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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
A strategic and operational guide to using 3D printing to drive value in the supply chain--featuring case studies and illustrated examples from across industries After many years as a tool for designers, 3D printing today promises to revolutionize supply chains. Cut through the hype and hyperbole, and it becomes clear that it offers unprecedented potential to redesign supply chain models, simplifying and shrinking them, enabling previously unimaginable designs to be produced where they are most needed. However, adopting it is a strategic endeavor, one that involves the consideration of several wider implications. This book goes beyond touting the latest technological advances or listing the many wonderful things that 3D printing is being used to make. It teaches readers what is important about 3D printing, why they need to prepare for its emergence today, and how they can go about adopting it. Supercharg3d: How 3D Printing Will Drive Your Supply Chain shows readers how to drive value in their supply chain by supercharging it--giving it more power--with 3D printing. Aimed at being a first reference for those in businesses who make strategic decisions on operations and supply chain matters, it takes a pragmatic position, balancing the opportunities that 3D printing presents with the reality of the limitations that it continues to have, so that readers can make the best decisions possible. * Strategic guide that covers 3D printing and its implications in the supply chain * Operational guidance and best practices for how and when 3D printing can be adopted * Identification of 3D printing's impacts on the individual SCOR® supply chain elements * Features new, transformative supply chain models that are enabled by 3D printing * Includes case studies and illustrated examples from diverse industries including aerospace (Airbus), energy (Shell), consumer goods (Nike), medical (Align Technology) and transportation (Deutsche Bahn) Supercharg3d: How 3D Printing Will Drive Your Supply Chain is the go-to book for operations and supply chain decision makers in manufacturing, engineering and technology companies looking to incorporate the technology into their business operations.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
This Book
Consumer Versus Industrial 3D Printing
3D Printing Versus Additive Manufacture
The Concept of the Supply Chain
Notes
Chapter One: What Is 3D Printing?
3D Printing Techniques
The 3D Printing Process
Notes
Chapter Two: What Can and Can't 3D Printing Do?
Speed
Materials
Design
Design Tools
Volumes
Finish
Cost
Location
Labor
Sustainability
The Case for 3D Printing
Notes
Chapter Three: Where Is 3D Printing Heading?
Integration and the Rise of the Robots
A Digital Launch Pad
Shifting Dynamics of the 3D Printing Sector
Where Next?
Notes
Chapter Four: Accessing 3D Printing Capabilities
Acquiring 3D Printers
Leasing 3D Printers
Printer Hubs
Making the Choice
Notes
Chapter Five: Deutsche Bahn: Applying 3D Printing To The Supply Chain
A Better Way of Doing Things
Adapting Supply Chains
Note
Chapter Six: The Impact Of 3D Printing On The Supply Chain
Defining the Supply Chain
3D Printing and “Make”
3D Printing and “Deliver”
3D Printing and “Return”
3D Printing and “Source”
3D Printing and “Plan”
3D Printing and “Enable”
The Supply Chain Case for 3D Printing
Notes
Chapter Seven: Emerging Supply Chain Models
A Disruptive Technology
In-House Manufacture
Customer-Located Manufacture
Customer-Managed Inventory
Toward a Virtual 3D-Printed Supply Chain
Notes
Chapter Eight: Wider Implications Of 3D Printing
Legal, Liability, and Intellectual Property
Quality Management
Standards
Regulation and Accreditation
Health and Safety
Data Management and Security
Commercial Models
Fiscal and Financial Implications
Skills Base
Notes
Chapter Nine: Adopting 3D Printing
Convincing the Doubters
The Disruptive Risk of 3D Printing
A First Toe in the Water
The Supercharg3D Blueprint
Identify the Drivers
Evaluate Existing Operations
Assess Different Solutions
Operationalize the Change
Notes
Epilogue
Notes
Appendix: Definition of Supply Chain Metrics
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Summary of 3D printing techniques.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 The case for 3D printing.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Definitions of emerging technologies.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Summary of supply chain metrics affected by 3D printing.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Guidelines on 3D printing applicability.
Appendix
Table A.1 Definition of supply chain metrics.
List of Illustrations
Introduction
Figure I.1 The traditional value chain.
Figure I.2 The 3D-printing-enabled value chain.
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Dr. Hideo Kodama, Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute i...
Figure 1.2 SLA 3D printing.
Figure 1.3 CLIP 3D printing.
Figure 1.4 Material jetting 3D printing.
Figure 1.5 Binder jetting 3D printing.
Figure 1.6 FDM 3D printing.
Figure 1.7 SLS 3D printing.
Figure 1.8 DED 3D printing with wire.
Figure 1.9 LOM 3D printing.
Figure 1.10 SDL 3D printing.
Figure 1.11 Typical 3D printing end-to-end process.
Figure 1.12 3D printing design stages.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Transformation of design before and after optimization.
Figure 2.2 GE's LEAP Engine Fuel Nozzle.
Figure 2.3 The difference between accuracy and precision.
Figure 2.4 STL encodes shapes in a triangular tessellation pattern.
Figure 2.5 Development of 3D printing in terms of volume versus complexity.
