Sustainable Water Systems E-Book

Miklas Scholz

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 826

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025

Beschreibung

A practice-oriented analysis of water treatment systems using low-cost, low-maintenance technologies and sustainable water resources

In Sustainable Water Systems, expert water resources researcher Miklas Scholz delivers a practice-oriented resource that comprehensively covers the design, operation, and maintenance of traditional and novel wetland systems used in water resource management. The book offers a performance analysis of existing infrastructure in constructed wetlands, soil infiltration systems, ditches, dry ponds, and silt traps in both developed and developing countries.

Sustainable Water Systems addresses economic and environmental challenges, including flood retention and its incorporation into sustainable water supply systems. Readers will also find:

• A thorough introduction to low-cost alternatives to resource-intensive water processing plants
• Comprehensive explorations of effective water technologies that work well in less developed and rural regions without access to reliable water treatment
• Modelling of wetland systems and how to design them for optimal performance
• Practical discussions of industrial wastewater treatment and modelling
• Complete treatments of sustainable flood retention basins, including integrated constructed wetlands

Perfect for researchers, engineers, and other professionals working in the field of water resource management, Sustainable Water Systems will also benefit anyone interested in water supply engineering and wastewater treatment.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication

Foreword

Preface

About the Author

Acknowledgements

1 Natural Wetland Systems

1.1 Hydraulics, Water Quality and Vegetation Characteristics of Ditches

1.2 Planted Soil Infiltration Systems for Treatment of Log Yard Runoff

1.3 Anthropogenic Land Use Change Impacts on Nutrient Concentrations in Waterbodies

1.4 Peatland Response to Climate Change and Water Level Management

References

2 Urban Water and Sustainable Drainage Systems

2.1 Full Silt Traps Discharging into Watercourses

2.2 Filter Media, Plant Communities and Microbiology within Constructed Wetlands

2.3 Vertical Subsurface Flow‐Constructed Wetlands with Different Substrates

2.4 Treatment of Gully Pot Effluent with Constructed Wetlands

2.5 Wetland and Dry Pond System

2.6 Permeable Pavement and Ground Source Heating Pump Systems

2.7 Permeable Pavement and Photocatalytic Titanium Dioxide Oxidation System

2.8 Refurbishment and Improvement of Screen Systems for Flood Control and Water Protection

References

3 Sustainable Flood Retention Basins including Integrated Constructed Wetlands

3.1 Sustainable Flood Retention Basin Management

3.2 Nutrient Release from Integrated Constructed Wetland Sediment

3.3 Groundwater Quality Impacts from an Integrated Constructed Wetland

References

4 Water and Wastewater Treatment Technology and Modelling

4.1 Biological Activated Carbon Beds

4.2 Constructed Wetlands Treating Sewage

4.3 Neural Network Simulation of the Chemical Oxygen Demand Reduction

References

5 Industrial Wastewater Treatment and Modelling

5.1 Membrane Bioreactors and Constructed Wetlands Treating Rendering Wastewater

5.2 Benzene Removal with Constructed Treatment Wetlands

5.3 Diesel Oil Spillage Removal Using Agricultural Waste Products

5.4 Kohonen Self‐Organising Map to Predict Biochemical Oxygen Demand

References

6 Sludge Dewatering Tests

6.1 Dewaterability Assessment Including the Capillary Suction Time Test

6.2 Improved Design and Precision of the Capillary Suction Time Testing Device

6.3 Sludge Floc Size and Water Composition Impact on Dewaterability

References

7 Water Availability and Public Health

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Methodology

7.3 Results and Discussion

7.4 Conclusions

Appendix The Questionnaire

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Classification of 160 small watercourses in the River Eider Valle...

Table 1.2 Water quality comparison.

Table 1.3 Vegetation characteristics

a

.

Table 1.4 Water quality parameters for the inflow and outflow of experiment...

Table 1.5 Phosphorus export coefficients values for several land usages.

Table 1.6 Non‐point sources (NPS) contribution at different slopes for vari...

Table 1.7 Summary of investigations about impacts of land use (LU) changes ...

Table 1.8 Summary of contradictory results about land use (LU) and surface ...

Table 1.9 List of the regional climate models (RCM), which have been used f...

Table 1.10 Results of the Sen’s slope estimator representing the trend of d...

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Packing order of vertical‐flow filter buckets simulating wetlands...

Table 2.2 Comparison of maximum capital costs (£ sterling) between all wetl...

Table 2.3 General environmental variables and inflow Westbrook water qualit...

Table 2.4 Relative change (%)

a

of variables for filters 1–6.

Table 2.5 Reed bed water analysis of filter 6 (week 8; 24/05/00) with the V...

Table 2.6 Shannon–Weaver Diversity Index (

H

) for protozoa, algae and macro‐...

Table 2.7 Selected physical characteristics of the materials tested for pho...

Table 2.8 Statistics (mean ± standard deviation) based on three triplicate ...

Table 2.9 One‐way analysis of variance for soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP...

Table 2.10 Relationships between influent and effluent soluble reactive pho...

Table 2.11 Relationships between effluent and influent total phosphorus (TP...

Table 2.12 Mean removal rate constant

k

(m d

−1

) values for soluble re...

