The British Army 1914-1918 E-Book

Andrew Rawson

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 573

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

An indispensable guide to the British Army during the First World War covers the men who fought for Britain: from the 'Old Contemptibles' – the professionals who stemmed the German advance at the beginning of the war – to the Territorials, the 'Derby Men', Kitchener's 'New Army' and the conscripts who eventually defeated the Kaiser's armies four years later. Andrew Rawson examines the impressive contributions made by the Dominions and the Empire and explores aspects of doctrine, training, communications, strategy and tactics, together with divisional organisations, histories and the roles of the different Arms and Services. He reviews all aspects of the soldier's everyday life – uniforms, equipment, rations, trench life, leave and military discipline – and profiles the commanders and the legacy of the war in art, as well as providing information on cemeteries and places of interest. It is all here, in one book.

Leseprobe

CONTENTS

TITLE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CHAPTERONEBACKGROUND

A Century of Peace?; Reorganization of the Army; Britain’s Standing Army; The Territorial Force; The Indian Army; Guarding the Empire; Irish Home Rule – The Curragh Incident; The War Book; The Countdown to War; Timeline of British Operations on the Western Front; The BEF’s Sector

CHAPTERTWOMOBILIZATIONANDTRAINING

Deploying the British Expeditionary Force; Reservists; The Territorial Force; Deployment of the Territorial Divisions; Kitchener’s Recruitment Campaign; Preparing the New Armies; Medical Classification; Compulsory Service; Maintaining the British Army; Australian Imperial Force; New Zealand Expeditionary Force; Canadian Expeditionary Force; East African Divisions and South African Troops; The Indian Army; Smaller Dominions and Colonies

CHAPTERTHREETHEHIGHERDIRECTIONOFTHEWAR

The War Council; The War Cabinet; The Supreme War Council; The Army Council; Chief of the Imperial General Staff; Home Defence Forces; General Headquarters, British Expeditionary Force; The Armies; Army Operations; The Corps; Other Theatres

CHAPTERFOURARMS, CORPSANDREGIMENTS

Arms of the Service; Infantry Regiments

CHAPTERFIVETHEARMS

The Infantry; Types of Infantry Battalion; The Royal Artillery; The Cavalry; The Royal Engineers; The Signal Service; Labour Units; Tunnelling Companies; The Special Brigade; Camouflage; Specialist Engineer Companies; The Machine Gun Corps; The Tank Corps; Intelligence

CHAPTERSIXTHESERVICES

Army Service Corps; Labour Corps; Changes Behind the Lines; Lines of Communication; Royal Army Medical Corps; Health; Army Ordnance Corps; Supporting Services

CHAPTERSEVENDIVISIONALORGANIZATIONANDHISTORY

The Infantry Division; Cavalry Divisions; Mounted and Cyclist Divisions; Infantry Division Histories; Cavalry and Mounted Division Histories

CHAPTEREIGHTTHESOLDIER

1914 Uniform and Equipment; The Daily Ration; Responsibilities and Badges of Rank; Campaign Medals; Gallantry Medals; Crime and Punishment

CHAPTERNINEWEAPONS

Revolvers; Rifles; Periscopes; Bayonets; Grenades; Trench Weapons; Swords; Machine Guns; Trench Mortars; Flamethrowers; Field Artillery; Medium and Heavy Artillery; Artillery Ammunition; Ammunition Statistics; Anti-Aircraft Guns; Tanks; Gas; Experimental Section

CHAPTERTENTACTICS

Open Warfare in 1914; Trench Warfare; Life in the Trenches; Preparing for Battle; On the Defensive

CHAPTERELEVENMAPPING

Trench Maps

CHAPTERTWELVEBEHINDTHELINES

Training Facilities; Soldiers at Rest; Entertainment; Auxiliary Social Services; Women’s Voluntary Organizations; Organizing Women’s Labour; Home Leave

CHAPTERTHIRTEENLEGACY

The Armistice; Demobilization; Cemeteries and Memorials; The British Legion; War Memorials in the United Kingdom; The Cost; Poetry and Literature; Trench Poetry and Songs; Propaganda and the War Artists

APPENDIX1PRINCIPALCOMMANDERSOFTHEBRITISHANDDOMINIONFORCES

APPENDIX2ABBREVIATIONS

APPENDIX3SOLDIERS’ SLANG

BIBLIOGRAPHY

COPYRIGHT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

When I started work on this book, I never realised what a journey of discovery I was embarking on; many people have helped me along that journey. Dr John Bourne, Director of the Centre for First World War Studies at Birmingham University, has been a constant help, clearing up a host of queries and pointing me towards useful sources.

Many of the photographs come from the Imperial War Museum’s Department of Photographs where the staff’s friendly and professional guidance aided me in my arduous search for relevant illustrations. Countless members of staff at libraries across the north of England, including Leeds City, Leeds University, Manchester and Bradford City Libraries have patiently sought out material. Without their assistance my work would have been impossible.

Finally, I would like to thank Nick Reynolds of Sutton Publishing Ltd and Donald Sommerville for guiding me, seemingly effortlessly, through the writing and preparation of this book.

I hope that this book increases the understanding of what the men and women endured between 1914 and 1918 and it is dedicated to my son Alex; let us hope that his generation learns from their experiences.

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND

A CENTURYOFPEACE?

The year 1815 marked the end of Great Britain’s involvement in European campaigns for nearly a century (with the brief exception of the Crimean War). While political and military struggles flared across the continent, the British Empire expanded round the world. Private enterprise conquered territories in the search for new resources while the Army followed and the Royal Navy patrolled the oceans, protecting the shipping routes.

China was a source for opium and tea while Burma was a major supplier of teak, but, after complaining about trading, both were forced to submit to British rule; China handed over Hong Kong while Burma was totally annexed.