Figure 2.6 Development of cost per unit versus volume.
Figure 2.7 Comparison of 3D printing versus traditional manufacturing based o...
Figure 2.8 An umbilical clamp produced from recycled water bottles by ReFabDa...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 The succession of industry revolutions.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 ICE1 terminal box (small box on left side of the engine) (By kind ...
Figure 5.2 3D-printed replacement terminal box. (By kind permission of Deutsc...
Figure 5.3 Locker assembly, with the grommet indicated (By kind permission of...
Figure 5.4 Grommet in the locker assembly (By kind permission of Deutsche Bah...
Figure 5.5 3D-printed replacement headrests (By kind permission of Deutsche B...
Figure 5.6 3D-printed Braille signage (By kind permission of Deutsche Bahn/Si...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The supply chain model. Numbers indicate order of discussion in ch...
Figure 6.2 The dynamics of spare parts.
Figure 6.3 Comparison of design cycles using traditional (top diagram) versus...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 The in-house manufacturing model.
Figure 7.2 The in-house manufacturing model with outsourced production.
Figure 7.3 The customer-located manufacturing model.
Figure 7.4 The customer-managed inventory model.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Who is liable for failed parts?
Figure 8.2 Framework for considering quality control and quality assurance.
Figure 8.3 The 3D-printed Stealth Key.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Questions to ask.
Figure 9.2 Supercharg3d Blueprint.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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Supercharg3D
How 3D Printing Will Drive Your Supply Chain
LEN PANNETT
Cover images: Chain: © rozdesign/Shutterstock Lightning: © Martin Capek/Shutterstock
Cover design: Wiley
Copyright © 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Names: Pannett, Len, author.
Title: Supercharg3D : how 3D printing will drive your supply chain / Len Pannett.
Other titles: Supercharged | Supercharge 3D
Description: 2nd edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018043690 (print) | LCCN 2018044784 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119532361 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119532385 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119532354 (hardcover : acid-free paper) | ISBN 9781119532361 (ePDF)
Subjects: LCSH: Three-dimensional printing. | Business logistics.
Classification: LCC TS171.95 (ebook) | LCC TS171.95 .P36 2019 (print) | DDC 621.9/88—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018043690
This book is dedicated to my family, for their love, understanding, and patience during the production of this book.
It is especially dedicated to the memory of my father, Bill Pannett, who inspired in so many a sense of wonder in science and technology.
Preface
Throughout my careers, I've worked with clients and organizations from several engineering and technology sectors, and the pressures that they face have all been similar: to meet the particular requirements of their customers as quickly as possible, at the best cost and with the right quality. The Chief Operating Officers (COOs), Chief Supply Chain Officers (CSCOs), and Operations Directors that I've spoken with have all said that those pressures constantly drive them to improve the flexibility, responsiveness, and speed of their supply chains. The successive tweaks they have made in processes and training, however, using tried and tested techniques such as Just in Time (JIT), Kaizen, Lean, and Six Sigma, have delivered diminishing returns. Making a significant change now requires innovation, something truly different. 3D printing can make that difference.
Today's mass media and industry press are full of anecdotes about the wonders of 3D printing. Despite that constant barrage of stories, many supply chain and operations decision makers don't fully understand what 3D printing is, what the technology can and can't do, how it is affecting their supply chain, and how it will do so in the future. Most importantly, they don't understand what they can do about it today: how to consider whether to adopt it, and then how to do so in their business models. Being increasingly tech savvy, they recognize that one can't simply buy a 3D printer and plug it in to produce things that they have made using other methods—there are broader considerations to account for.
This book will help you to make the right decisions and successfully evaluate whether 3D printing is right for your company. It will highlight what 3D printing can do for you and your customers, and how to adopt this disruptive technology. By reading this book, you will discover how to drive value in your supply chain by supercharging it with 3D printing.
Preparing a text on the impact of a fast-changing technology on business operations is a daunting task. It can easily become too technical and hence quickly outdated. Alternatively, it can be too basic, leaving doubt and confusion in the mind of the reader. It can also be written at the wrong time, either too early to be relevant or too late to be useful. I have thus prepared this book by taking a balanced view, presenting sufficient technical information on 3D printing without losing focus. Moreover, the feedback I have received from clients, peers, and industry observers indicates that it is needed now—that 3D printing has to be considered now in the context of how supply chains operate. While technological developments may move along quickly, the essence of how 3D printing will drive supply chains as described here will hold for a while yet.
Acknowledgments
This book would not have been possible without the help, advice, and support of many colleagues and friends.
Particular thanks to Arvid Eirich and Stephanie Brickwede at Deutsche Bahn; to Phil Reeves at Stratasys, Marc Saunders at Renishaw, Nick Lewis at 3DSystems, and Dion Vaughan at Metalysis; and to Alan Amling at UPS, for all their insights into the realities of 3D printing. Thanks are also due to Michael Petch for his early guidance.
I thank Cynthia White for her guidance on how to steer the narrative; Beth McLoughlin for her advice on writing style; and Adam Brocklehurst, Andy Hindle, and Frank Kaye for their patience in reviewing the content. I'd also like to thank Margaret Cummins, who believed in the book from the off, and the team at Wiley for their support. Special thanks to Gavin Chan for helping me get to the right desk in the first place.
