure.

Figure 8.17 Length of gap in a cylindrical shell.

Figure 8.18 Maximum arc of shell left unsupported because of gap in the stiffening ring of cylindrical shell under external pressure.

Figure 8.19 Maximum permissible deviation from a circular form e for vessels under external pressure.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Commonly used formed closure heads.

Figure 9.2 Head‐to‐shell junction.

Figure 9.3 Head contours approximating various elliptical shapes.

Figure 9.4 Maximum stress in ellipsoidal heads.

Figure 9.5 Stress in flanged and dished heads.

Figure 9.6 Required thickness of formed heads.

Figure 9.7 Discontinuity forces due to internal pressure.

Figure 9.8

X

and

Y

values for internal pressure.

Figure 9.9 Conical transition section.

Figure 9.10 Discontinuity forces due to external pressure.

Figure 9.11

X

and

Y

values for external pressure.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Integral or welded flat heads.

Figure 10.2 Bolted or quick‐opening flat heads.

Figure 10.3 Blind‐flange–integral‐flange connection.

Figure 10.4 Spherically dished covers with bolting flanges.

Figure 10.5 Unstayed flat heads and covers.

Figure 10.6 Typical facing details.

Figure 10.7 Types of gaskets.

Figure 10.8 Lens gasket.

Figure 10.9 Delta gasket.

Figure 10.10 Double‐cone gasket.

Figure 10.11 Loadings on blind flange.

Figure 10.12 Blind‐flange sample calculation sheet.

Figure 10.13 Flange loadings for elastic analysis.

Figure 10.14 Types of flanges.

Figure 10.15 Flange dimensions mentioned in Example 10.9.

Figure 10.16 Welding‐neck‐flange sample calculation sheet.

Figure 10.17 Ring‐flange sample calculation sheet.

Figure 10.18 Reverse‐flange loading and dimensions.

Figure 10.19 Reverse‐flange sample calculation sheet.

Figure 10.20 Full‐face gasket loadings.

Figure 10.21 Full‐face‐flange sample calculation sheet.

Figure 10.22 Full‐face gasket dimensions.

Figure 10.23 Flat‐face flange with metal‐to‐metal contact outside of the bolt circle.

Sheet 2 Slip‐on or lap‐joint flange with ring‐type gasket.

Sheet 3 Ring flange with ring‐type gasket.

Sheet 4 Reverse welding‐neck flange with ring‐type gasket.

Sheet 5 Slip‐on flange with full face gasket.

Sheet 6 Welding‐neck flange with full‐face gasket.

Figure 10.30 Spherically dished cover.

Figure 10.31 Dimensions of spherically dished head mentioned in Example 10.14.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Applied pressure and external loadings on nozzle.

Figure 11.2 Variation in

d

/

D

ratio of nozzles and piping.

Figure 11.3 (a–c) Two‐direction load combinations on flat plate with circular opening.

Figure 11.4 Methods of adding reinforcement material.

Figure 11.5 Reinforcement added to outside of opening.

Figure 11.6 Reinforcement added to inside of opening.

Figure 11.7 Reinforcement added to both inside and outside.

Figure 11.8 Reinforcement limits parallel to shell surface.

Figure 11.9 (a–c) Reinforcement requirements for multiple openings.

Figure 11.10 “Set‐on” and “set‐in” nozzles.

Figure 11.11 Multiple openings in cylindrical shell.

Figure 11.12 Chart for determining

F

.

Figure 11.13 Determination of special limits for determining

t

r

, to use in reinforcement calculations. (a) Limits for torispherical head and (b) limits for ellipsoidal head.

Figure 11.14 Details of nozzle in Example 11.7.

Figure 11.15 Manway‐opening details in Example 11.7.

Figure 11.16 Nomenclature for nozzle openings.

Figure 11.17 Nomenclature for variable thickness openings.

Figure 11.18

A

2

with variable thickness for set‐in nozzles.

Figure 11.19

A

2

with variable thickness for set‐on nozzles.

Figure 11.20 Radial nozzle in a cylindrical shell.

Figure 11.21 Dimensions and notations for nozzle reinforcement in ASME B31.1.

Figure 11.22 Nomenclature and dimensions of ANSI/ASME B31.3 piping code.