Table 2.13 Mean removal rate constant

k

(m d

−1

) values for total phos...

Table 2.14 Systematic and stratified experimental set‐up of filter content ...

Table 2.15 Packing order of vertical‐flow filters simulating wetlands.

Table 2.16 Systematic regime for manually controlled filling and emptying (...

Table 2.17 Primary treated gully pot effluent: Water quality variables afte...

Table 2.18 Relative reduction (%) of outflow variables (9 September 2002–28...

Table 2.19 Metal concentrations within

Phragmites australis

(Cav.) Trin. Ex...

Table 2.20 Comparison of untreated and treated gully pot water with the cor...

Table 2.21 Details of site.

Table 2.22 Water quality of attenuation wetland (main sampling points MP, F...

Table 2.23 Schematic layout of the experimental rigs.

Table 2.24 Composition of layers within the experimental permeable pavement...

Table 2.25 Summary statistics of the water quality for the inflow (IN) with...

Table 2.26 Summary statistics of the outflow water quality for the rig loca...

Table 2.27 Summary statistics of the outflow water quality for the rig loca...

Table 2.28 Mean bacteria colony‐forming counts for the inside and outside b...

Table 2.29 Water quality characteristics (n = 60) of the treated storm wate...

Table 2.30 Inactivation rate constant

k

(/minute) for total Coliforms,

Esch

...

Table 2.31 Summary statistics of measured and estimated variables.

Table 2.32 Example of a stakeholder assessment as a basis for the screen sy...

Table 2.33 Overview of quality parameters (after filtering) of representati...

Table 2.34 Overview of the original and future screen system composition. N...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Classification variables used for the assessment of sustainable f...

Table 3.2 Summary statistics of the Scottish original quality‐controlled va...

Table 3.3 Summary of ordinary kriging characteristics for the variables

Eng

...

Table 3.4 Summary of Disjunctive Kriging Characteristics for the Variables

Table 3.5 Water quality variables for mesocosms 1 and 2 (February 2009–Octo...

Table 3.6 Water quality variables for mesocosms 3 and 5 (May 2009–October 2...

Table 3.7 Water quality variables for mesocosms 4 and 5 (May 2009–October 2...

Table 3.8 Regressions estimates of chemical oxygen demand (COD) on water qu...

Table 3.9 Regressions estimates of ammonia‐nitrogen on water quality parame...

Table 3.10 Regressions estimates of molybdate reactive phosphorus on water ...

Table 3.11 Multiple regressions of chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia‐ni...

Table 3.12 Dimensions of the integrated constructed wetland (ICW) cells at ...

Table 3.13 Characteristics of piezometers within the integrated constructed...

Table 3.14 Contaminant concentrations in groundwater recorded near the inte...

Table 3.15 Correlation matrix.

Table 3.16 Rotated component matrix.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Purification of water by biological activated carbon (BAC): syste...

Table 4.2 Biological activated carbon (BAC) inflow water: own estimations o...

Table 4.3 Reduction of dissolved oxygen (DO) (mg dm

−3

) and pH (influe...

Table 4.4 Correlation between chemical oxygen demand (COD) and microorganis...

Table 4.5 Distribution of points (total of 10 per organism) for genera of p...

Table 4.6 Comparison of computer spreadsheet models to estimate removal eff...

Table 4.7 Summary information for Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust representativ...

Table 4.8 Summary performance data for Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust represen...

Table 4.9 Seasonal comparison of the nutrient removal efficiencies for repr...

Table 4.10 Annual nutrient concentrations (mean ± standard deviation) for W...

Table 4.11 Parameters used as input variables for the neural network model....

Table 4.12 Principal component analysis for the input variables.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Dissolved air flotation outflow water quality (21 August 2002–20 ...

Table 5.2 Water quality (21 August 2002–20 November 2003) of the ultrafiltr...

Table 5.3 Water quality (16 December 2002–20 November 2003) of the top wate...

Table 5.4 Mean nutrient concentrations for sediment and plant parts of

Typh

...

Table 5.5 Water quality (16 December 2002–20 November 2003) of the first an...

Table 5.6 Correlation analysis.

Table 5.7 Packing order of the experimental constructed wetland set‐up for ...

Table 5.8 Mean benzene effluent concentrations (mg L

−1

) for the indoo...

Table 5.9 Mean effluent concentrations for the (a) indoor rig; and (b) outd...

Table 5.10 List of levels per variable.

Table 5.11 Results from the orthogonal experiments.

Table 5.12 Range analysis of oil sorption capacity and oil removal rate for...

Table 5.13 Range analysis of oil sorption capacity and oil removal rate for...

Table 5.14 Range analysis of oil sorption capacity and oil removal rate for...

Table 5.15 Water quality of the inflow. These variables were used for the K...

Table 5.16 The structure of the trained Kohonen self‐organising map models ...

Table 5.17 Summary statistics of the three Kohonen self‐organising map mode...

Table 5.18 Summary statistics of the validation for the Kohonen self‐organi...

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Summary of paper properties (data volunteered by the manufacturer...

Table 6.2 Summary of paper costs (data volunteered by the manufacturer and/...

Table 6.3 Summary of capillary suction time test results for primary sludge...