Thank you also to Robert Dudley for trusting in a new author who had some set ideas.
I especially thank my wife, Lorna, for her patience and guidance in endless late-night discussions.
Introduction
At 05:52 universal time on September 21, 2014, the company SpaceX launched its sixth resupply mission, SpX-4, toward the International Space Station (ISS), under a partnership with NASA. Arriving two days later, it was received by the crew of Expedition 41/42, which had already spent four months there in isolation. On that mission was a first-of-its-kind piece of equipment: a new technology that would allow the ISS crew to carry out in-orbit repairs themselves without needing to wait for the resupply of components from the ground. Built by the company Made in Space, only founded four years earlier, the so-called 3D Printing in Zero-G experiment placed a 3D printer on the ISS to test how the technology would behave in microgravity. Installation of the device was completed on November 17, and a calibration test conducted three days later, which indicated the need for minor modifications that were transmitted from the ground control team and resolved remotely.1
On November 24, the device was sent a digital file containing the design specifications of a new faceplate for the printer, an item that was damaged during the 400 km journey up. The next day, the finished part was removed from the printer, inspected by NASA astronaut Barry “Butch” Wilmore, and installed.2 Here was a new technology that allowed parts to be made locally, remote from the normal physical supply chain, in perhaps the harshest of environments. It allowed a team of designers and engineers to send a digital file to a printer installed hundreds of miles away, without the need for the people at the destination to do any manufacturing themselves—a highly symbolic moment in the development of this transformative technology.
Many industry sectors today—particularly, but not exclusively, manufacturing, engineering and technology—already have some level of 3D printing in their operational processes. Historically, the architectural and automotive sectors have been the greatest users of this technology, as an aid for prototyping and building models. The medical and dentistry sectors have increasingly employed it to make products to be used with patients directly or to help them prepare for procedures. Ninety-nine percent of the world's in-ear hearing aid shells are custom made and 3D printed,3 and today over 10 million such devices are in use worldwide, produced by companies like Swiss manufacturer Sonova. Indeed, in the United States, the outer shell of every in-ear hearing aid used today is 3D printed, and the entire American sector converted to that technology in under 500 days.4 The jewelry and hobby craft industries are increasingly adopting 3D printing, as is manufacturing, from high-tech sectors such as aerospace to older industries like mining, transport, and rail. In 2016, manufacturers sold over US$2.5 billion in 3D printers, rising at a rate of 15–20% annually. The value of products and parts made using the technology is already in the range of several dozen billions of dollars, with estimates of the potential size of the market ranging from Boston Consulting Group's figure of US$350 billion in 2035,5 to the more aggressive estimate from their rivals at consulting firm McKinsey of US$550 billion by 2025.6
Over the past 10 years, 3D printing has featured more and more in the public eye. Driven by what has been at times a media frenzy, a steady stream of good news stories has been published, each describing some new application, from helping a blind mother-to-be feel what her fetus looks like during her gestation, or providing a child born without a nose with a 3D-printed plastic prosthetic, to the manufacture of entire houses using mammoth-sized printers. Many of these reports contain a large measure of hype, with promises that soon we will have Star Trek–like replicators in our homes to make what we want, when we want it, how we want it. Indeed, the hype became so big that a new entrant to the market, MakerBot, which sold simple and cheap 3D printers for the home market, quickly overtook long-established firms such as 3D Systems and Stratasys in terms of the number of machines sold.
The reality, though, is more conservative. 3D printing is a long way from the plug-and-play scenarios that much of the excitement described, and those who have tried 3D printing in their homes have been largely disappointed and frustrated with what it can do. However, when its industrial uses are considered, the potential of 3D printing is astonishing. Much as personal computers, cell phones, and the Internet have done, 3D printing is quite simply a disruptive technology, a fact highlighted by President Barack Obama in his 2013 State of the Union address:
“3D printing […] has the potential to revolutionize the way we make almost everything.”7
This revolution is already changing how things are made, much as other disruptive technologies have done, opening up new ways of working and enabling new supply chain models. While President Obama may have been a little optimistic about the extent to which 3D printing will disrupt manufacturing—it is unlikely to replace all manufacturing—it is fast expanding its presence in production. In 2016, Dick Elsy, Chief Executive of the UK's High Value Manufacturing Catapult, said that 3D printing has:
“Enormous potential which, when fully realized, will transform product development, supply chains and manufacturing as we know them.”8
Indeed, it will surprise many that they are already using products that have involved 3D printing at some point in their development and manufacturing lifecycle. For instance, the aircraft maker Airbus's new wide-body A350 XWB aircraft uses 2,700 parts created in plastic using 3D printing, and the company is working with the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) to qualify titanium components produced on 3D metals printers.9 By mid-2018, the company had orders for over 882 A350XWBs from over 46 customers worldwide.10
3D printing already brings significant advantages to the different elements of the supply chain, and more will emerge. From accelerating product development from months and years to days and hours, to reducing delivery lead times to a matter of hours, 3D printing is already changing the dynamics, size, and shape of supply chains in many sectors. However, several technical and commercial hurdles must be overcome for it to make the significant contribution its advocates promise. The good news is that these barriers are recognized by those in the 3D printing ecosystem and progress is being made to overcome them. With improvements in the quality, accuracy, and precision of 3D printers, and the emergence of new commercial models, the industry is advancing like never before. Indeed, those improvements have been driving the growth in the use of 3D printing across industry sectors.