Figure 11.23 Diagonal ligaments.

Figure 11.24 Computation sheet for rigid attachment to spherical shell.

Figure 11.25 Computation sheet for hollow attachment to spherical shell.

Figure 11.26 Computation sheet for attachments to cylindrical shell.

Figure 11.27 Stress intensification, flexibility, and correction factors.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Vessel supports.

Figure 12.2 Skirt base ring on concrete foundation.

Figure 12.3 Base ring to skirt attachment.

Figure 12.4 Foundation pressure on base ring.

Figure 12.5 Base ring at anchor bolt vicinity.

Figure 12.6 Forces in gusset‐skirt‐base ring area. (a) Vertical forces. (b) Horizontal forces.

Figure 12.7 Details of vessel support.

Figure 12.8 Leg supported vessel.

Figure 12.9 Forces in a leg supported vessel.

Figure 12.10 Lug supports.

Figure 12.11 Forces in ring girder support.

Figure 12.12 Cross section of ring girder support.

Figure 12.13 Effective length of ring girder support.

Figure 12.14 Dimensions of ring girder.

Figure 12.15 Forces in ring girder.

Figure 12.16 Saddle supports.

Figure 12.17 Cross section of cylindrical shell at saddle location.

Figure 12.18 Shear distribution.

Figure 12.19 Shear forces.

Figure 12.20

C

5

and

C

6

as functions of the saddle angle

θ

.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Roof‐to‐shell junction.

Figure 13.2 Value of

t

/

D

versus slope angle

θ

.

Figure 13.3 Roof‐to‐shell forces due to internal pressure.

Figure 13.4 Shell with two different course thicknesses.

Figure 13.5 Shell‐to‐flat‐bottom junction.

Figure 13.6 Elastic movement of shell courses of girth joint [3].

Figure 13.7 Tank bottom plate with annular outer plate.

Figure 13.8 Tank details.

Figure 13.9 Vertical storage tank.

Figure 13.10 Free‐body diagrams.

Figure 13.11 Allowable compressive stress.

Figure 13.12 Biaxial stress chart for combined tension and compression in steels of yield stress 30 000–38 000 psi.

Figure 13.13 Compression‐ring region.

Figure 13.14 Some permissible and nonpermissible details of compression‐ring‐juncture construction.

Figure 13.15 Extreme frost penetration (in.).

Figure 13.16 Depth of cover above top of pipe (ft).

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Various TEMA components.

Figure 14.2 Typical heat‐exchanger configurations.

Figure 14.3 Tubesheet showing tube layout.

Figure 14.4 Tubesheet with tube holes.

Figure 14.5 Tubesheet‐to‐tube junction.

Figure 14.6 Baffle layout.

Figure 14.7 Moment factor

F

m

.

Figure 14.8 Moment factor

F

q

.

Figure 14.9 Plot of Eqs. (14.16) and (14.17).

Figure 14.10 Tube‐to‐tubesheet geometry. (a) Tubesheet layout; (b) expanded tube joint; (c) tube side pass partition groove depth; (d) tubes welded to back side of tube sheet (

d

t

 − 2

t

t

 ≤ 

d

 < 

d

t

).

Figure 14.11 Tube layout. (a) one lane; (b) Two lane; (c) Three lanes.

Figure 14.12 (a) Tubesheet integral with shell and channel; (b) tubesheet integral with shell and gasketed with channel, extended as a flange; (c) tubesheet integral with shell and gasketed with channel, not extended as a flange; (d) tubesheet gasketed with shell and channel; (e) tubesheet gasketed with shell and integral with channel, extended as a flange; (f) tubesheet gasketed with shell and integral with channel, not extended as a flange.

Figure 14.13 Values of

E

*

/

E

(a) and

ν

*

(b) for equilateral triangular pattern.

Figure 14.14 Values of

E

*

/

E

(a) and

ν

*

(b) for square pattern.

Figure 14.15 Values of moment factor

F

m

.

Figure 14.16 (a) Tubesheet integral with shell and channel; (b) tubesheet integral with shell and gasketed with channel, extended as a flange; (c) tubesheet integral with shell and gasketed with channel, not extended as a flange; (d) tubesheet gasketed with shell and channel.

