Sustainable Plastics E-Book

Joseph P. Greene

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 420

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

Providing guidelines for implementing sustainable practices for traditional petroleum based plastics, biobased plastics, and recycled plastics, Sustainable Plastics and the Environment explains what sustainable plastics are, why sustainable plastics are needed, which sustainable plastics to use, and how manufacturing companies can integrate them into their manufacturing operations. A vital resource for practitioners, scientists, researchers, and students, the text includes impacts of plastics including Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) and sustainability strategies related to biobased plastics and petroleum based plastics as well as end-of-life options for petroleum and biobased plastics.

Leseprobe

Sustainable Plastics

Environmental Assessments of Biobased, Biodegradable, and Recycled Plastics

Joseph P. Greene

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Courtesy of the author

Copyright © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Greene, Joseph P., 1961-     Sustainable plastics : environmental assessments of biobased, biodegradable, and recycled     plastics / Joseph P. Greene.         pages cm     Includes bibliographical references and index.     ISBN 978-1-118-10481-1 (hardback) 1. Biodegradable plastics.    2. Plastics–Recycling.    3. Plastics–Environmental aspects.   4. Green chemistry. I. Title.     TP1180.B55G7435 2014     668.4–dc23

2013051271

Contents

Preface

Dedication

Glossary

1. Introduction to Sustainability

1.1 Sustainability Definition

1.2 Green Chemistry Definitions

1.3 Green Engineering Definitions

1.4 Sustainability Definitions for Manufacturing

1.5 Life Cycle Assessment

1.6 Lean and Green Manufacturing

1.7 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

2. Environmental Issues

2.1 The Planet is Warming

2.2 Melting of Glaciers

2.3 Rising Seas

2.4 Causes of Global Warming

2.5 Ocean Pollution and Marine Debris

2.6 Chemical Pollution from Plastics

2.7 Landfill Trash

2.8 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

3. Life Cycle Information

3.1 Life Cycle Assessment for Environmental Hazards

3.2 Life Cycle Assessment Definitions

3.3 ISO 14040/14044 Life Cycle Assessment Standards

3.4 Sensitivity Analysis

3.5 Minimal Acceptable Framework for Life Cycle Assessments

3.6 Life Cycle Inventory for Petroleum-Based Plastics

3.7 Life Cycle Assessment for Biobased Poly Lactic Acid

3.8 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

4. Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers

4.1 Biobased and Biodegradable Definitions

4.2 Biobased Polymers

4.3 Petroleum-Based Compostable Polymers

4.4 Life Cycle Assessment of Compostable and Biodegradable Polymers

4.5 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

5. Biobased and Recycled Petroleum-Based Plastics

5.1 Biobased Conventional Plastics

5.2 Recycled Petroleum-Based Plastics

5.3 Oxodegradable Additives For Plastics

5.4 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

6. End-of-Life Options for Plastics

6.1 Us Epa Warm Program

6.2 Mechanical Recycling Of Plastics

6.3 Chemical Recycling

6.4 Composting

6.5 Waste to Energy

6.6 Landfill Operations

6.7 Life Cycle Assessment of End-of-Life Options

6.8 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

7. Sustainable Plastic Products

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Sustainable Plastic Packaging

7.3 Sustainable Plastic Grocery Bags

7.4 Life Cycle Assessment of Sustainable Plastic Bottles

7.5 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

8. Biobased and Biodegradation Standards for Polymeric Materials

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Biobased Standard Test Method