In 2012, around the time that MakerBot was overtaking the stalwart companies in the sector, industry observers, who annually map the hype surrounding emerging technologies, identified 3D printing as being at the height of expectations. The share prices in the leading 3D printing companies increased significantly, and later, in 2013, in a reported US $604 billion deal (with $403 million of that up-front in MakerBot stock),11 MakerBot was acquired by Stratasys—by then the largest and one of the oldest 3D printer makers. However, there was a growing realization that the aspirations for 3D printing far outstripped the reality and public disillusionment increased, with an impact on sales of consumer 3D printers, that is, those aimed at 3D printing in the home, and share prices of the key players. At the heart of that was the relative difficulty and inconvenience to design an item, the restricted range of materials, the time it took to make something, and the cost of materials.
While consumer 3D printing stalled, the situation was far more nuanced for industrial uses in 2013. It was long a mature technology for prototyping, ever since the Ford Motor Company first acquired a 3D printer in 1986 and ancillary technologies such as 3D scanning and 3D design software were fast becoming common tools in enterprises. Much as consumer 3D printing had been hyped, its use in manufacturing was likewise entering a period where expectations surpassed reality. Driven by increased competition and market pressures, though, this role quickly grew and by 2015 it was well on its way to entering operations models as businesses recognized its potential. As patents expired and as technologies evolved, so the costs of industrial 3D printing decreased while its performance increased. With that came a step change in the number of companies making 3D printers; from a small handful 15 years ago, to today, with 3D printing as one of the fastest-growing sectors, there are more than 100 new printer makers, with an expanded number of software developers and firms producing raw printer materials. This growth has made the technology viable in industrial settings where before it was priced out or not fit for purpose, too restricted in what it could do.
In parallel with the technological changes, supply chains themselves are now providing fertile ground for the adoption of 3D printing. Consumers increasingly seek personalized end products, driving the need for a “customization of one,” be it for mobile phone covers, sports shoes, or cars. Industrial customers want solutions to their material needs that are quicker to deliver and, likewise, better fitting their specifications. Moreover, cycle times for new designs are shrinking, as customers across industries demand new features and new applications be made available as quickly as possible. Facebook, for instance, has introduced regular updates to its websites to appear always fresh, and Apple has built a cult-like following as it releases new models of its iPhone and iPad product families every year or two. Concurrently, customers are increasingly intolerant of errors in delivery, constantly advocating for the right thing to arrive at the right time, at the right price. Put together, those factors are driving businesses to respond to changes in demand and designs, and deliver those “new and improved” products to their customers wherever they may be, right the first time. It is here that the advantages and capabilities of 3D printing come to the forefront, both to meet consumer wants and industry customer needs. With supply chains now true differentiators of business success, companies that adopt 3D printing in their supply chains will be at an advantage.
This is changing the concept of value chains—how things get made, from an idea to a finished product in the hands of the customer—and therefore the models that enable them. Traditionally, the things we make and use are produced from raw materials and components (themselves made of raw materials and components), which are brought together and assembled into the finished product. Throughout that process, those raw materials, components, and unfinished and finished items are typically stored until they are needed in the next step of the value chain (Figure I.1).
FIGURE I.1 The traditional value chain.
3D printing is changing this paradigm, allowing for things to be made with fewer raw materials, with fewer parts and closer—or even inside—the next step of the chain, eliminating the need for storage and distribution and shortening supply chains (Figure I.2).
FIGURE I.2 The 3D-printing-enabled value chain.
The trend is already accelerating, and if a company is not now considering what to do about 3D printing, they have already fallen behind their customers and competition. Those firms now considering how 3D printing will affect their supply chains, and the benefits (and challenges) that it brings, and making the necessary adjustments to their operating and supply chain models, will lead tomorrow's commerce. As Dr. Phil Reeves, Vice President at Stratasys Consulting says, “Engineers understand what 3D printing is. Now there is a need to get the commercial areas, such as supply chain, to understand how to exploit it.”12
This book aims to help with that.
THIS BOOK
A disruptive technology is one that completely changes the way in which companies work, how people interact with those companies and its products, and how they interact with themselves. The last 100 years have seen Henry Ford's model of mass production, the invention and use of computers in business and, more recently, innovations such as the Internet, the World Wide Web, and smartphones, all of which have changed how we think, work, and play. 3D printing is certainly such a disruptive technology. Most of the commentary about the technology itself—the different methods of 3D printing, the materials it uses, and the software packages called for—eventually says something about how the technology is changing the way things are made, even going as far as to predict timelines. Very few of those commentators take a hard look at how 3D printing will change how businesses work, both internally and with one another. It is time to address that missing piece in the narrative.