India was Britain’s main concern but attempts to secure the North-West Frontier in 1838 to protect against a feared Russian invasion ended in disaster; fifty years of skirmishing followed before the Afghans accepted a British envoy in Kabul. There was trouble in Lahore in 1848 when the Sikhs invaded the British East India Company’s territories and in 1857 Indian Sepoys mutinied, massacring British garrisons before they were suppressed. After quelling the uprisings the Army took control of the East India Company’s area, starting the era of the British Raj and peace in India. A final uprising by Chitral tribesmen at the end of the century resulted in the annexation of the area.

Tensions with Russia flared in 1854 and Britain sent 30,000 troops to the Crimea as part of an alliance with France, Turkey and Sardinia to prevent the Russians extending their influence over Turkey. The Army suffered setbacks at Balaclava and Inkerman, while thousands died of sickness during the siege of Sevastopol. A new medal, the Victoria Cross, was introduced as the highest award for valour during the war and, when the French captured a key position in the Sevastopol fortress the following year, the Russians withdrew and made peace.

In Africa, Britain had annexed the Cape Colony from the Dutch East India Company as early as 1814, establishing a toehold at the southern tip of the continent, but further colonization was delayed by the threat of malaria. The annexation caused tension with the Boers and they withdrew into the Transvaal and the Orange Free State to retain their independence.

The discovery of quinine in 1850 allowed travellers to explore more readily and, once they returned with news of vast untapped riches, European traders with private armies staked their claims. Professional armies soon followed to protect the new provinces. The British Army pursued an aggressive occupation policy, annexing Basutoland, the Gold Coast, the Transvaal and Zululand (where British troops suffered a humiliating defeat at Isandlwana). An invasion of Natal in 1881 resulted in the First Boer War and stirred the Boers to arm themselves with modern rifles and guns bought from Europe.

British troops landed in Ashanti in 1896, extending the Empire’s hold on the west coast of Africa.

Great Britain had staked its claims in North Africa by purchasing the Egyptian share in the French Suez Canal project, and then took over the Sudan in 1882 after crushing a rebellion by the Mahdists and the Dervishes. General Gordon’s attempt to rescue isolated garrisons ended in disaster and his force was cut off and massacred in Khartoum. General Kitchener finally regained control of the Sudan after the Battle of Omdurman in 1898.

Germany, a late starter in the colonization of Africa, claimed rights to German South-West Africa (now Namibia), Kamerun (Cameroon), Togo and German East Africa (Tanzania), stirring protests among the other European powers. The German chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, held a conference in Berlin in 1884 where the European powers agreed to divide Africa up to avoid conflict in Europe. It did not mean peace for the natives, however. Soon after Cecil Rhodes’ small army occupied Matabeleland with the help of the new Maxim machine gun, renaming the area Rhodesia.

Trouble again flared in South Africa when gold was discovered in the Transvaal in 1886, sparking an influx of settlers eager to stake their claim. An abortive raid in 1896 stirred resentment and when the British failed to secure rights for their citizens in 1899, the Boers retaliated by invading the Cape Colony, besieging the towns of Ladysmith, Mafeking and Kimberley. The British Army responded with huge task forces but setbacks at places such as Colenso and Spion Kop showed that it was lacking in many areas when British soldiers were confronted by determined men armed with modern weapons. It was the start of a new learning curve, one that would stand the British Army in good stead for the war in Europe a decade later.

Overwhelming numbers and an aggressive resettlement policy, in which families were imprisoned in concentration camps, forced the Boers to roam the veldt as guerrillas and, when supplies dwindled, they eventually sued for peace. The annexation of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State meant that one-third of Africa was now British.

REORGANIZATIONOFTHEARMY

Between 1899 and 1902 the British Army was engaged in its first major campaign of the twentieth century, facing the well equipped and highly motivated Boers in South Africa. The experience was a rude awakening for the War Office and high command; it was time to reform all areas of the armed services.

A report was published in 1903 and the Commander-in-Chief, Field Marshal Lord Roberts, implemented many of the recommendations, but the Cabinet refused to sanction conscription and plans to expand the Army had to be scrapped.

Lord Esher’s committee strengthened the Committee of Imperial Defence and set up the Army Council to replace the post of commander-in-chief in February 1904. Members reported to the Secretary of State for War on a wide range of military, civil and financial matters. Before long they had authorized the establishment of a General Staff and its three main branches, setting up directorates to improve training, staff work and operational planning.

Many of the changes were in place before 1914, the majority implemented during a major reorganization in 1908. The following were the most noteworthy:

EXPEDITIONARYFORCE

Regular units across the United Kingdom were made ready to mobilize as an Expeditionary Force of 6 infantry divisions and 1 cavalry division.

2.5-inch muzzle-loading mountain guns were ideal during campaigns such as the one against the Pathans in 1897, but they proved to be no match for the modern armaments used by the Boers.

The khaki drill uniform and webbing used in South Africa would soon be replaced by a modern version as part of the sweeping reforms of the Army.

ARMYCORPS

There had been no plans to operate a corps structure in the field but on mobilization the decision was taken to correspond with the French command system. Corps staff at Aldershot were joined by 2 improvised corps staffs, each controlling 2 divisions.

STAFF

Staff officers were trained at the Staff College, Camberley, while the Administrative Staff were trained at the London School of Economics; Indian Army Staff attended Quetta Staff College.

OFFICERS

Volunteer Corps at the universities and public schools were transformed into the Officers’ Training Corps to ease the pressure on the Sandhurst and Woolwich Military Colleges. Sandhurst waived the entry examination for candidates with exemplary records to speed up their training schedule.

CAVALRY

A census of horses available across the country was taken and requisition powers were introduced.

ARTILLERY

Field batteries were armed with quick-firing field guns equipped with shock absorbers to reduce the amount of recoil after each shot. The divisional field artillery was grouped into 3 x 18-pounder and 1 x 4.5-inch howitzer brigades, each with 3 x 6-gun batteries, and ammunition columns were introduced to manage the distribution of shells. The general reserve of artillery had doubled to 81 batteries by 1912 and the Garrison Artillery Militia was trained and made ready to be mobilized as a Special Reserve.