Table 6.4 Summary of capillary suction time test results for surplus activa...

Table 6.5 Summary of capillary suction time test results for synthetic slud...

Table 6.6 Summary of capillary suction time test results for stirred primar...

Table 6.7 Decision support matrix for selecting an alternative paper for Wh...

Table 6.8 Distances between electrodes and the funnel centre.

Table 6.9 Capillary suction time (CST) values for the circular funnel with ...

Table 6.10 Capillary suction time (CST) values for the rectangular funnel w...

Table 6.11 Capillary suction time (CST) values for the circular funnel with...

Table 6.12 Capillary suction time (CST) values for the rectangular funnel w...

Table 6.13 The mean volume of the leakage after one minute with and without...

Table 6.14 Composition of the synthetic domestic wastewater sample.

Table 6.15 Comparison of coefficients of correlation for different stirrers...

Table 6.16 Comparison of coefficients of correlation for different stirrers...

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Discussion of water‐related disease classes.

Table 7.2 Average daily water‐use per person in litre.

Table 7.3 Water‐related diseases suffered by the villagers.

Table 7.4 Distance covered in fetching water.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 (a) River eider valley; (b) ditches; (c) Ditch 22; and (d) Ditch ...

Figure 1.2 Ditch 23: (a) profile of Ditch 23 at different cross‐sections and...

Figure 1.3 Discharges for Ditch 23: (a) preceding; and (b) following vegetat...

Figure 1.4 Tracers: (a) non‐excavated Ditch 22 on 14 August 2003; (b) floode...

Figure 1.5 Ditch 24: Comparison of standard water quality variables and nitr...

Figure 1.6 Annual publication rates for the keywords ‘land use change’ and ‘...

Figure 1.7 Temporal land use map changes in central Portugal in (a) 1958; (b...

Figure 1.8 Impacts of land use on the natural drainage cycle (British Precas...

Figure 1.9 Total phosphorus content in soil around (less than 20 m) a river ...

Figure 1.10 Nitrate‐nitrogen (nitrate‐N) responses of three different catchm...

Figure 1.11 Schematic procedure for the total maximum daily load. A simple y...

Figure 1.12 Monthly average of simulated climate variables: (a) radiation; (...

Figure 1.13 Simulated climate variable means: (a) radiation; (b) temperature...

Figure 1.14 Seasonal averages for (a) managed respiration; (b) unmanaged res...

Figure 1.15 (a) Respiration means; (b) Sphagnum spp. coverage means; (c) gro...

Figure 1.16 The responses of (a) respiration; (b) gross primary production (...

Figure 1.17 Changes in coverage of plant functional types including (a)

Spha

...

Figure 1.18 Average of respiration, net ecosystem exchange (NEE) and gross p...

Figure 1.19 Magnitude of carbon dioxide sink function of peatland mesocosms ...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Outlet structure of the silt trap and the Braid Burn (urban strea...

Figure 2.2 Diagram of the system and main sampling points (SP). Simple flow ...

Figure 2.3 Distribution of suspended solids (SS) before, at and after the ou...

Figure 2.4 Sediment size distributions (or grading curves) within different ...

Figure 2.5 Metal concentrations within the different sediment layers of the ...

Figure 2.6 Metal concentrations within the sediment at different sampling lo...

Figure 2.7 Relative % reduction of dissolved copper (mg dm

−3

) for the ...

Figure 2.8 Relative % reduction of dissolved lead (mg dm

−3

) for the ou...

Figure 2.9 Inflow biochemical oxygen demand, BOD (mg dm

−3

), in compari...

Figure 2.10 Inflow suspended solids, SS (mg dm

−3

), in comparison to bo...

Figure 2.11 Inflow numbers (average of three replicates) of total heterotrop...

Figure 2.12 Inflow numbers (average of three replicates) of total coliforms,...

Figure 2.13 Indoor filter beds packed with either shale, gravel, ironstone o...

Figure 2.14 Relationship between the equilibrium solution of phosphorus (mg ...

Figure 2.15 Relationship between the equilibrium solution of phosphorus (mg ...

Figure 2.16 Soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) removal rates at different hyd...

Figure 2.17 Total phosphorus (TP) removal rates at different hydraulic reten...

Figure 2.18 Effluent pH of filter beds filled with ironstone at different hy...

Figure 2.19 Constructed treatment wetland rig (The King’s Buildings campus, ...

Figure 2.20 Nickel (mg dm

−3

) and conductivity (cond (μS)) concentratio...

Figure 2.21 Five‐day ATU biochemical oxygen demand (BOD (mg dm

−3

)), an...

Figure 2.22 Approximate drawing of case study site showing roof areas, pipew...

Figure 2.23 (a) Private ornamental attenuation wetland and (b) dry pond cons...

Figure 2.24 Attenuation Wetland: spatial distribution of the mean standard d...

Figure 2.25 Attenuation Wetland: temporal distribution, morning and afternoo...

Figure 2.26 Attenuation Wetland: temporal distribution (24 hours) for pH on ...

Figure 2.27 Daily water levels of the wet pond (WP; main sampling point; WP ...

Figure 2.28 Composition of the rig located outdoors. Heat exchangers located...

Figure 2.29 Ammonia‐nitrogen distribution for the permeable pavement bins 1–...