Increasingly senior managers are asking four questions:
What is 3D printing about?
Why should I care about it in my company?
Should I use it in my firm?
How do we go about adopting it?
This book will guide the reader through these, equipping them with the information they need to answer them for their particular company. It will do so by taking a pragmatic position, balancing the opportunities that 3D printing presents with the reality of the limitations that it continues to have. Some readers may already be aware of the technology and what it can do, while others will be approaching this without that knowledge. Still others already may be contemplating how to adopt 3D printing, certain that there would be benefits to them and their customers but unsure how best to proceed. This book has been structured so that each of them can find what they need, whether they read it from cover to cover or jump straight to the relevant chapter without the preamble. The aim is for all to take away the information they need from this book, to return to it as an aide-mémoire, scribbling notes in its margins and marking pages as needed.
This book will show how 3D printing is already part of many supply chains and that this will increasingly be the case. It starts in Chapter 1 with a look at the basics of 3D printing technology, providing the necessary background information for understanding what it is, how it works, and what it can and cannot do. However, it stops short of offering a detailed survey of current technology or an in-depth description of the capabilities, advantages, and constraints of each one; attempting to do so would be fruitless, as the pace of change in 3D printing technology quickly renders such narratives out of date. Instead, it will provide sufficient detail for readers to appreciate these parameters. If more is required, the reader is encouraged to seek other channels for the latest developments, such as the excellent blog http://3dprintingindustry.com, specialist magazines such as Additive Manufacturing and TCT, and other manufacturing technology publications. Chapter 2 describes the features and capabilities of 3D printing, what it can and can't do, and its benefits and constraints, brought to life with contemporary examples from supply chains across different sectors. These include issues of speed, materials, design and design tools, volumes, finish, costs, locations, labor, and sustainability. Chapter 3 then looks at where 3D printing technology is heading, not just in isolation but also more widely as part of the broad range of digital advances that are increasingly transforming supply chains. Chapter 4 identifies the channels that supply chains can use to access 3D printing, from acquisition and leasing of equipment to outsourcing to specialist third parties. Chapter 5 focuses on a specific case to bring this to life, using the experience of the German transport firm Deutsche Bahn to tell the story of how 3D printing can drive supply chains. Chapter 6 then breaks the supply chain into its individual elements, using the SCOR® model as a basis, analyzing how 3D printing affects each of the Plan, Source, Make, Deliver, Return, and Enable. Chapter 7 examines the current and emerging supply chain models that 3D printing enables, from producing things in-house and manufacturing at customer sites, to enabling customers to make their own things with suppliers' designs. Chapter 8 takes a closer look at the wider implications of using 3D printing that supply chains need to consider, including legal, quality management, standards, regulation and accreditation, health and safety, data management and security, commercial models, fiscal and financial impacts, and skills. Chapter 9 presents the case that, in the face of the changes that 3D printing is already bringing, businesses should actively consider how it will affect them and what they can do about it. It will look at how manufacturing, engineering, and technology companies can analyze their supply chains, and answers the questions “How do we analyze whether to adopt 3D printing in our supply chain?” and “How do we go about adopting it?”
CONSUMER VERSUS INDUSTRIAL 3D PRINTING
Much of the narrative on 3D printing concerns how it will change people's day-to-day lives of people, how we will all have 3D printers in our houses, on our desks, to replace everything from drawers of odd screws and washers to the latest, customized gadget, just like those aforementioned replicators in the Star Trek tradition. All of those uses are consumer 3D printing. Even if we have a revolution in the skills, technologies, and systems involved to make that happen, thus allowing everyday folk to design and print on demand, that future is decades away.
Instead, this book will concern itself with the short- and medium-term situation in an industrial environment, rather than examining the consumer 3D printer market, leaving the debate over that area to other authors. Throughout the book, the terms “customer” and “end user” will be used to refer to those who use the items and products that 3D printing makes in an industrial context (i.e. those that are provided by industrial businesses, from small or medium enterprises to large, global conglomerates).
3D PRINTING VERSUS ADDITIVE MANUFACTURE
When the techniques that became what we know as “3D printing” began to emerge in the 1980s, they were primarily aimed at making test objects, establishing the concept of “rapid prototyping.” It was one of a series of technologies, tools, and techniques that aimed to make prototypes far more quickly than previously achievable, and it was used by architects to make models of buildings and by automotive designers to produce mockups of new cars and auto parts. As the technologies matured and started to move toward industrial uses in manufacturing, they were labeled “additive manufacturing,” a term that described the process literally, one involving making things by adding raw materials rather than removing them from an initial volume, which itself came to be known as “reductive” or “subtractive manufacturing.” When the international standards organization ASTM International composed the first Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies in 2012, it defined additive manufacture as “a process of joining materials to make objects from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing methodologies.”13 (This was slightly amended in the 2015 nomenclature to include “formative technologies,” such as forging, rolling, and sheet metal working.) This was differentiated from 3D printing, defined therein as “the fabrication of objects through the deposition of a material using a print head, nozzle, or another printer technology.”