INFANTRY

Steps were taken to balance the numbers of battalions at home and overseas, with each regiment having a battalion in Great Britain and another serving abroad. The numbers were eventually set at 84 home battalions and 73 in overseas garrisons. Command in the infantry battalions was streamlined by reducing the number of companies from 8 to 4. The infantry were issued with the new Short Magazine Lee-Enfield rifle and marksmanship training with rapid fire was improved.

ARMYSERVICECORPS

Subsidies were offered to private vehicle owners providing they would make them available during a national emergency. Specially designed military vehicles were introduced for private sale and again listed for requisitioning. Divisional transport was reorganized in 1912, grouping all but the first-line transport into companies. A fleet of lorries was allocated to each division to bring forward supplies and evacuate the wounded.

ROYALARMYMEDICALCORPS

Bearer companies and field hospitals were reorganized and each division received a self-contained field ambulance unit. Clearing hospitals were organized to treat casualties evacuated from the battlefield.

CIVILIANMEDICALSERVICES

Plans were put in place to use hospitals and voluntary aid in the United Kingdom (allowed under the 1906 Geneva Convention) while the Army Nursing Service was given official recognition.

RESERVES

Steps were also taken to provide a pool of reserves to reinforce the Regular Army.

THENATIONALRESERVE

A register of officers and men with military experience was started in 1910 and by 1914 it had 350,000 members.

SPECIALRESERVE

The Militia was renamed the Special Reserve.

THETERRITORIALFORCE

Individuals and units of the Volunteer forces were invited to become Territorial troops or disband and the Territorial Associations (not the War Office) were given responsibility for organizing and maintaining the Territorial Force. The Territorial infantry formed 14 divisions along the same lines as the Regular divisions while the Yeomanry was reorganized into 14 brigades as the second line of cavalry. Although numbers were far below the establishment of 316,000 in 1914, retired Territorials were expected to re-enlist during a national emergency.

IMPERIALMILITARYFORCES

In 1907 staff officers were sent out to the Dominion staff colleges to teach new candidates. Dominion forces also agreed to standardize their organizations in line with the British Army but they reserved the right to abstain from Britain’s conflicts.

BRITAIN’SSTANDINGARMY

The Regular Army numbered 247,000 men in August 1914; 129,000 were stationed across Great Britain, while the rest were serving with the Indian Army or at other overseas postings across the Empire.

DISPOSITIONSATTHEOUTBREAKOFWAR

Six infantry divisions and 4 cavalry brigades were stationed as follows:

1st Division: Aldershot.

2nd Division: 1 brigade in London and Windsor and 2 brigades at Aldershot.

3rd Division: Southern Command area along the south coast.

4th Division: Eastern Command area on the south-east coast.

5th Division: Deployed across Ireland.

6th Division: 1 brigade in Northern Command, 2 brigades in southern Ireland.

Cavalry: 4 cavalry brigades were stationed at Aldershot, Tidworth, south-east England and Ireland; they assembled as the Cavalry Division when war was declared.

ENLISTING

Men joined the Regular Army for a variety of personal and financial reasons, but the majority were looking for a steady job with a regular income. Minimum requirements were 5 feet 3 inches in height, and age between 19 and 38; and once at the regimental depot or a recruiting office the potential soldier had to pass a series of physical tests. A new recruit enlisted for 7 years’ service and he would be kept on the National Reserve for 5 years after he was discharged.

TRAINING

The Combined Training manual was released in 1902 drawing on lessons learnt in South Africa and it was quickly renamed Field Service Regulations. An updated version was released in two parts in 1909: Part I (Operations) and Part II (Organization and Administration).

The annual training cycle began with physical exercise, drill and route marching while the recruits learnt basic skills including musketry, hand-to-hand fighting, signalling and scouting. The winter months were spent on education and rifle drill, with unit training beginning in the spring, starting with company, squadron and battery exercises, working through combined arms training up to large-scale manoeuvres by the end of the summer.

Those wishing to be commissioned as Royal Artillery and Royal Engineer officers attended the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, while those seeking commissions in the cavalry, infantry, Indian Army and Army Service Corps went to the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst. Rather than attend Sandhurst, a third of infantry and cavalry officers had trained with the Officers’ Training Corps at the universities and public schools or had previous experience with the Militia; only a handful of men were commissioned from the ranks.

Infantrymen did bayonet training with padded jackets and rifles armed with spring-loaded plungers while the Musketry School at Hythe focussed on training the men to deliver a high rate of aimed fire with the rifle. Instructors taught the recruits to concentrate on short bursts of rapid fire. Recruits were expected to be able to fire between 12 and 15 rounds a minute. Individual firing was recommended and platoon volleys were rarely used. Commands were restricted to starting and ending firing, with officers stepping in if the firing was getting out of hand.

Cavalrymen had the extra responsibility of caring for their horse and tack; artillery drivers had two horses to look after. After completing basic riding skills, troopers learnt the art of attack riding, fencing with blunted swords and musketry.

PAYANDPROMOTION

New recruits started on one shilling (1s – £0.05) a day but numerous deductions were made for food and equipment. However, soldiers could earn extra pay by increasing their skills or gaining promotion and a senior non-commissioned officer (NCO) could earn around 6s a day. Soldiers received field allowances if they were serving overseas. They were paid in local currency, at around 25 francs to £1 in France.

A well-behaved private could expect to be promoted to lance-corporal after two years and might make corporal after four; few reached the rank of sergeant unless they re-enlisted. A few sergeants were promoted to colour sergeant (or staff sergeants in some arms) and senior NCOs and warrant officers usually stayed with the Army for the full 21 years’ service.

New subalterns received 7s 6d a day while those with specialized skills earned more. Army officers bought their own uniforms but received a uniform grant of £50 towards the cost. A part-time Territorial infantry subaltern earned 5s 3d a day while his lieutenant-colonel received 18s.

ACCOMMODATION

Purpose-built barracks had been erected in the garrison towns across Great Britain towards the end of the nineteenth century. While the officers and sergeants had comfortable messes and a higher standard of accommodation, the other ranks lived in barrack rooms with 20–40 beds. There were married quarters but men had to be 26 years old and have served at least 5 years before applying for permission to marry. A man could marry without the Army’s consent but he had to support his wife, paying for her lodgings outside the barracks; many opted to stay single and visit the prostitutes living nearby.