Figure 2.30 Nitrate‐nitrogen distribution for the permeable pavement bins 1–...

Figure 2.31 Ortho‐phosphate‐phosphorus distribution for the permeable paveme...

Figure 2.32 Ammonia‐nitrogen distribution for the permeable pavement systems...

Figure 2.33 Nitrate‐nitrogen distribution for the permeable pavement systems...

Figure 2.34 Ortho‐phosphate‐phosphorus distribution for the permeable paveme...

Figure 2.35 Carbon dioxide distribution within the permeable pavement system...

Figure 2.36 Carbon dioxide distribution within the permeable pavement system...

Figure 2.37 The photocatalytic process with ultraviolet (UV) light and titan...

Figure 2.38 Schematic of the permeable pavement system reactor. The layers w...

Figure 2.39 Schematic of the photocatalytic experimental apparatus for the p...

Figure 2.40 Survival of total Coliforms (CFU/100 mL) in the presence of ultr...

Figure 2.41 Survival of

Escherichia coli

(CFU/100 mL) in the presence of ult...

Figure 2.42 Survival of faecal Streptococci (CFU/100 mL) in the presence of ...

Figure 2.43 Schematic of an integrated permeable pavement system for initial...

Figure 2.44 Example of flooding of streets, paths and property due to blocka...

Figure 2.45 Example of a one‐dimensional screen without sediment trap after ...

Figure 2.46 Representative example: screen number 28 (a) before and (b) afte...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Study area, administrative boundaries and the 371 identified sust...

Figure 3.2 Map examples showing the application of ordinary kriging for (a)

Figure 3.3 Map examples showing the application of disjunctive kriging for (...

Figure 3.4 Glenfarg Reservoir (near to Rossie Ochill, County of Perth and Ki...

Figure 3.5 Hare Myre (2.5 km South‐east of Blairgowrie, County of Perth and ...

Figure 3.6 Sketch of the integrated constructed wetland site 7 layout. The d...

Figure 3.7 Sketch of the integrated constructed wetland site 11 layout. The ...

Figure 3.8 Schematic diagram of the integrated constructed wetland (ICW) mes...

Figure 3.9 The concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD) for mesocosm 2...

Figure 3.10 The concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD) for mesocosms...

Figure 3.11 Nitrogen transformations in the water column and sediment layers...

Figure 3.12 The concentrations of ammonia‐nitrogen for mesocosm 2. Ammonia‐n...

Figure 3.13 The concentrations of ammonia‐nitrogen for mesocosms 3 (I) and 4...

Figure 3.14 The concentrations of nitrate‐nitrogen for mesocosm 2. Nitrate‐n...

Figure 3.15 The concentrations of nitrate‐nitrogen for mesocosms 3 (I) and 4...

Figure 3.16 The concentrations of molybdate reactive phosphorus (MRP) for me...

Figure 3.17 The concentrations of molybdate reactive phosphorus (MRP) for me...

Figure 3.18 Comparison of contaminant removal efficiencies of mesocosms 3 (

P

...

Figure 3.19 Sketch of the integrated constructed wetland (ICW) located at Gl...

Figure 3.20 (a–f) Groundwater table elevation for monitoring wells within th...

Figure 3.21 (a–g) Contaminant concentrations in groundwater in relation to c...

Figure 3.22 Correlation between chloride and nitrate‐nitrogen in eight monit...

Figure 3.23 Component plot in rotated space. Graph showing the components 1 ...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Simplified process flow chart of the biological activated carbon ...

Figure 4.2 Average weekly chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency (e...

Figure 4.3 Location map of representative Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust constr...

Figure 4.4 Schematic diagram of the Caerlaverock constructed wetland. FWS, f...

Figure 4.5 Schematic diagram of the Castle Espie constructed wetland. FWS, f...

Figure 4.6 Schematic diagram of the Llanelli constructed wetland. FWS, free ...

Figure 4.7 Schematic diagram of the Millennium constructed wetland. FWS, fre...

Figure 4.8 Schematic diagram of the Welney constructed wetland. FWS, free wa...

Figure 4.9 Annual mean ortho‐phosphate‐phosphorus removal efficiencies for t...

Figure 4.10 Seasonal mean ammonia‐nitrogen removal efficiencies for the Caer...

Figure 4.11 Topology of the feed forward neural network model. Diagram showi...

Figure 4.12 Estimated and experimental Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) reductio...

Figure 4.13 Parity plot for the estimated and experimental Chemical Oxygen D...

Figure 4.14 Estimated and experimental Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) reductio...

Figure 4.15 Parity plot for the estimated and experimental chemical oxygen d...

Figure 4.16 Estimated and experimental chemical oxygen demand (COD) reductio...

Figure 4.17 Parity plot for the estimated and experimental chemical oxygen d...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Overview of the sequence of the predominant at the industrial ren...

Figure 5.2 Overview of the layers of the flooded (top layer) constructed wet...

Figure 5.3 Photographs showing (a) the entire constructed wetland; and (b) t...

Figure 5.4 Comparison of the chemical oxygen demand distributions (four outl...

Figure 5.5 Comparison of the ammonia distributions (two outliers are not sho...