The expiration of some key patents and the rapid increase in the number of companies making the tools that did additive manufacturing saw these firms enter the public arena through a rapidly rising number of media articles, feeding the hype in the early twenty-first century while causing share prices of the biggest makers of those machines to rocket. However, many journalists thought the term “additive manufacturing” too obscure and preferred “3D printing” instead, as it was easier for an uninformed person to understand. Those directly involved in the 3D printing industry initially reserved the term “3D printing” for the consumer end of the market, encompassing companies like MakerBot, which made the US$1,000 machines sold in retail outlets like Staples and Office Mart. Over the last few years, as the existing technologies involved have become more widely known and as new ones have emerged, and as the machines involved have become more competitive in prices and end-to-end costs, the term “3D printing” has become more generalized, and it is usually used synonymously with “additive manufacture,” something that the ASTM standard first noted in 2012 and again in its revamped 2015 ISO/ASTM 52900:2015 version: “[3D printing is] often used in a non-technical context synonymously with additive manufacturing.”14 The issue of whether the set of technologies is called “additive manufacturing” and/or “3D printing” continues to be debated, with many good arguments on both sides; those will not be narrated in this book. At their hearts, both names refer to making things by rendering raw materials layer by layer. For the sake of simplicity and clarity, this book will use the term “3D printing” to cover both throughout.
THE CONCEPT OF THE SUPPLY CHAIN
As it is a core element of this book, it is important to clearly understand the concept of the supply chain. All too often, supply chains are interpreted as referring solely to logistics, warehousing, or purchasing. Much effort has been expended by authors, consultants and academics to define what a supply chain is. Taking the cue from them, this book will use the SCOR definition: a supply chain consists of planning, sourcing, making, delivery, and returns. This is the industry-standard model that most business leaders readily understand, and it covers all relevant elements both within and between companies. Where appropriate, this book describes the parts of the SCOR model in a little detail, but the reader is referred to the many external sources on the model for further edification, such as the American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) websites and textbooks.
Notes
1
. Q. A. Bean, K. G. Cooper, J. E. Edmunson, M. M. Johnston, and M. J. Werkheiser, “International Space Station (ISS) 3D Printer Performance and Material Characterization Methodology,” 2015,
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20150016234.pdf
.
2
. NASA, “Open for Business: 3-D Printer Creates First Object in Space on International Space Station,” November 25, 2014,
https://www.nasa.gov/content/open-for-business-3-d-printer-creates-first-object-in-space-on-international-space-station
.
3
. P. Reeves,
Additive Manufacturing & 3D Printing Medical & Healthcare: A New Industrial Perspective
(Derbyshire, UK: Econolyst, 2014).
4
. Richard D'aveni,
The 3-D Printing Revolution
(Boston: Harvard Business Review, May 2015): 40–48.
5
. D. Küpper, W. Heising, G. Corman, M. Wolfgang, C. Knizek, and V. Lukic, “Get Ready for Industrialized Additive Manufacturing,” Boston Consulting Group, April 5, 2017,
https://www.bcg.com/en-gb/publications/2017/lean-manufacturing-industry-4.0-get-ready-for-industrialized-additive-manufacturing.aspx
.
6
. D. Cohen, M. Sargeant, and K. Somers, “3D Printing Takes Shape,”
McKinsey Quarterly
, January 2014,
https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/operations/our-insights/3-d-printing-takes-shape
.
7
. Barack Obama, “Remarks by the President in the State of the Union Address (February 12, 2013),”
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/02/12/remarks-president-state-union-address
.
8
. D. Elsy, “Viewpoint: Catapult Chief Dick Elsy on the Government's Additive Strategy,” The Engineer, October 13, 2016,
https://www.theengineer.co.uk/viewpoint-catapult-chief-dick-elsy-on-the-governments-additive-strategy
.
9
. Aerospace Manufacturing, “Adding Value with 3D Printing,”
https://www.aero-mag.com/airbus-a350-xwb-a320-neo-3d-printing-aerospace-sector-stratasys-ultem-9085-fused-deposition-modelling-fdm/
.
10
. David Casey, “Farnborough Airshow 2018–Latest News and Order Updates,” Routes Online, July 20, 2018,
https://www.routesonline.com/news/29/breaking-news/279602/farnborough-airshow-2018-latest-news-and-order-updates/
.
11
. Kelly Clay, “3D Printing Company MakerBot Acquired in $604 Million Deal,” June 19, 2013,
https://www.forbes.com/sites/kellyclay/2013/06/19/3d-printing-company-makerbot-acquired-in-604-million-deal/
.
12
. Interview with the author, July 2017.
13
. “ASTM F2792-12a. Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies (Withdrawn 2015), ASTM International,” accessed June 30, 2017,
www.astm.org
.
14
. “ISO/ASTM 52900:2015. Additive Manufacturing—General Principles—Terminology,” accessed June 30, 2017,
https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso-astm:52900:ed-1:v1:en
.
CHAPTER ONEWhat Is 3D Printing?