Figure 14.17 Values of

Z

d

,

Z

m

,

Z

v

, and

Z

w

.

Figure 14.18 Values for bending factor

F

m

for negative values of

Q

.

Figure 14.19 Values for bending factor

F

m

for positive values of

Q

.

Figure 14.20 Various expansion joints.

Figure 14.21 Dimensions of a flanged and flued expansion joint.

Figure 14.22 Forces in a flanged and flued expansion joints.

Figure 14.23 Values of

K

1

.

Figure 14.24 Values of

K

2

.

Figure 14.25 Values of

K

3

.

Figure 14.26 Bellow expansion joint.

Figure 14.27 Forces in a flanged and flued expansion joint.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Stress distribution in a thick cylinder.

Figure 15.2 Cylindrical shell with elastic and plastic regions.

Figure 15.3 Stress in a cylinder with elastic and plastic regions.

Figure 15.4 Pressure–strain diagram due to uploading and then downloading of pressure.

Figure 15.5 Circumferential stress in a cylinder with elastic and plastic regions.

Figure 15.6 Various types of layered cylindrical shells.

Figure 15.7 Typical gap between two layers.

Figure 15.8 Forces in a layer due to a gap.

Figure 15.9 Circumferential gap.

Figure 15.10 Designation of various layers.

Figure 15.11 Longitudinal welds in layers.

Figure 15.12 Layered shell with prestressed wire on the outside.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1

S

s

, maximum considered earthquake (MCE

R

) ground motion parameter for 0.2 s spectral response acceleration, 5% of critical damping, Site Class B in the contiguous United States.

Figure 16.2

S

1

, maximum considered earthquake (MCE

R

) ground motion parameter for 1 s spectral response acceleration, 5% of critical damping, Site Class B in the contiguous United States.

Source

: Courtesy of ASCE.

Figure 16.3

T

L

long‐period transition period in the contiguous United States.

Source

: Courtesy of ASCE.

Figure 16.4 Vertical pressure vessel.

Figure 16.5 Simply supported vessel with equivalent forces at the nodal points.

Figure 16.6 Natural frequency calculation procedure in a simply supported vessel.

Figure 16.7 Natural frequency calculation procedure in a simply supported vessel with variable thickness.

Figure 16.8 Wind velocity for Categories III and IV structures.

Figure 16.9 Resonant wind velocity,

V

r

, versus

H

/

D

.

Figure 16.10 Vertical vessel subjected to wind load.

Figure 16.11 Number of lobes,

η

, into which a shell will collapse when subject to uniform external pressure on sides and ends.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Four‐plate rectangular header utilizes weld joints at each corner.

Figure 17.2 C‐shape headers with large‐radius corners for minimum stress concentration and flat weld joint for easy radiography.

Figure 17.3 (a–e) Plain rectangular cross sections.

Figure 17.4 (a–d) Rectangular cross sections with stay plates.

Figure 17.5 (a–d) Obround and circular cross sections with and without stay plates.

Figure 17.6 Openings with constant diameter.

Figure 17.7 Openings with more than one diameter.

Figure 17.8 Hole details for Example 17.3.

Figure 17.9 Diagram of internal pressure loading and bending moment for rectangular‐cross‐section header.

Figure 17.10 Box header.

Figure 17.11 Ligaments in a box header.

Figure 17.12 Box header terminology.

Figure 17.13 (a,b) General terms of a box header.

Figure 17.14 Rectangular box header.

Figure 17.15 Moments and forces in members.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Chart for determination of allowable loading on structural attachments to tubes.

Figure 18.2 Method of computation of attachments to tubes.

Figure 18.3 Structural attachments to tubes.

Figure 18.4 Once‐through forced‐flow boiler.

Figure 18.5 Drum‐type boiler.

Figure 18.6 Firetube boiler.

Guide

Cover

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Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment

Maan H. JawadJames R. Farr

Third Edition

Copyright

Copyright © 2019 by American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

A Joint Publication of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Maan H. Jawad and James R. Farr to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

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For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

ISBN: 9781119102830

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © suriyasilsaksom/GettyImages

Dedication

To all engineers builders of a better world.