Figure 5.6 Comparison of the phosphate distributions (two outliers are not s...

Figure 5.7 Comparison of the monthly mean temperatures for the inside and ou...

Figure 5.8 Comparison of benzene removal for wetlands with and without bioma...

Figure 5.9 Comparison of the saturated sorption capacities for pure oil and ...

Figure 5.10 Floating rate as a function of time for the three agricultural w...

Figure 5.11 Effect of different variables and levels on oil removal rate. Th...

Figure 5.12 Effect of different variables and levels on oil sorption capacit...

Figure 5.13 Sketch of the Kohonen self‐organising map model. Illustration of...

Figure 5.14 Prediction of missing components of the input vector using the K...

Figure 5.15 Component planes for the (a) Kohonen self‐organising map (KSOM) ...

Figure 5.16 Comparison of the observed and predicted five days @ 20°C bioche...

Figure 5.17 The performance of the Kohonen self‐organising map (KSOM) model ...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Standard apparatus (Model 304B CST) to measure the capillary suct...

Figure 6.2 Revised apparatus (Model 319 Multi‐purpose CST) to measure multip...

Figure 6.3 Use of the Model 319 Multi‐purpose CST for primary sludge (28 day...

Figure 6.4 Graduated pipette, which was fixed to the top of the circular fun...

Figure 6.5 Rheograms for different shear rates (1/s) between (a) 0.01–0.1, (...

Figure 6.6 Estimate of the specific resistance to filtration based on the ca...

Figure 6.7 (a) Capillary suction time (CST); (b) median floc size and (c) st...

Figure 6.8 (a) Capillary suction time (CST); (b) median floc size and (c) st...

Figure 6.9 The percentage of similar particle size (

q

) and the accumulative ...

Figure 6.10 The percentage of similar particle size (

q

) and the accumulative...

Figure 6.11 The percentage of similar particle size (

q

) and the accumulative...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Map showing the study area near Jalingo (grid lines are 1° apart ...

Figure 7.2 A traditional residence typical for Eastern Nigeria. A photograph...

Guide

Cover Page

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication

Foreword

Preface

About the Author

Acknowledgements

Begin Reading

Index

Wiley End User License Agreement

Pages

iii

iv

v

xv

xvi

xvii

xviii

xix

xx

xxi

xxiii

xxv

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

290

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

310

311

312

313

314

315

316

317

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

349

350

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

358

359

360

361

363

364

365

366

367

368

Sustainable Water Systems

Miklas Scholz

University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South AfricaDistrict of Herzogtum Lauenburg, Ratzeburg, GermanyKunststoff‐Technik Adams, Elsfleth, GermanyNexus by Sweden, Västerås, Sweden

This edition first published 2026© 2026 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial intelligence technologies or similar technologies. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Miklas Scholz to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered Office(s)John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, New Era House, 8 Oldlands Way, Bognor Regis, West Sussex, PO22 9NQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

The manufacturer’s authorized representative according to the EU General Product Safety Regulation is Wiley‐VCH GmbH, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany, e‐mail: [email protected].

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:

Hardback ISBN: 9781394294121

Cover Design: WileyCover Images: © Miklas Scholz, © Lasse Johansson/Shutterstock

Dedication

I dedicate this book to my wider family and friends, who supported me during my studies and career.

Special thanks go to my partner Ramilya Galimova; children Philippa Scholz, Jolena Scholz, Felix Hedmark, and Jamie Hedmark; twin sister Ricarda Lorey; and mother Gudrun Spieshöfer.

Foreword

Our first encounter: I first met Miklas Scholz during the inaugural meeting of WETPOL (International Symposium on Wetland Pollutant Dynamics and Control) held at Ghent University, Belgium, in 2005. A few years later, we started collaborating, engaging in various fields of applied wetland science, including those aspects exploring how wetlands function and their supporting sciences. The importance of ‘landscape‐fit’ and aesthetics with regard to accommodating wetland infrastructure was integral. With a career based in applied biology and the evolutionary sciences, I demonstrated to him the relevance and associated benefits to be gained from the use of ‘integrating’ constructed wetlands into associated lands. When particular attention and focus were given to sustainable ecological considerations, particular additional benefits accrued, including improved efficacy of treatment and many additional elements not usually sought in water treatment generally. These had special relevance in Ireland with its relatively high precipitation and where I work and live. This publication is now Miklas’s 11th book on water management and demonstrates his diverse understanding of the subject. I am most pleased to have been an inspiring mentor!

My career as a wetland scientist: When I first met Miklas, I was working for the Irish Government’s Department of Environment, Culture and Local Government. Together with colleagues, my son Caolan, daughter Aila and various graduates, Miklas and I undertook a range of applied research focused on ‘blue green’ polluted water treatment solutions. After official retirement, I worked as Senior Resident Engineer for Waterford City and County Council and currently as a Senior Scientist for VESI Environmental Limited. We were partners, along with others, in the WATER JPI project ‘RainSolutions’, which Miklas headed. We have continued to engage, exchanging ideas and insights into how water from a diversity of sources can be optimally managed, including those located in rural, industrial and urban environments.