8.3 Industrial Compost Environment

8.4 Marine Environment

8.5 Anaerobic Digestion

8.6 Active Landfill

8.7 Home Compost

8.8 Soil Biodegradation

8.9 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

9. Sustainable Strategies for Plastics Companies

9.1 Sustainable Plastics Manufacturing and Best Practices

9.2 Manual Creation of Life Cycle Assessment Calculations

9.3 Carbon Credits and Carbon Taxes

9.4 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

10. Future of Sustainable Plastics

10.1 Sustainable Biobased Plastics Made from Renewable Sources

10.2 Sustainable Traditional Plastics Made From Renewable Sources

10.3 Growth in Biobased Plastics with Development of Durable Goods

10.4 Growth in Biobased Plastics for Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices

10.5 Summary

References

Review Questions

Review Problems

Review Exercises

Appendix A Injection Molding

A.1 Introduction

A.2 Process Control During Injection Molding

A.3 Molds for Injection Molding

A.4 Molding Defects

References

Appendix B Extrusion

B.1 Introduction

B.2 Extrusion Processing

B.3 Extrusion Process Control

B.4 Extrusion Defects

References

Appendix C Blow Molding

C.1 Extrusion Blow Molding

C.2 Injection Stretch Blow Molding

References

Appendix D Industrial Compost Biodegradation Testing

D.1 Methodology

D.2 Materials

D.3 Carbon Content Testing Results

D.4 Biodegradation Results

D.5 Phytotoxicity Testing

D.6 Regulated Heavy Metal Testing

References

Appendix E Marine Biodegradation Testing

E.1 Methodology

E.2 Materials

E.3 Experimental Setup

E.4 Marine Biodegradation Results

Appendix F Answers to Selected Questions at the End of Each Chapter

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 2.5

Table 2.6

Table 2.7

Table 2.8

Table 2.9

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 4.9

Table 4.10

Table 4.11

Table 4.12

Table 4.13

Table 4.14

Table 4.15

Table 4.16

Table 4.17

Table 4.18

Chapter 5

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 5.3

Table 5.4

Table 5.5

Table 5.6

Table 5.7

Chapter 6

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 6.3

Chapter 7

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Table 7.3

Table 7.4

Table 7.5

Table 7.6

Table 7.7

Table 7.8

Table 7.9

Table 7.10

Table 7.11

Table 7.12

Table 7.13

Table 7.14

Table 7.15

Table 7.16

Chapter 8

Table 8.1

Table 8.2

Table 8.3

Table 8.4

Table 8.5

Table 8.6

Table 8.7

Table 8.8

Chapter 9

Table 9.1

Chapter 10

Table 10.1

Table 10.2

Table 10.3

Table 10.4

Table 10.5

Appendix A

Table A.1

Table A.2

Table A.3

Table A.4

Table A.5

Table A.6

Appendix B

Table B.1

Table B.2

Appendix C

Table C.1

Appendix D

Table D.1

Table D.2

Appendix E

Table E.1

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1

Sustainability definition.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1

Graphic of planet warming with a blanket of greenhouse gases. Artwork courtesy of Ms. Vanessa Vaquera of Chico, CA.

Figure 2.2

Average worldwide temperature anomaly of land and sea versus a 20-year average.

Figure 2.3

Average worldwide temperature of land and sea.

Figure 2.4

Melting glaciers illustration. Artwork courtesy of Ms. Vanessa Vaquera of Chico, CA.

Figure 2.5

Rising sea waters example causing flooding of a home. Artwork courtesy of Ms. Vanessa Vaquera of Chico, CA.

Figure 2.6

Sources of CO

2

eq emissions for the US per market segment.

Figure 2.7

Worldwide gyres. Artwork courtesy of Ms. Vanessa Vaquera of Chico, CA.

Figure 2.8

North Pacific gyre. Artwork courtesy of Ms. Vanessa Vaquera of Chico, CA.

Figure 2.9

Surfer character riding a simulated wave of plastic debris in the ocean. Artwork courtesy of Ms. Vanessa Vaquera of Chico, CA.

Figure 2.10

Plastic debris in the water column on the oceans. Artwork courtesy of Ms. Vanessa Vaquera of Chico, CA.

Figure 2.11

Debris found along a beach on a Northern California freshwater lake.

Figure 2.12

Cross-sectional view of cap-and-seal landfill.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1

Life cycle assessment four-step definition.

Figure 3.2

Life cycle inventory process for “cradle-to-gate” analysis.

Figure 3.3

Life cycle inventory process for “cradle-to-grave” analysis.

Figure 3.4

“Cradle-to-gate” process of producing PET plastic pellet.

Figure 3.5

“Cradle-to-gate” process of producing Ingeo

®

PLA plastic pellet.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1

Chemistry of cellulose.

Figure 4.2

Structures of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB), poly(4-hydroxybutyrate) (P4HB) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV).

Figure 4.3

Blow molded bottles of P(3HB-4HB) on a Rocheleau R4 extrusion blow molding machine.

Figure 4.4

Melt Flow Index (MFI) for Tianjin P(3HB-4HB).

Figure 4.5

Melt Flow Index (MFI) for Mirel P(3HB-4HB).

Figure 4.6

Molecular structure of PLA.

Figure 4.7

L-Lactic acid and D-lactic acid molecular structure.

Figure 4.8

Molecular structures of amylose and amylopectin.

Figure 4.9

Molecular structure of ecoflex

®

.

Figure 4.10

Molecular structure of polycaprolactone.

Figure 4.11

Molecular structure of poly(butylene succinate).

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1

Molecular structures of ethanol, ethane, and polyethylene.

Figure 5.2

Molecular structures of ethanol, butylene, and polypropylene.

Figure 5.3

Molecular structures of terephthalic acid, mono-ethylene glycol, and PET.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1

Process flow of inputs and outputs for plastic bag manufacturing, use, and end-of-life.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1

Experimental setup for laboratory environment.