History is replete with examples of technologies that were invented long before they were widely used. Ethanol fuels were used to power Model T Fords in 1908, many decades before they transformed the automotive sector in Brazil in the 1970s and the rest of the world thereafter. The Internet was created in the late 1960s, 30 years before it entered mainstream business and changed so much of what we do. 3D printing is another one of those technologies. For millennia, making something involved taking materials away from an initial quantity, whether it was whittling a spear from a stick, carving a marble block into the form of Hercules, or producing an intricate table leg on a lathe. Those techniques are all “reductive” because they removed material from an initial volume, and today include drilling, milling, cutting, and molding materials into the final required form latterly termed “formative” manufacturing. Then in 1984 that all changed.
It will surprise many who might be unfamiliar with 3D printing to find that it is over 30 years old. In 1980, when companies had only just started using desktop computers to help with engineering and business processes, Dr. Hideo Kodama of the Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute in Japan (Figure 1.1) developed an idea: to expose a vat of photosensitive resin to an ultraviolet (UV) beam that hardens a layer of the illuminated liquid, and then to build up the layers to form a solid object. He applied for a patent for his idea in May 1980, but the full specification wasn't completed within the filing deadline because of a lack of funding. He submitted what became a fundamental paper, titled “A Scheme for Three-Dimensional Display by Automatic Fabrication of a Three-Dimensional Model” to the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers (IEICE) in Japan, which was published in its journal Transactions on Electronics in April 1981.1
FIGURE 1.1 Dr. Hideo Kodama, Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute in Japan (Image courtesy of IEICE).
Later that decade, an engineer working for UVP Inc. in San Gabriel, California, a small firm that placed layers of veneer on tabletops and rubber tiles, thought there might be some interesting possibilities by doing things differently. Charles “Chuck” Hull—the so-called Thomas Edison of 3D printing—was their Vice President of Engineering and oversaw the process, which used a UV laser beam to turn acrylic photopolymers from liquid to a plastic-like solid. Thinking about the process, it occurred to him that the same machines that did the layering could form the resultant plastic into any shape that he liked and, by building these layers one on top of the other, he could make a three-dimensional object. On March 9, 1983, having spent some time developing the code to instruct the machine in what to do and then setting it to work, he phoned his wife and called her to his workshop. “You've got to see this!” he said excitedly.
With a response that “it had better be good,” she took the short trip to the office and there Chuck presented her with his creation: a small eye-wash cup made of black plastic, the shape chosen mostly because it was easy to make. The machinery itself wasn't particularly elegant, Chuck himself recalls:2
“[The 3D printer] was so kludged together that it looked postapocalyptic, like some of the equipment they used in that movie Waterworld.
So was born stereolithography (SLA) in 1983—a term made up from three Greek words, “stereo-” meaning solid, “litho-” meaning rock or stone, and “-graphy” meaning writing; in combination, “writing solids in stone”—the first additive manufacturing technique, whereby three-dimensional objects are made by building them layer upon layer. The equipment was too heavy and fragile to lug around, so he took a video of the process and showed it to several executives across the United States. In August 1984, Chuck submitted his patent, titled “Apparatus for Production of Three-Dimensional Objects by Stereolithography,” which was granted on March 11, 1986* and he set up the first dedicated company, 3D Systems, in Valencia, California (and later moved to Rock Hill, South Carolina), to commercialize it, subsequently raising US$ 6 million from investors.
3D Systems first commercial product was released in 1988 and car manufacturers immediately noticed; famously, the Ford Motor Company bought the third 3D printer ever made. At the time, making a prototype using conventional means, including the necessary tooling up and production, took some six to eight weeks, so having a machine that could make one in a matter of hours—albeit crudely—was a revolution. 3D Systems went on to be the leading company in the sector for the next 15 years. Several other techniques have since emerged, all based on the concept of building objects layer by layer, and the pace of development has accelerated markedly in the last few years.
Understanding what is meant by 3D printing is the first step to exploring what it can bring to a company. However, with today's plethora of different technologies and myriad variations of those, the 3D printing industry makes this a difficult task. Technologies are grouped under different headings, often using conflicting grouping schemes, further confusing the matter. Moreover, the research and development departments of universities, 3D printer makers, and raw materials producers are constantly adding to those new approaches. The result is that navigating the sea of what 3D printing is can be a stormy journey.
This chapter aims to cut through the terms and provide a measure of clarity. It provides an overview of what 3D printing is, looking at the main techniques used at present. However, it is not to be used as an authoritative reference on 3D printing technology, as its fast-changing nature would render this book out of date before it was published. Rather, it will provide the reader with sufficient detail to understand how things are made using the different types of 3D printing, knowledge that will be needed to assess what it can be used for and how to use it. It will also provide an outline of the end-to-end 3D printing process common across all techniques.
3D PRINTING TECHNIQUES
The early patents in 3D printing technologies started to expire at the turn of the twenty-first century, fueling an explosion in start-ups and global companies' R&D divisions seeking new ways to achieve similar ends: the making of three-dimensional objects using additive techniques. The pace of development has been breakneck. According to John Hornick, a partner at law firm Finnegan IP and a 3D printing specialist, 109 patents related to 3D printing were issued by the US Patent Office in 1999, covering materials, equipment, and software; by 2008, that number had increased to 186, and by 2016 to 646, with a further 1,842 patent applications submitted.3 By definition, patents require a “unique” approach, but 3D printing today predominately rests on one of seven foundational methodologies (Table 1.1):
TABLE 1.1 Summary of 3D printing techniques.