Preface to the Third Edition

The third edition includes revisions to various chapters due to advancement in technology since the second edition was written over 30 years ago. These advancements include earthquake and wind analysis, fracture mechanics, and creep analysis of equipment operating in high temperatures. Additional changes were also needed due to the reduction of safety factors in various codes and standards in the last three decades. These reductions were due to improvements in material manufacturing, more accurate analyses due to computerized technology, and better inspection methodology. Additional structural analysis methods were added in few chapters to assist the designer in solving complicated problems not covered by the prevailing codes and standards. These include a natural frequency analysis required in earthquake evaluation for vessels with nonuniform cross sections and analysis of vessels with rectangular cross section having sides with different thicknesses and moduli of elasticity.

Many of the chapters in the first and second editions were written by the late James R. Farr. An effort was made in this third edition to preserve these chapters in their original format with only the necessary changes needed to bring them up to date to the current technology and standards.

The tendency of the newer editions of the codes such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is to replace existing charts needed in the design of components with equations that are more suitable for computerized programs. These equations are obtained in one of two methods. The first is to go back to the origin of a given chart. If the original chart was drawn from equations, then these equations are now used in the new code edition and the chart deleted. The format of these equations, more often than not, leads to the original derivation or the assumptions made in developing the equations. The second method is to take the charts that were drawn based on experience and/or experimental data with no background equations and simulate these charts with equations obtained from regression analysis. The resulting equations normally have no physical significance even though the results obtained from them are essentially the same as those obtained from the original chart. Accordingly in this book, equations from the first method were incorporated, as much as possible, in the text since they can be traced back to their original derivation. Equations from the second method were not incorporated in order to minimize the confusion regarding their original background.

Camas, WA, USA

January 2018

Maan H. Jawad

Preface to the Second Edition

The second edition includes a number of new topics not included in the first edition, which are useful in designing pressure vessels. A new chapter has been added to the design of the power boilers, which are an integral part of a chemical plant or refinery. Some of the existing chapters have been expanded to include new topics such as toughness criteria, design of expansion joints, tube‐to‐tubesheet parameters. In addition, portions of three chapters and one appendix have been rewritten to reflect current practice. The first such passage concerns the design of water tanks, where new equations are added in accordance with the revised criteria given in the American Water Works Association (AWWA) Standard. The second concerns the design of tubesheets in U‐tube heat exchangers, where simplified equations are used in lieu of the cumbersome charts shown in the first edition. The third concerns the design of noncircular vessels, where new equations are added to reflect new changes made in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Appendix J on joint efficiencies has been rewritten to reflect the current criteria of the ASME code, VIII‐1.

We thank all of our colleagues for their numerous comments, which promoted us to revise the first edition. Special thanks are given to Mr E. L. Thomas, Jr., and Dr L. J. Wolf for their help.

St Louis, MO, USA

Barberton, OH, USA

June 1988

Maan H. Jawad

James R. Farr

Preface to the First Edition

We wrote this book to serve three purposes. The first purpose is to provide structural and mechanical engineers associated with the petrochemical industry a reference book for the analysis and design of process equipment. The second is to give graduate engineering students a concise introduction to the theory of plates and shells and its industrial applications. The third is to aid process engineers in understanding the background of some of the design equations in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII.

The topics presented are separated into four parts. Part 1 is intended to familiarize the designer with some of the common “tools of the trade.” Chapter 1 details the history of pressure vessels and various applicable codes from around the world. Chapter 2 discusses design specifications furnished in the purchasing process equipment as well as in various applicable codes. Chapter 3 establishes the strength criteria used in different codes and the theoretical background needed in developing design equations in subsequent chapters. Chapter 4 includes different materials of construction and toughness considerations.

Part 2 is divided in to three chapters outlining the basic theory of plates and shells. Chapter 5 develops the membrane and bending theories of cylindrical shells. Chapter 6 discusses various approximate theories for analyzing heads and transition sections, and Chapter 7 derives the equations for circular and rectangular plates subjected to various loading and support conditions. These three chapters form the basis from which most of the design equations are derived in the other chapters.