A machine-gun crew train with their Maxim gun.

THETERRITORIALFORCE

The previously-existing local Militia and Volunteer units were reorganized into the Territorial Force during the 1908 reforms, creating 14 Territorial infantry divisions and 14 Yeomanry cavalry brigades modelled on the Regular Army formations. Units recruited locally to form a full range of units with strong ties to the local community.

Infantry battalions were affiliated to line regiments. While most county regiments had 2 Territorial battalions, 4 had just 1 Territorial battalion (and no Regulars) to begin with (Cambridgeshire, Herefordshire, Hertfordshire and Monmouthshire); the London Regiment was also all-Territorial with 24 battalions grouped into 2 divisions.

LIFEINTHETERRITORIALFORCE

The minimum age was 18 but the physical standards on joining were the same as for the Regulars. Men trained one or two evenings a week at local drill halls and they were often called the Saturday Night Soldiers or the Terriers. The annual summer camp was the highlight of the calendar where the men took part in large-scale exercises; over 250,000 Territorial soldiers were on annual manoeuvres when war was declared on 4 August 1914.

Territorials agreed to full-time service if war was declared and they could be posted anywhere in the United Kingdom. Overseas service in times of conflict was optional but over 17,000 signed the Imperial Service Obligation before the outbreak of the First World War.

The principal role of the force during a war was supposedly home defence, and the Territorials were intended to protect the ports and coastline after the Expeditionary Force left for the Continent.

ORGANIZATION

The Territorial infantry divisions had 3 infantry brigades, each of 4 battalions. The artillery had 4 field artillery brigades and 1 battery of heavy artillery per division, but the brigades only had 4-gun batteries. Support services included 2 Royal Engineer field companies, a signals company, a divisional train, 3 field ambulance units and a clearing hospital. The divisions needed ammunition columns, cyclist companies and an extra engineer field company to bring them up to full establishment.

The Territorial Army was 47,000 (all ranks) short of the establishment of 316,000 in August 1914; the deficit was soon made up.

DIVISIONSANDRECRUITINGAREAS

Divisional, brigade and support arms numbers were issued in May 1915 when the first Territorial divisions were deployed in France. Divisional numbers and regional titles are given opposite.

THEINDIANARMY

The Army in India numbered 236,000 soldiers, including 74,600 British officers and men serving with British Army units and another 2,300 British officers commanding 159,100 Indian officers and men. Indian Army recruits enlisted for 21 years and had an option to stay on for another 4 years or serve in the reserve to receive a pension. Another 40,000 men served in the auxiliary forces, providing internal security, and there were 34,000 men serving with the frontier militias and military police.

In 1913 the Army in India began to re-organize into 10 divisions and 5 cavalry brigades so that it could better defend the Afghanistan border and maintain internal security. On the outbreak of war in Europe, Indian Army units would deploy overseas to support the British Expeditionary Force and help protect other British territories. Two infantry and 2 cavalry divisions would head for France, while 6 infantry brigades garrisoned the Suez Canal in Egypt; 1 infantry division would also head to the Persian Gulf to look after British interests there.

The Indian Army formed 2 armies:

NORTHERNARMY

1st (Peshawar) Division: Afghanistan border.

2nd (Rawalpindi) Division: Reserve for the North-West Frontier.

3rd (Lahore) Division: Lahore area.

7th (Meerut) Division: Delhi area.

8th (Lucknow) Division: Lucknow area.

SOUTHERNARMY

4th (Quetta) Division: Persian Frontier.

5th (Mhow) Division: North of Bombay.

6th (Poona) Division: Bombay area.

9th (Secunderabad) Division: Southern India.

Burma Division: Burma–China border.

INDEPENDENTBRIGADES

Kohat, Bannu and Derajat Brigades held posts along the North-West Frontier.

CAVALRYBRIGADES

Five cavalry brigades.

ORGANIZATION

INFANTRYDIVISION

Infantry: 3 infantry brigades, each with 1 British battalion and 3 Indian battalions. A pioneer battalion was later added to the division.

Indian battalions had 13 British officers, 17 Indian officers (junior to all British officers) and 723 other ranks; embarkation strength was increased to 840 all ranks in preparation for the inevitable losses through casualties or illness. In 1917 the number of other ranks increased to 962 and embarkation strength rose to 1,030. Battalions were originally organized into 4 double companies, sub-divided into companies and half-companies, but they adopted the British 4-company system in May 1915; it took two years to complete the reorganization. Companies were recruited from the same religious group.

TERRITORIALDIVISIONSANDRECRUITINGAREAS

East Lancashire Division (42nd)

Manchester, Salford and East Lancashire

1st Wessex Division (43rd)

Hampshire, Somerset, Dorset, Wiltshire, Devon, Cornwall

Home Counties Division (44th)

Surrey, Middlesex and Kent

2nd Wessex Division (45th)

Raised in September 1914 in the same area as 1st Wessex Division (included as its numbering falls in the 1st Line series)

North Midland Division (46th)

Staffordshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire

2nd London Division (47th)

London boroughs

South Midland Division (48th)

Warwickshire, Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire

West Riding Division (49th)

West Riding of Yorkshire

Northumbrian Division (50th)

Northumberland, North and East Ridings of Yorkshire

Highland Division (51st)

Highlands of Scotland, north of the Firth of Forth

Lowland Division (52nd)

Glasgow, Edinburgh and Lowlands of Scotland

Welsh Division (53rd)

Cheshire, North Wales and Welsh Borders

East Anglian Division (54th)

Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, Bedfordshire, Northamptonshire

West Lancashire Division (55th)

Lancashire west of the River Lune, including Liverpool

1st London Division (56th)

London boroughs

MOUNTEDTERRITORIALUNITS

In August 1914 two mounted divisions were formed from Territorial Yeomanry and Cyclist battalions for home defence:

1st Mounted Division

Notts and Derbyshire, South Midlands, Eastern Counties

2nd Mounted Division

Formed from surplus Yeomanry and Cyclist battalions

74th (Yeomanry) Division

Formed in Egypt from dismounted Yeomanry units in 1918

Divisional cavalry: 1 regiment organized into 4 squadrons, each with 3 troops. Nine British and 18 Indian officers led 536 other ranks.