Today, sustainable water systems and their associated management needs are ever more important: This new textbook by Miklas supports, inspires and provides the evidence needed through applied research and associated case studies. It includes cutting‐edge insights across various geographical regions of the world and water types/sources and includes innovative associated technologies. It delivers a wide‐ranging overview and associated insights into current water treatment in a way that is most readable. Through its particular focus on wetland systems, it advances the central importance and relevance of all wetland ecosystems, both natural and constructed. His approach promotes the role of wetlands and their relevance towards achieving a more deserving and central worldwide role through his demonstration of a suite of applications, innovations and benefits. Importantly, this book reflects their increasing inter‐dependable approach and importance in the pursuit of reliable and sustainable ‘blue green’ infrastructures across the planet, including those in agriculture, urban and industrial environments.

Special focus is given to how the integration of multi‐functional values might be achieved through land‐based water treatments with respect to the enhancement of landscapes: obtaining many social, economic and other wide‐ranging environmental benefits – beyond those of water treatment alone: The reader can expect to gain enhanced and necessary confidence from the proposed sustainable water systems presented, such as the constructed wetlands covered in this book. For this purpose, the well‐presented integrated constructed wetland (ICW) concept that emerged and has continued to evolve in Ireland and elsewhere, over the past nearly 40 years, that has increasingly become ‘best practice’ in many countries across the world, is presented (examples in Chapters 1, 2 and 4). Furthermore, this integrated approach is increasingly becoming an integral part of the overall ‘sustainable flood retention basin concept’ addressing the needs of multi‐stakeholders for complex water resources challenges (Chapter 3).

Dr Rory HarringtonDunhill, 8 September 2024

Preface

What is this book about? This new textbook has a broad focus and is therefore entitled ‘Sustainable Water Systems’ to attract a wide audience of academics and practitioners. The book covers broad water and environmental engineering system aspects relevant to water resources management as well as the treatment of storm water and wastewater, providing a descriptive overview of complex ‘black box’ systems and general design issues involved. Fundamental science and engineering principles are explained to address the student and professional markets. Standard and novel design recommendations account for the interests of professional engineers and environmental scientists. The latest research findings in water treatment systems are discussed to attract academics and senior consultants who could recommend the textbook to final year and postgraduate students as well as graduate engineers, respectively.

The book deals comprehensively with the design, operation, maintenance as well as water quality monitoring and modelling of traditional and novel wetland systems. It also provides an analysis of asset performance, the modelling of treatment processes and the performance of existing infrastructure in both developed and developing countries, as well as the sustainability and economic issues involved.

The explained underlying scientific principles will also be of interest to all concerned with the built environment, including town planners, developers, engineering technicians, agricultural engineers and public health workers. The book has been written for a wide readership, but sufficient hot research topics have been addressed to guarantee a long shelf life of the book. Therefore, case study topics are diverse and research projects are multidisciplinary, holistic, experimental and modelling‐oriented.

What is the target audience? The textbook is essential for undergraduate and postgraduate students, lecturers, and researchers in the civil and environmental engineering, environmental science, agriculture and ecological fields of sustainable water management. It is a standard reference for the design, operation and management of wetlands by engineers and scientists working for the water industry, local authorities, non‐governmental organizations and governmental bodies. Moreover, consulting engineers will be able to apply practical design recommendations and refer to a large variety of practical international case studies, including large‐scale field studies.

What are the key selling features? This new textbook has a broad focus on all applied aspects of both sustainability and system research. The sustainable treatment and management of all water and wastewater types is covered. Applied research case studies independent from countries and climatic regions illustrate the application on innovative technologies and methodologies. Both urban and rural case studies with applied and academic aspects are addressed.

How is this book structured and what questions does it answer? The textbook is split into seven inter‐related chapters and corresponding sub‐chapters to increase its readability. Each chapter answers topical ‘How can …?’ overarching questions as outlined below:

How can natural wetland systems be effectively used to treat different types of waters?

Chapter 1.1 outlines a peatland management strategy to utilise the high nutrient retention potential of degenerated peatlands. The effect of raised water levels and extensive land use management on hydraulic properties, water quality and vegetation characteristics of heavily vegetated and groundwater‐fed open ditches was investigated at a river valley. Within‐ditch vegetation and other hydraulic obstructions increase the hydraulic residence time and lead to an improvement in the water quality along the open ditch.

Chapter 1.2 is concerned with the treatment of log yard runoff, which is required to avoid contamination of receiving watercourses. The research aim was to assess if infiltration of log yard runoff through planted soil systems is successful and if different plant species affect the treatment performance. The infiltration treatment was effective in reducing total organic carbon and total phosphorus concentrations in the runoff.

Chapter 1.3 aims to review studies about impacts of anthropogenic land use changes on levels of nutrient concentrations in surface waterbodies. Anthropogenic land use such as agricultural and urban areas usually enhances nutrient concentrations much more than natural lands such as forest and barren.

Chapter 1.4 assesses the effect of climate change on carbon dioxide exchange of temperate peatlands. Climate chamber simulations were conducted using experimental peatland mesocosms exposed to current and future representative concentration pathway (RCP) climate scenarios (RCP 2.6, 4.5 and 8.5). Water level management is necessary for RCP 8.5, beneficial for RCP 4.5 and unimportant for RCP 2.6 and the current climate.