Part 3, which consists of five chapters, details the design and analysis of components. Chapters 8 and 9 derive the design equations established by the ASME Code, VII‐1 and ‐2, for cylindrical shells as well as heads and transition sections. Chapter 10 discusses gaskets, bolts, and flange design. Chapter 11 presents openings and their reinforcement; Chapter 12 develops design equations for support systems.

Part4 outlines the design and analysis of some specialized process equipment. Chapter 13 describes the design of flat‐bottom tanks; Chapter 14 derives the equations for analyzing heat‐transfer equipment. Chapter 15 describes the theory of thick cylindrical shells in high‐pressure applications. Chapter 16 discusses the stress analysis of the tall vessels. Chapter 17 outlines the procedure of the ASME Code, VIII‐1, for designing rectangular pressure vessels.

To simplify the use of this book as a reference, each chapter is written so that it stands on its own as much as possible. Thus, each chapter with design or other mathematical equations is written using terminology frequently used in the industry for that particular type of equipment or component discussed in the pertinent chapter. Accordingly, a summary of nomenclature appears at the end of most of the chapters in which mathematical expressions are given.

In using this book as a textbook for plates and shells, Chapters 5, 6, and 7 form the basis for establishing the basic theory. Instructors can select other chapters to supplement the theory according to the background and needs of the graduate engineer.

In deriving the background of some of the equations given in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, attention was focused on Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2. Although these same equations do occur in the other sections of the ASME Code, such as the Power and Heating Coilers, no consideration is given in this book regarding other sections unless specifically stated.

Saint Louis, MO, USA

Barberton, OH, USA

September 1983

Maan H. Jawad

James R. Farr

Acknowledgements

Thanks to the many people and organizations that helped during the rewrite of the third edition. Special thanks are given to the following people for helping with the international standards: Dave I. Anderson for the British code, Anne Chaudouet for the French code, Susumu Terada for the Japanese code, Jay Vattappilly for the Indian code, and Jinyang Zheng for the Chinese code. Thanks are also given to Basil Kattula for his help with the wind load and earthquake requirements of ASCE 7‐10.

The Nooter Corporation of St. Louis, Missouri, is acknowledged for its continual support of the author in publishing this book as well as participating in other standards' activity.

Special thanks is also extended to the editors and staff of Wiley for doing an excellent job in editing as well as updating the old charts, figures, and tables from the Second edition to the Third edition.

Part 1Background and Basic Considerations

1History and Organization of Codes

Old timers.

Source: (Top) Courtesy Babcock & Wilcox Company; (bottom) Courtesy Nooter Corporation.

1.1 Use of Process Vessels and Equipment

Throughout the world, the use of process equipment has expanded considerably. In the petroleum industry, process vessels are used at all stages of oil processing. At the beginning of the cycle, they are used to store crude oil. Many different types of these vessels process the crude oil into oil and gasoline for the consumer. The vessels store petroleum at tank farms after processing and finally serve to hold the gasoline in service stations for the consumer's use. The use of process vessels in the chemical business is equally extensive. Process vessels are used everywhere.

Pressure vessels are made in all sizes and shapes. The smaller ones may be no larger than a fraction of an inch in diameter, whereas the larger vessels may be 150 ft. or more in diameter. Some are buried in the ground or deep in the ocean; most are positioned on the ground or supported on platforms; and some actually are found in storage tanks and hydraulic units in aircraft.

The internal pressure to which the process equipment is designed is as varied as the size and shape. Internal pressure may be as low as 1 in. water‐gage pressure or as high as 300 000 psi or more. The usual range of pressure for monoblock construction is about 15 to about 5000 psi, although there are many vessels designed for pressures below and above that range. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Code, Section VIII, Division 1 [1], specifies a range of internal pressure from 15 psi at the bottom to no upper limit; however, at an internal pressure above 3000 psi, the ASME Code, VIII‐1, requires that special design considerations may be necessary [1]. However, any pressure vessel that meets all the requirements of the ASME Code, regardless of the internal or external design pressure, may still be accepted by the authorized inspector and stamped by the manufacturer with the ASME Code symbol. Some other pressure equipment, such as American Petroleum Institute (API) [2] storage tanks, may be designed for and contain internal pressure not more than that generated by the static head of fluid contained in the tank.