Artillery: The division had 2 artillery brigades: 1 brigade manned by British regulars and organized into 3 field batteries modelled on British battery organization; 1 Indian mountain brigade with 2 batteries, each armed with 6 x 10-pounder guns; these were crewed by 5 British officers, 3 Indian officers and 235 other ranks.

Engineers: Two Indian field companies, named Sappers and Miners. Four British officers and 4 Indian officers led 202 other ranks.

The strength of a division grew from around 12,300 to 14,310 men.

GUARDINGTHEEMPIRE

‘The sun never set on the British Empire’ by the end of Queen Victoria’s reign and the same could be said of the British Army. While the Navy patrolled the high seas, 118,000 Regular soldiers guarded the Empire’s territories. Over 30 battalions served as an integral part of the Indian Army divisions; a similar number were stationed at outposts across India and Burma. The trade route through the Mediterranean and the Suez Canal was important and 12 battalions were stationed at Gibraltar, Malta and Egypt; 2 more protected the South African ports. The Army garrisoned many of the Royal Navy’s refuelling depots around the world, including Hong Kong, Tientsin and Singapore in the Far East and outlying stations such as Bermuda, Aden and Mauritius.

IRISHHOMERULE– THECURRAGHINCIDENT

During the nineteenth century, the people of Ireland formed an increasing desire for self-government and the Home Rule movement gained momentum during the agricultural depression of the 1880s. Prime Minister William Gladstone proposed to give certain powers to an Irish parliament in 1886 but dissent increased after two bills failed to pass through the London parliament, resulting in the formation of a new political party, Sinn Féin, dedicated to gaining support for Irish freedom.

A third Home Rule Bill was passed in 1912, but the decision to hand over control of the police to the Irish was greeted with outrage by the Protestants who formed the majority of the population of Ulster. In the summer of 1914 parliament eased tensions by excluding Protestant-dominated Ulster from the changes for six years but, as the situation on the Continent deteriorated, Great Britain was focussed on the threat of an Irish civil war.

The government ordered the Army to take action and on 20 July 1914 Brigadier-General Hubert Gough was ordered to deploy the cavalry brigade stationed at the Curragh. Gough refused and he was dismissed but every officer of the 16th Lancers resigned in protest while other senior officers voiced their support. Faced with internal dissension in the Army at a time when the political situation in Europe was threatening to explode, the government reversed its decision and re-instated the officers. Several senior Army officers immediately resigned as a result.

THEWARBOOK

The British and French general staffs started to meet in 1911 and drew up plans to land a British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France, assembling it near the Belgian border on the French Army’s left flank. However, the plan was only an obligation of honour and not part of any formal treaty, being designed to protect Belgium’s neutral stance if Germany decided to invade.

At the same time, the Committee of Imperial Defence compiled the current defensive plans and circulated them to the Army and government departments. This collection of documents was known as the War Book. Updated circulars were issued so departments could act on new initiatives. Heads of department met occasionally under the title of the Coordination Sub-Committee but the Secretariat of the Committee of Imperial Defence coordinated the development of the War Book.

Each department had a chapter summarizing action to be taken, both during the build-up to war (the Precautionary Stage) and on the declaration of war (the War Stage). Simultaneous and corresponding actions taken by other departments were outlined so there was no confusion; large departments, including the Army, had an internal War Book detailing what each branch, arm and service was expected to do.

When war threatened, prepared telegrams and despatches were taken from files, signed and issued without delay. The number of telegrams required would block the country’s telegraph system so non-urgent messages were written out in advance ready to be delivered by post. Steps were also taken to notify headquarters across the Empire at any hour of the day or night.

Barracks were sparse and luxuries were few for soldiers at the turn of the century. These new recruits are subject to a company sergeant-major’s eagle eye while preparing for a kit inspection. (IWM Q30061)

On the declaration of war, departments referred to their War Book as soon as the telegrams and messages reached their headquarters. It meant that the first units of the BEF were ready to sail in a few days while Territorial units were already deploying along the coast.

THECOUNTDOWNTOWAR

As Great Britain focussed on Ireland, the rest of Europe was teetering on the brink of war. Throughout the later part of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth the major powers of Europe had formed two alliances. France and Russia were the Entente while Germany and Austria-Hungary were the Central Powers. Great Britain had long before signed a treaty to protect Belgium and had developed an entente cordiale with France and Russia, among other things to protect British interests in India and the Persian Gulf.

On 28 June 1914 members of a Serbian nationalist secret society, the Black Hand, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, during a visit to Sarajevo. Three weeks later Austria-Hungary demanded custody of the assassins, expecting a refusal that would give grounds for a limited war against Serbia.

Serbia had strong Slavic ties with Russia and Austria-Hungary was anxious for Germany’s support in case Russia responded by declaring war. Germany agreed, encouraging Austria-Hungary’s warlike stance. As expected, Serbia responded unfavourably to the ultimatum and Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July, provoking an immediate military response from Russia.

Germany began to mobilize, fearful of the threat posed by Russia’s huge armies to Germany’s eastern territories. The German mobilization plan (named the Schlieffen Plan after the Chief of Staff who first proposed it) called for a pre-emptive attack on France with the bulk of the German Army, intended to secure the Western Front in less than six weeks; Germany could then turn against the Russians with its whole force.

Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August, and invaded both Belgium and Luxembourg on the same day. France responded two days later, and on 4 August, following unsuccessful attempts to get Germany to withdraw behind its borders, Great Britain declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. Countries across the Empire, including Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa also pledged their support for the British cause. The Great War had begun.