Technique
Variation
Vat Photopolymerization
Stereolithography (SLA) Digital Light Processing (DLP) Continuous Digital Light Manufacturing (cDLM) Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP)
Material Jetting
Material Jetting (MJ) Nanoparticle Jetting (NPJ) Drop on Demand (DOD)
Binder Jetting
Binder Jetting (BJ)
Material Extrusion
Fusion Deposition Modeling (FDM) Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)
Powder Bed Fusion
Multi-Jet Fusion (MJF) Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Selective Laser Melting (SLM) Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
Direct Energy Deposition
Laser Engineering Net Shape (LENS) Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing (EBAM)
Sheet Lamination
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM)
vat photopolymerization
material jetting
binder jetting
material extrusion
powder bed fusion
direct energy deposition
sheet lamination
Vat Photopolymerization
Vat photopolymerization uses UV light to selectively harden photopolymers or epoxy resin into a solid layer before then hardening the next layer. Chuck Hull's original invention took a plastic resin and created a 3D object by building it up layer upon layer across a flat plane using a low-powered UV laser to solidify the resin in the required shape. This technique (Figure 1.2), SLA, became the prevalent method for 3D printing for the first few years. A similar approach is Digital Light Polymerization, which was developed by Al Siblani and Sasha Shkolnik in the late 1990s and uses a light projector instead of a laser. The company they formed on the back of Digital Light Processing (DLP), EnvisionTEC, went on to develop DLP into another process, Continuous Digital Light Manufacturing (cDLM). That approach sees the build plate—the plate upon which a 3D-printed object is made—moved continuously with the goal of producing items much faster than DLP.
FIGURE 1.2 SLA 3D printing.
In 2013, the start-up Carbon3D demonstrated a new photopolymerization-based technique, Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP), which produces objects in a vat of resin by building the layers top-down, using a mixture of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and oxygen inhibition to harden the photopolymers at the bottom of a vat (Figure 1.3). After a layer is solidified, it is raised, and the next layer is hardened to the bottom of the previous one; when viewed, the overall effect evokes images of the liquid/solid T-1000 Terminators seen in James Cameron's movies. Early demonstrations of the technology, notably by vehicle manufacturer Ford, have found that CLIP is not only fast but also produces stronger items than other photopolymerization techniques.4
FIGURE 1.3 CLIP 3D printing.
Clearly, as a resin is needed, the range of materials that can be used is restricted to those which are plastic and plastic-based.
A major advantage of vat photopolymerization is the high degree of accuracy that the technique allows for, producing good finishes. DLP, for example, was quite successful in the jewelry sector because it is precise and produces a good surface finish. Another plus is that, compared to other techniques, vat polymerization is relatively swift, producing items in a fraction of the time of other methods; CLIP in particular can produce objects that would take other techniques several hours to complete in under an hour. Moreover, the technique can make items with large build areas (up to a square meter) and weights (up to 200 kg).
Compared to other techniques, however, vat polymerization is expensive, with resins accounting for much of that higher cost. It also has some clear restrictions: as objects are made within the liquid resin, the dimensions, weight, and center of gravity of the fabricated item must be considered if the item is not to topple during the 3D printing process, requiring structural supports to be added to the design of the object being made. These supports will then need to be removed after fabrication using cutting or filing. As with many other 3D printing techniques, vat photopolymerization process requires considerable postprocessing time to cure the materials fully, and the designs employed must consider the removal of resin as the fabricated items are made.
Material Jetting
Imagine taking a printed sheet of paper from a normal 2D inkjet printer, putting it back into the printer to place another layer of print on top of the dry ink, and repeating that hundreds if not thousands of times, building up the layers of ink to form an object. That is material jetting (Figure 1.4), whereby material is placed onto a base by a print head, either in a continuous jet or at discrete locations, the latter being termed Drop on Demand (DOD). Once placed, the material then solidifies, either by itself or by using ultraviolet (UV) light to catalyze the process.
FIGURE 1.4 Material jetting 3D printing.
This technique uses similar materials to SLA, primarily thermoset photopolymer resins (i.e. they harden when light is applied to them) with the right physical properties for jetting and curing, in terms of viscosity and the ability to form droplets. This includes the more common forms of those materials like polypropylene, making material jetting more suitable for low-cost 3D printing. New variations, such as XJet's NanoParticle Jetting (NPJ), enable metal and ceramics to be used.
Material jetting techniques can be used to create reasonably smooth-surfaced objects with complex designs. They have become popular in the manufacture of injection and casting molds in medicine and dentistry, and in the craft industries such as jewelry. The accuracy of the material jetting can be very high, particularly when DOD is used, which reduces materials wastage. Moreover, the technique allows for several materials—and therefore colors—to be included in a single fabrication run. As the technique makes things bottom-up, geometries and designs need to account for a lack of support structures, although these can be temporarily placed on the print bed and removed later.