1.2 History of Pressure Vessel Codes in the United States

Through the late 1800s and early 1900s, explosions in boilers and pressure vessels were frequent. A firetube boiler explosion on the Mississippi River steamboat Sultana on April 27, 1865, resulted in sinking of the boat within 20 minutes and the death of 1500 soldiers who were going home after the Civil War. This type of catastrophe continued unabated into the early 1900s. In 1905, a destructive explosion of a firetube boiler in a shoe factory in Brockton, Massachusetts (Figure 1.1) killed 58 people, injured 117 others, and caused $400 000 in property damage. In 1906, another explosion in a shoe factory in Lynn, Massachusetts, resulted in death, injury, and extensive property damage. After this accident, the Massachusetts governor directed the formation of a Board of Boiler Rules. The first set of rules for the design and construction of boilers was approved in Massachusetts on August 30, 1907. This code was three pages long!

Figure 1.1 Firetube boiler explosion in shoe factory in Brockton, Massachusetts in 1905.

Source: Courtesy Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co., Hartford, Ct.

In 1911, Colonel E. D. Meier, the president of the ASME, established a committee to write a set of rules for the design and construction of boilers and pressure vessels. On February 13, 1915, the first ASME Boiler Code was issued. It was entitled “Boiler Construction Code, 1914 Edition.” This was the beginning of the various sections of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which ultimately became Section I, Power Boilers [3].

The first ASME Code for pressure vessels was issued as “Rules for the Construction of Unfired Pressure Vessels,” Section VIII, 1925 edition. The rules applied to vessels over 6 in. in diameter, volume over 1.5 ft [3], and pressure over 30 psi. In December 1931, a Joint API–ASME Committee was formed to develop an unfired pressure vessel code for the petroleum industry. The first edition was issued in 1934. For the next 17 years, two separate unfired pressure vessel codes existed. In 1951, the last API–ASME Code was issued as a separate document [4]. In 1952, the two codes were consolidated into one code – the ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII. This continued until the 1968 edition. At that time, the original code became Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessels, and another new part was issued, which was Section VIII, Division 2, Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels.

The ANSI/ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is issued by the ASME with approval by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as an ANSI/ASME document. One or more sections of the ANSI/ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code have been established as the legal requirements in 47 of the 50 states in the United States and in all the provinces of Canada. Also, in many other countries of the world, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is used to construct boilers and pressure vessels.

In the United States, most piping systems are built according to the ANSI/ASME Code for Pressure Piping B31. There are a number of different piping code sections for different types of systems. The piping section that is used for boilers in combination with Section I of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is the Code for Power Piping, B31.1 [5]. The piping section that is often used with Section VIII, Division 1, is the code for Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping, B31.3 [6].

1.3 Organization of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is divided into many sections, divisions, parts, and subparts. Some of these sections relate to a specific kind of equipment and application; others relate to specific materials and methods for application and control of equipment; and others relate to care and inspection of installed equipment. The following sections specifically relate to the design and construction of boiler, pressure vessel, and nuclear components:

Sections.

I. Rules for Construction of Power Boilers

II. Materials

Part A. Ferrous Material Specifications

Part B. Nonferrous Material Specifications

Part C. Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals

Part D. Properties

III. Rules for Construction of Nuclear Facility Components

Division 1.

Subsection NB. Class 1 Components.

Subsection NC. Class 2 Components.

Subsection ND. Class 3 Components.

Subsection NE. Class MC Components.

Subsection NF. Supports.

Subsection NG. Core Support Structures.

Division 5. High‐Temperature Reactors.

IV. Rules for Construction of Heating Boilers

V. Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels

Division 1.

Division 2. Alternative Rules.

Division 3. Alternative Rules for Construction of High Pressure Vessels.

VI. Fiber‐Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels

VII. Rules for Construction and Continued Service of Transport Tanks

A new edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is issued every 2 years. A new edition incorporates all the changes made to the previous edition. The new edition of the code becomes mandatory when it appears.

Code Cases [7] are also issued periodically after each code meeting. They contain permissive rules for materials and special constructions that have not been sufficiently developed to include them in the code itself. Finally, there are Code Interpretations [8]. These are in the form of questions and replies that further explain the items in the code that have been misunderstood.