TIMELINEOFBRITISHOPERATIONSONTHEWESTERNFRONT

1914

23 August

Battle of Mons (BEF)

24 August

Start of the retreat from Mons (BEF)

26 August

Battle of Le Cateau (II Corps)

5 September

End of the retreat from Mons (BEF)

7–10 September

Battle of the Marne (BEF)

12–15 September

Battle of the Aisne (BEF)

4–10 October

Defence of Antwerp (IV Corps)

early October

BEF transferred from the Aisne to Flanders

10 October–2 November

Battle of La Bassée (II and Indian Corps)

12 October–2 November

Battle of Messines (Cavalry Corps)

13 October–2 November

Battle of Armentières (III Corps)

19 October–22 November

First Battle of Ypres (I and IV Corps)

26 December

First Army forms on the Lys and Second Army forms in the Ypres Salient

1915

10–13 March

Battle of Neuve Chapelle (First Army)

22 April–25 May

Second Battle of Ypres (Second Army)

9 May

Battle of Aubers Ridge (First Army)

15–25 May

Battle of Festubert (First Army)

13 July

Third Army forms on the Somme

25 September–13 October

Battle of Loos (First Army)

1916

5 February

Fourth Army forms on the Somme and Third Army moves to the Arras sector

22 May

Reserve Army forms on the Somme

2–13 June

Battle of Mount Sorrel (Second Army)

1 July–18 November

Battles of the Somme (Third, Fourth and Reserve Armies)

30 October

Reserve Army renamed Fifth Army

1917

11 January–13 March

Operations on the Ancre (Fifth Army)

14 March–5 April

German retreat to the Hindenburg Line (Third, Fourth and Fifth Armies)

9 April–4 May

Battle of Arras (First and Third Armies)

3–17 May

Battle of Bullecourt (Fifth Army)

7–14 June

Battle of Messines (Second Army)

21 June–18 November

Operations on the Flanders Coast (Fourth Army)

31 July–10 November

Third Battle of Ypres (Second and Fifth Armies)

15–25 August

Battle of Hill 70 (First Army)

20 November–3 December

Battle of Cambrai (Third Army)

1918

German Offensives

21 March–5 April

First Battles of the Somme (Third and Fifth Armies)

9–29 April

Battle of the Lys (First and Second Armies)

27 May–6 June

Battle of the Aisne (IX Corps under French command)

The Advance to Victory – The 100 Days

20 July–2 August

Battles of the Marne (XXII Corps under French command)

8–11 August

Battle of Amiens (Fourth Army)

18 August–6 September

The Advance in Flanders (Second and Fifth Armies)

21 August–3 September

Second Battles of the Somme (Third and Fourth Armies)

26 August–3 September

Second Battles of Arras (First and Third Armies)

12 September–9 October

Battles of the Hindenburg Line (First, Third and Fourth Armies)

9–12 October

Pursuit to the River Selle (First, Third and Fourth Armies)

28 September–11 November

Final Advance in Flanders (Second Army)

2 October–11 November

Final Advance in Artois (Fifth and First Armies)

17 October–11 November

Final Advance in Picardy (First, Third and Fourth Armies)

11:00 a.m. 11 November

Armistice

The Territorials were on their annual summer camp when war was declared; within days they were deployed at their war stations along the coast after working to the strict timetables laid down in the War Book.

THEBEF’SSECTOR

The BEF grew ten-fold in size between August 1914 and November 1918 and the length of its sector increased accordingly, expanding and contracting according to circumstances. Major changes were:

September 1914: Holding a 16-mile sector on the Aisne.

October 1914: Holding a 24-mile sector between Ypres and Armentières.

Spring 1915: Front extended south to Loos, covering 36 miles.

July 1915: Third Army took over a 30-mile sector on the Somme from the French.

February 1916: Fourth Army took over the Somme front while Third Army took over the Arras sector from the French, giving the BEF a continuous 90-mile sector.

Winter 1916–17: The sector extended to 110 miles.

March 1917: The German withdrawal to the Hindenburg line shortened the line by 15 miles.

Winter 1917–18: The British sector increased to 123 miles.

Spring 1918: The French took over 40 miles of front from the BEF during the German offensives on the Somme and Lys.

August 1918: The BEF’s front had extended to 100 miles.

Autumn 1918: Front gradually shortened to 64 miles during the Advance to Victory.

CHAPTER TWO

MOBILIZATION AND TRAINING

DEPLOYINGTHEBRITISHEXPEDITIONARYFORCE

In the last days of peace, the British government committed 6 infantry divisions and 1 cavalry division to France as the British Expeditionary Force. The General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the BEF in 1914 was Field Marshal Sir John French. The first 4 divisions to land formed 2 corps.

I CORPS

1st and 2nd Divisions; sailed on 11 August under General Sir Douglas Haig.

II CORPS

3rd and 5th Divisions; followed over the next two days under General Sir James Grierson. Grierson died of a heart attack on 17 August and General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien took his place.

Men of the 11th Hussars gather on the deck of their ship to view the coast of France; they would be in action near Mons a week later. (IWM Q51128)

CAVALRY

The Cavalry Division with 4 brigades followed and joined the BEF near Mons. A fifth independent cavalry brigade operated with the BEF and the cavalry was reorganized as 2 divisions on 13 September.

III CORPS

This formation was established in France on 31 August under General Sir William Pulteney. 4th Division had remained in Eastern Command to protect the coast from invasion; it sailed for France on 21 August and came under III Corps on the 31st. 6th Division left for France on 7 September and joined III Corps.

THEOLDCONTEMPTIBLES

Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany poured scorn on the British Expeditionary Force and on 19 August, four days before the first battle at Mons, he gave the order to: ‘… address all your skill and all the valour of my soldiers to exterminate first the treacherous English; walk over General French’s contemptible little army.’ The name stuck and the men who served during the retreat from Mons, the advance to the Aisne and the First Battle of Ypres were referred to as the Old Contemptibles.