How can sustainable drainage systems and techniques be effectively used in urban water management and treatment?

Chapter 2.1 aims to assess the influence of a full silt trap at the end of a stormwater drainage pipe on the water quality of stormwater discharged into an urban watercourse. Suspended solids for treated stormwater were often too high, but pollutants accumulated in the silt trap.

Chapter 2.2 investigates the treatment efficiency of passive vertical‐flow wetland filters containing Phragmites australis and/or Typha latifolia and granular media of different adsorption capacities. There appears to be no additional benefit in using macrophytes and expensive adsorption media in constructed wetlands to enhance metal reduction during the set‐up period of five months.

Phosphorus retention by experimental unplanted vertical‐flow constructed wetlands depends on substrates, influent quality and hydraulic residence time according to Chapter 2.3. Phosphorus adsorption capacities of shale, ironstone and hornblende were best explained by Langmuir adsorption isotherms. In comparison, Freundlich adsorption isotherms fitted gravel well.

Chapter 2.4 aims to assess the treatment efficiencies for gully pot effluent of experimental vertical‐flow constructed wetland filters containing macrophytes and granular media of different adsorption capacities in cold climate. For those filters receiving metals, an obvious breakthrough of nickel was recorded after road gritting (containing salt).

Pond structures as cost‐effective source‐control drainage techniques can be applied to reduce the downstream risk of flooding according to Chapter 2.5. A case study was assessed based upon a combined attenuation wetland and dry pond construction for roof‐water runoff.

Chapter 2.6 assesses the concept of a combined traditional permeable pavement with a ground source heat pump. The great system stability of the innovation and minor water quality data variability between individual experimental pavement systems provide good evidence for the controlled engineered application.

Chapter 2.7 aims to assess the efficiency of a batch flow combined titanium dioxide and ultraviolet light photocatalytic reactor. The purpose was to remove waterborne microbial contaminants from the effluent of permeable pavement systems.

Finally, Chapter 2.8 aims to protect below‐ground channels and people, prevent flooding, improve water quality and save personnel costs through screen automation and monitoring optimization. Results show that repairing or enlarging screens optimizes their functionality and reduces the risk of flooding. A particular focus is on increasing the screen dimension from one‐ and two‐dimensional to three‐dimensional screens.

How can the sustainable flood retention basin and integrated constructed wetland concepts be successfully applied to support the build environment?

Chapter 3.1 analyses sustainable flood retention basins (SFRB) as adaptive structures contributing to water resources management and flood risk control. A dataset of 371 potential SFRB (including many operating reservoirs) characterized by 40 variables have been surveyed across central Scotland. Geostatistical techniques are applied on the dataset. Spatial analysis showed that ordinary kriging, which is a spatial interpolation method, could be successfully applied to estimate numerical values for all key flood control variables everywhere in the study area. Moreover, the probability that certain threshold values relevant to flood control managers were exceeded can also be calculated by using disjunctive kriging. The findings provide an effective screening tool in assessing flood control using SFRB.

Furthermore, Chapter 3.2 highlights that constructed wetland sediments are frequently contaminated with nitrogen and phosphorus, and that there is a potential that these accumulated constituents could be remobilized to reach surface or ground waters. Five configured identical mesocosms, each filled with sub‐soil collected from the most contaminated first cells of two 10‐year‐old fully operational integrated constructed wetland (ICW), were used to examine nutrient removal within sediment layers. The results indicated that accumulated nutrients remobilised into the inflow (ambient) surface water and that the sediment capacity for nutrient retention decreased as the wetlands aged.

Finally, Chapter 3.3 assesses the extent of groundwater quality deterioration due to the establishment of a full‐scale ICW system treating domestic wastewater in Ireland. The ICW consists of two sedimentation ponds and a sequence of five shallow vegetated wetland cells. The ICW cells were lined with 500 mm−1 thick local subsoil material, which comprised a mixture of alluvium, organic soils, tills and gravel. Overall, the quality of groundwater underlying the ICW system was slightly contaminated with bulk organic matter and some inorganic nutrients. Significantly higher contaminant concentrations were recorded in monitoring wells up‐gradient and near to the distal wetland cells than down‐gradient ones, which were near to the proximal cells. For the down‐gradient piezometers, concentrations seldomly exceeded the natural background levels. Findings suggest that ICW systems pose a minimal risk to the groundwater quality.

How can various modelling approaches be successfully applied to solve timely water and wastewater treatment technology challenges?

The optimisation of water purification with biological activated carbon (BAC) is described in Chapter 4.1. Procedures are suggested to control biofilm growth and to use bio‐indicators to predict chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiencies. There was a strong positive correlation between the abundance of some protozoa in the liquid phase of the BAC bed and COD concentration in the effluent. Mathematical spreadsheet models were constructed to estimate COD removal efficiency of BAC filters with different loading rates, dissolved oxygen, pH, nutrient requirements and populations of micro‐organisms.