1.4 Organization of the ANSI B31 Code for Pressure Piping

In the United States, the most frequently used design rules for pressure piping are the ANSI B31 Code for Pressure Piping. This code is divided into many sections for different kinds of piping applications. Some sections are related to specific sections of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code as follows:

B31.1 Power Piping

B31.3 Process Piping

B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquids and Slurries

B31.5 Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components

B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems

B31.9 Building Services Piping

B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines

The ANSI B31 Piping Code Committee prepares and issues new editions and addenda with dates that correspond with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and addenda. However, the issue dates and mandatory dates do not always correspond with each other.

1.5 Some Other Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards in the United States

In addition to the ANSI/ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the ANSI B31 Code for Pressure Piping, many other codes and standards are commonly used for the design of process vessels in the United States. Some of them are as follows:

ANSI/API Standard 620. Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low‐Pressure Storage Tanks, American Petroleum Institute (API), Washington, D.C.

ANSI/API Standard 650. Welded Steel Tanks for Fuel Storage, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.

ANSI‐AWWA Standard D100. Welded Carbon Steel Tanks for Water Storage, American Water Works Association (AWWA), Denver, Colorado.

UL 644. Standard for Container Assemblies for LP‐Gas, 9th ed., Underwriters Laboratories, Northbrook, Illinois.

Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 9th ed., Tubular Exchanger Manufacturer's Association, New York.

Standards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association, 10th ed., Expansion Joint Manufacturer's Association, New York.

A number of standards are available in the United States for repairing and altering existing boilers and pressure vessels. Frequently, the repairs and alterations involve design considerations that are outside the scope of ASME Sections I and VIII. Some of these standards are as follows:

National Board Inspection Code. National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, Ohio.

Fitness‐for‐Service. API 579–1/ASME FFS‐1, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York.

Pressure Vessel Inspection Code. API‐510, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.

1.6 Worldwide Pressure Vessel Codes

In addition to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which is used worldwide, many other pressure vessel codes have been legally adopted in various countries. Difficulty often occurs when vessels are designed in one country, built in another country, and installed in still another country. This is often the case.

The following list is a partial summary of some of the various codes used in different countries:

Australia.Pressure Equipment: AS 1200. Standards Association of Australia. Sydney, Australia.

China.Pressure Vessel Standard GB 150. China National Institute of Standardization (CNIS). Beijing, China.

European Union.Countries belonging to the European Union (EN) including France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom use the European Pressure equipment Directive (PED) for the design of boilers and pressure vessels. Hence, Standard EN 12953 is used for boilers and Standard EN 13445 is used for pressure vessels. Local codes are also used when specific rules are not covered by these two standards. These include CODAP in France, A. D. Merkblatter in Germany, and BS 5500 in the United Kingdom.

Japan.In Japan, the Japanese Industrial Standard for pressure vessels is JIS B 8265, 8266, and 8267. For boilers, the standard is JIS B 8201.

More complete details, discussions of factors of safety, and applications of the codes mentioned are given in Section 2.12.

References

1 (2017).

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels

. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

2 API Standard 620 (2013).

Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low‐Pressure Storage Tanks

,'' ANSI/API Std. 620. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute.

3 (2017).

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I, Rules for Construction of Power Boilers

. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

4 API‐ASME Code (1951).

Unfired Pressure Vessels for Petroleum Liquids and Gases

, 5ee. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers and American Petroleum Institute.

5 ASME Code for Pressure Piping B31

Power Piping

, ANSI/ASME B31.1,. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

6 ASME Code for Pressure Piping B31

Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping

, ANSI/ASME B31.3. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

7

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Code Cases, Boilers and Pressure Vessels

. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

8 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

Interpretations

(issued periodically). New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Further Reading

Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage. In:

Steel Plate Engineering Data

, 1976the, vol. 1. Washington, D.C: American Iron and Steel Institute.

2Selection of Vessel, Specifications, Reports, and Allowable Stresses

Design standards.

2.1 Selection of Vessel

Although many factors contribute to the selection of pressure vessels, the two basic requirements that affect the selection are safety and economics. Many items are considered, such as materials availability, corrosion resistance, materials strength, types and magnitudes of loadings, location of installation including wind loading and earthquake loading, location of fabrication (shop or field), position of vessel installation, and availability of labor supply at the erection site.