RECALLINGTHEOVERSEASGARRISONS

As early as 5 August the authorities decided to recall trained Regulars from overseas garrisons to form new divisions, and replace them with partially trained Territorial battalions and Indian troops. A month later India agreed to release 32 British Regular and 20 Indian battalions in exchange for 42 Territorial battalions. In all 57 battalions were recalled from overseas postings; they reached Britain between September 1914 and March 1915 and assembled as 5 new Regular divisions:

INDIA

29 battalions came from India and 3 from Burma (battalions serving with the Indian Army divisions remained with them throughout the war).

MEDITERRANEAN

2 battalions from Gibraltar, 5 each from Malta and Egypt.

SOUTHAFRICA

4 battalions.

FAREAST

2 battalions from Hong Kong, and 1 each from Tientsin and Singapore.

OTHERGARRISONS

1 battalion each from Bermuda, Aden and Mauritius. Ex-soldiers who had emigrated to Canada formed a battalion, Princess Patricia’s Light Infantry; 3 independent Regular battalions and a Territorial battalion completed the 5 divisions.

ASSEMBLINGTHEGARRISONBATTALIONS

The first group of garrison battalions returned (mainly from the Mediterranean and South Africa) at the end of September 1914 and formed 2 divisions.

A force was assembled at the beginning of October to help the Belgian Army secure the Flanders coast. 7th Division was formed at Lyndhurst with independent units in Britain and battalions from overseas garrisons. A 3rd Cavalry Division was formed from unallocated cavalry units in Britain. These two divisions were grouped under General Rawlinson’s IV Corps and sailed to Zeebrugge and Ostend on 6 October. 8th Division formed at Southampton and joined the BEF in November.

A total of 36 battalions and 9 artillery brigades (assembled from batteries stationed in Britain or recalled from India) were joined by Territorial engineers, field ambulances and trains; they formed three new Regular divisions over the winter of 1914–15.

27th Division: Assembled at Winchester in November 1914 and sailed to France in December 1914.

28th Division: Assembled at Winchester in December 1914 and sailed to France in January 1915.

29th Division: Assembled at Leamington in March 1915 and immediately sailed for Gallipoli.

En route to the assembly areas, three officers of the 11th Hussars stretch their legs when their train stops in Rouen. (IWM Q51151)

RESERVISTS

One condition of joining the Army was to be available for 5 years on the Reserve. Men were liable to be called up in a national emergency and they had to attend 12 days’ refresher training a year; in return they received a weekly payment. By August 1914 the Reserve numbered 145,000 men, organized into three sections.

ARMYRESERVE

SECTIONA

Limited to 6,000 men with preference given to soldiers who had had overseas service. Men had to be available to support the Regular Army during a civil emergency. They joined for 1 year, with an option to extend to 2 years, and they were paid 7s a week.

SECTIONB

The rest of the officers and men were put on the Section B Reserve List when they left the Army. They would be recalled in the event of a war and put to work manning facilities across Great Britain. Basic pay was 3s 6d a week. Section B Reservists could transfer to Section A if there was a vacancy within 6 months of their discharge.

There was no Section C in August 1914.

SECTIONDORSUPPLEMENTALRESERVE

A man could extend his term on the Reserve for an extra 4 years, receiving a payment of 3s 6d a week in return. Section D Reservists would be called up if Section B had been exhausted.

The Regulars and Reservists marched mile after mile during the opening weeks of the war, either being chased by, or chasing the German armies across the French countryside. (IWM Q60734)

On the declaration of war many Reservists reported to their depots and, while willing Section A and B Reservists were posted to Regular battalions, the rest joined Special Reserve battalions. Others preferred to join one of Kitchener’s New Army units.

SPECIALRESERVE

Men wanting to try Army life, without giving a full commitment, could join the 64,000-strong Special Reserve. They enlisted for 6 years with an option to extend another 4. After 6 months’ training they returned to their jobs, attending 4 weeks’ training a year. They could be called up if there was a general mobilization. They had to re-enlist on an annual basis and were only paid if they were called up.

By August 1914 there were 100 Special Reserve and Extra Reserve battalions (the different types of battalions are explained further in Chapter 5) based at the regimental headquarters. They served as regimental administrative bases and were run by 8 officers, a regimental sergeant-major, 38 NCOs, and 50 men. These battalions also acted as recruiting centres. The 3 Special Reserve cavalry regiments, the North Irish Horse, the South Irish Horse and King Edward’s Horse, all served in France and Flanders.

The Special Reserve was split into two sections:

SECTIONA

4,000 men liable for 12 months’ overseas service.

SECTIONB

Skilled men were particularly valuable and they were split into three categories:

Category A: Artillery, Engineers and other services, South Irish Horse, King Edward’s Horse.

Category B: Territorial soldiers who had agreed to the Special Reserve conditions, known as the Imperial Service Obligation.

Category C: Army Service Corps Transport drivers.

The Special Reserve of Officers was for civilians with a desire to be an army officer.

THENATIONALRESERVE

The Territorial Force county associations kept a register of 215,000 men with military experience who had no Reserve obligation. They were divided in three classes.

Class I: Under 42 years in age.

Class II: Home service men; officers and senior ranks under 55 years of age, junior ranks under 50.

Class III: Medically unfit.

The National Reserve was organized in Protection Companies and attached to Territorial battalions in October 1914. The men were invited to help guard railways and important locations across the country but a month later they were instructed to present themselves for enlistment; the overwhelming majority joined up. The Protection Companies were renamed Supernumerary Companies in March 1915 but, as the number of men joining up started to fall, the fit men were transferred in July 1915:

Category A: Posted to Service battalions.

Category B: Formed the 18th to 24th Battalions of the Rifle Brigade.

Category C: Posted to Provisional battalions.

Those incapable of marching 10 miles were transferred to the new Royal Defence Corps.

By November 1914 the Reservists had been deployed and although the Special Reservists had been drafted, some were unfit, elderly or unwilling; most were transferred to the six Special Reserve siege and railway companies during the first winter of the war.