For Chapter 4.2, data from five Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust constructed wetland systems offering a range of styles and inflow water types between 2005 and 2009 were examined and compared to identify long‐term trends in nutrient removal. Ammonia‐nitrogen concentrations were reduced between 31.9% and 96.8%. In contrast, the concentrations of nitrate‐nitrogen and total oxidised nitrogen in the effluent exceeded the influent in many of the systems. Reduction in ortho‐phosphate‐phosphorus and total phosphorous were between −10.5% and 87.6% and between 6.9% and 92.5%, respectively. Removal efficiencies of biochemical oxygen demand were between 0.0% and 87.3%, and reductions of total suspended solids ranged from −249.3% to 57.6%. Ammonia‐nitrogen reduction was effective during summer. Long‐term nitrogen removal has been efficient and consistent. However, phosphorous reduction was only sufficient during the early stages of operation and generally declined as the wetland aged.

Finally, Chapter 4.3 simulates the performance of BAC filters based on microbiological investigations as well as measurements of pH and dissolved oxygen during the bio‐regeneration mode with untreated river water. The performance parameters measured include COD. The neural network model could estimate the COD reduction in a BAC filter based on the pH, dissolved oxygen and count of micro‐organisms in water samples taken from the liquid phase surrounding the carbon granules. The average absolute deviation in the case of the training set was 1.1% and in the case of the testing set it was 14.6%.

How can simple sludge dewatering tests help to design and manage large dewatering equipment units and processes?

Chapter 6.1 critically assess the standard capillary suction time (CST) test and proposes a modified device (prototype) and a revised CST procedure. The empirical CST test (using a circular funnel) is well established as the leading method for the determination of sludge dewaterability despite of its current shortcomings such as restricted modelling possibilities, and therefore the ability to predict physical processes such as the amount of water bounded by the paper. Nevertheless, the CST apparatus is portable, and the method is easy to conduct, quick, cost‐effective and accurate, if the product of solid concentration and average‐specific resistance to filtration is of interest. A novel prototype with a rectangular instead of a circular funnel incorporating a stirrer (optional) and using a cheaper paper with similar or improved characteristics is proposed to reduce consumable costs and improve dewaterability interpretation.

Chapter 6.2 aims to improve the CST product design by testing the effectiveness of using a funnel sealant to reduce variability. The use of a funnel sealant resulted in increased test precision. There was a reduction of up to 63% in the coefficient of variation and a substantial improvement in the predictability of the specific resistance to filtration test.

Finally, Chapter 6.3 assesses the impact of different water compositions on sludge dewaterability, assessments of floc sizes using a particle size analyzer and sludge dewaterability based on CST test. Synthetic raw water had small floc sizes, and synthetic domestic wastewater had both larger median floc sizes and a better correlation between sludge dewaterability and median floc sizes. Floc size distribution results showed that synthetic raw water is associated with a narrow particle size distribution. In comparison, synthetic domestic wastewater produced a wider distribution. However, CST values were similar for both waters. Compared to synthetic wastewater, natural wastewater had the largest distribution with generally larger particle sizes.

How can water availability influence public health?Chapter 7 presents a case study describing water availability challenges and corresponding public health implications for a rural area in Nigeria. A water availability assessment was carried out in eight villages controlled by the Jalingo Local Government of Taraba State. Questionnaires were applied to obtain data from 60 households (approximately 650 participants) concerning issues like water supply sources, water quantity, water quality and community participation in water resources projects. It was found that community well water is the major source of water: 35% of the inhabitants depend on well water during the wet season, while 69% depend on it during the dry season. About 80% of the households have access to less than 30 L of water per person per day. Due to low water availability, there is a prevalence of water‐related diseases. This study can be useful to agencies from the developed world involved in rural water supply projects.

About the Author

DProf. Miklas Scholz, Cand Ing, BEng (equiv), PgC, MSc, PhD, DSc, CWEM, CEnv, CSci, CEng, FHEA, FIEMA, FCIWEM, FICE, Fellow of IWA, Fellow of IETI, is a Distinguished Professor at Johannesburg University, South Africa. Miklas is the Head of the Department of Water Management at the District of Herzogtum Lauenburg, Germany. He is also a Technical Specialist for Nexus by Sweden and a Hydraulic Engineer at Kunststoff‐Technik Adams, Germany.

He has published 10 books and 346 journal articles in 136 different target journals. Prof. Scholz has a total of about 18,300 (11,500 citations since 2020) citations, resulting in an h‐index of 66 and an i10‐index of 252. He ranks among the top 2% of academics globally, based on his i10‐index in the past five years. Miklas is also ranked among the world's top 2% scientists, according to Stanford University’s ranking. His net worth score is about 79% for 2024. The corresponding relative social fame wealth (not income) as a brand name is estimated to be $928 million USD.

A bibliometric analysis of all constructed wetland‐related publications and corresponding authors with a minimum number of 20 publications and 100 citations indicates that Miklas ranks fifth among 70 authors (including those who have sadly passed away).

In 2019, Prof. Scholz was awarded EURO 7M for the EU H2020 REA project, Water Retention and Nutrient Recycling in Soils and Streams for Improved Agricultural Production (WATERAGRI). He received EURO 1.52M for the JPI Water 2018 project, Research‐based Assessment of Integrated approaches to Nature‐based SOLUTIONS (RAINSOLUTIONS).

Acknowledgements

This book is predominantly based on 31 previously published papers. Special credits go to all authors associated with these articles. All support received has been acknowledged in the individual original articles.