Figure 8.2

Experimental setup for laboratory environment of marine biodegradation test.

Figure 8.3

Experimental setup for laboratory environment for anaerobic digester test per ASTM standards.

Figure 8.4

Experimental setup for laboratory environment for anaerobic digester test per ISO standards.

Figure 8.5

Experimental setup for laboratory environment for active landfill test.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1

LCA tool input sheet.

Figure 9.2

LCA output from LCA tool.

Figure 9.3

Carbon footprint example of a typical plastic manufacturing operation.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1

Corn utilization in the United States for 2009.

Appendix A

Figure A.1

Injection molding process.

Figure A.2

Process control variables for injection molding.

Figure A.3

Thermal transitions of plastics.

Figure A.4

Pressure distribution during injection molding process (http://www.matweb.com/).

Figure A.5

Cycle time during injection molding process.

Figure A.6

Typical mold components for injection molding (not to scale).

Figure A.7

Plastic fountain flow inside cavity of injection molds.

Figure A.8

Standard Herringbone runner design.

Figure A.9

“H” branching runner design.

Figure A.10

Radial pattern runner design.

Figure A.11

Standard gate design.

Appendix B

Figure B.1

Extrusion process.

Figure B.2

Single-flighted extruder screw.

Figure B.3

Twin-screw extrusion.

Figure B.4

Blown film extrusion system.

Figure B.5

Melt index test for plastics.

Figure B.6

Profile extrusion for plastics.

Figure B.7

Process control variables for extrusion.

Appendix C

Figure C.1

Extrusion blow molding process.

Figure C.2

Rocheleau R4 extrusion blow molding machine.

Figure C.3

PHA bottles.

Figure C.4

Injection blow molding process.

Appendix D

Figure D.1

CO

2

measurement with PASCO IR detector.

Figure D.2

Experimental setup for laboratory environment.

Figure D.3

CO

2

ppm measurements of microcellulose sample for 180 days.

Figure D.4

Carbon conversion percentages for samples under industrial composting conditions per ASTM D5338 standards.

Appendix E

Figure E.1

Experimental setup for laboratory experiment.

Figure E.2

CO

2

measurement with PASCO IR detector.

Figure E.3

Marine biodegradation results for PHA and PLA after 180 days.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Preface

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Preface

Plastics are one of the greatest inventions of the twentieth century. Plastics enable products to be made that meet the needs of the public for plastic applications. Plastics make life easier for all of us. We can purchase food, drink, and consumables in safe, lightweight, and clean containers and packaging made from plastic. We can drive around or be transported in a vehicle that is comfortable, pleasing to the eye, and safe thanks in part to plastics. We can communicate with small electronic devices that keep us connected with one another and also help entertain us with real and fantasy worlds.

Plastics are lightweight and easily thrown away with other heavier debris. Plastics can be recycled and reused many times. However, the lightweight benefits of plastics can cause them to be airborne and difficult for waste management companies to collect and dispose them off in landfills or other disposal environments. The lightweight plastics can occupy large volumes of landfills and can be a litter problem for land and sea. Floating plastics debris might be the final legacy of our disposal-society generation. Through education and training we can help our younger people become the sustainable generation. We can educate them in the ways of producing products and services with reduced environmental impacts. Products and services can be created with minimal waste, greenhouse gases, and pollution. This book can help provide information on creating lightweight and sustainable plastic products for our sustainable world.

Bioplastics today can be made from corn, soy, sugarcane, potato, or other renewable material source. Petroleum plastics can also be sustainable if they are made from renewable or recycled material sources. The manufacturing process also can also be sustainable. Plastics have the opportunity to define sustainable materials that are made from renewable or recycled materials sources, made with lower energy, produce less pollution, and have a low carbon footprint. Sustainable plastic materials also are recycled or composted at the end of the product service life. This book will define sustainability and sustainable materials and provide practical examples of sustainable plastics and provide examples of life cycle assessments (LCA) for these materials. This book can be used for education and training for plastics professionals and students who are interested in creating sustainable products.

Sustainable plastics can include biobased, biodegradable, and recycled plastics. LCAs will be used to provide a scientific explanation of sustainable plastics. The content of the book includes definitions of sustainability and sustainable materials, evaluations of the environmental concerns for industry, definitions of life cycle assessments, explanations of biobased and recycled plastics, and examples of sustainable plastics as defined by LCAs.

The author would like to thank Ms. Vanessa Vaquera for providing the artwork in the book.

Dedication

The author would like to dedicate this book to Dr. James O. Wilkes, Chemical Engineering Department, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.

Glossary

ACC

American Chemistry Council

AHA

Alpha hydroxyl acid

AMS

Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (ASTM D6686)