THETERRITORIALFORCE

Once the Expeditionary Force had left for France, the defence of the British Isles was left to the Territorial Force and the Special Reserve. Pre-arranged mobilization plans made sure that Special Reserve infantry and the Territorial Force artillery were guarding the ports by 9 August while the 14 Territorial divisions were in position along the coast by the 18th. General Sir Ian Hamilton controlled the 200,000-strong Central Force and the men continued their training while on coastal duty. When it was time for the 1st Line Territorial divisions to leave for France, 2nd Line Territorial divisions took their place.

OVERSEASCOMMITMENT

Over 17,500 Territorial soldiers had already committed themselves to overseas service by signing the Imperial Service Obligation, and on 15 September the rest were given the opportunity to volunteer. Battalions would be designated ‘General Service’ if over 60% of the men volunteered and came under War Office control when new recruits had increased the numbers to 25% over establishment. The enthusiasm of the ‘Terriers’ meant that every unit met the criteria.

Battalions were split into two. General service men stayed with the 1st Line battalions while the home service men joined new recruits in 2nd Line battalions. Sometimes there were enough volunteers to make a second General Service battalion and a 3rd Line battalion was organized for the home service men and recruits.

RECRUITMENTINTHETERRITORIALARMY

The Secretary of State for War, Lord Kitchener, wanted the New Armies to take precedence over the Territorial divisions so they did not reduce the public and private support for the pals battalions (described below). The Territorials suffered as they were called upon to release officers and NCOs to instruct their rivals.

Men crowd towards the gangplank as their ship docks in Boulogne harbour. The camouflage paint was used to break up the vessel’s silhouette. (IWM Q7252)

The decision meant that there was no surge of volunteers for the Territorials during the opening weeks of the war. However, the county associations continued to attract recruits for the 2nd and 3rd Line battalions and the number of Territorial Force soldiers had more than doubled by the end of 1914; the first appeal for new volunteers did not appear until the autumn of 1915. The cautious approach to recruitment allowed the battalions to form at a steady rate, preventing many of the frustrations felt in the New Armies.

DEPLOYMENTOFTHETERRITORIALDIVISIONS

Many units in the 14 infantry divisions were on their annual summer camp when war broke out and immediately deployed to their war stations.

A new headquarters, GHQ Central Force, was formed on the outbreak of war to control home defence. It was divided into First, Second and Third Armies and with 8 divisions moved to the coast; the remainder gathered in southern England.

COASTALPROTECTION

Lowland Division (52nd): Firth of Forth defences in Scotland.

Northumbrian Division (50th): Tyne defences around Newcastle.

West Riding Division (49th): Yorkshire and Lincolnshire coast.

East Anglian Division (54th): Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex ports.

Home Counties Division (44th): Kent and East Sussex ports.

1st Wessex Division (43rd): Somerset, Devon and Cornwall.

2nd Wessex Division (45th): Replaced the 1st Wessex Division when it sailed to India.

West Lancashire Division (55th): Lancashire coast, covering Liverpool.

CENTRALFORCE

North Midland Division (46th): Luton area.

2nd London Division (47th): St Albans area.

South Midland Division (48th): Chelmsford area.

Highland Division (51st): Bedford area.

Welsh Division (53rd): Northampton area.

1st London Division (56th): London area.

The Northumbrian (50th) and West Riding (49th) Divisions were also part of Central Force. 2nd Wessex (45th) Division, a duplicate of 1st Wessex (43rd) Division, was formed quickly and is usually classed as a 1st Line Territorial division but can be considered as a 2nd Line division.

OVERSEASGARRISONS

Territorial battalions were quickly deployed to overseas garrisons, releasing Regular battalions for service in Europe. Eighteen were sent to protect the Mediterranean supply line in September 1914; the Home Counties Division sent 2 battalions to Gibraltar, the 1st London Division sent 4 battalions to protect Malta while the East Lancashire Division sent all 12 of its battalions to man the Suez Canal defences in Egypt (the division would move to Gallipoli in May 1915). The Army then replaced Regular battalions in India with Territorial battalions. Twenty-four battalions of the 1st Wessex and Home Counties Divisions were despatched in October; the 2nd Wessex Division followed in December.

WINTERCHANGES

During the winter of 1914–15 steps were taken to prepare the Territorials for overseas service but the lack of facilities made training difficult. The North Midland Division moved to Essex to train; the Welsh Division spent the winter in billets around Cambridge before moving to Bedford in May 1915; the East Anglian Division moved to St Albans at the same time. Meanwhile, 29 battalions were sent to France between November and March to bolster the strength of the Regular divisions. These were as follows: Highland Division 6 battalions; Lowland Division 3; Welsh Division 6; East Anglian Division 3; West Lancashire Division 9; 1st London Division 2. The West Lancashire Division and 1st London Division were disbanded in April 1915; they would be re-formed in France at the start of 1916.

The first complete territorial division to leave for France was the North Midland Division at the end of February 1915. The 2nd London and South Midland Divisions followed in March and by the end of April the West Riding, Northumbrian and Highland Divisions were all engaged on the Western Front.

The Lowland Division left in May 1915 to reinforce the landings at Helles on Gallipoli while the Welsh and East Anglian Divisions left in July to take part in new landings on the peninsula at Suvla.

Captain Bruce Bairnsfather drew many cartoons depicting trench life and the caption to this one sums up the attitude of long-serving soldiers to new arrivals:

Up last draft: ‘I suppose you ’as to be careful ’ow you looks over the parapet about ’ere.’

Out since Mons: ‘You needn’t worry, me lad; the rats are going to be your only trouble.’

MOUNTEDDIVISIONS

1st Mounted Division formed in Norfolk and Suffolk in August 1914 and 2nd Mounted Division formed on 2 September in Suffolk. They were deployed on coastal duties.

INDEPENDENTMOUNTEDBRIGADES

The Highland Mounted Brigade and the South-Western Mounted Brigade acted independently.

2NDLINETERRITORIALDIVISIONS

After the Home Service men had been identified, they were organized into 2nd Line battalions and on 31 August authority was given to form 14 duplicate 2nd Line divisions, one for each 1st Line division (they were numbered in April 1915):

2nd Wessex Division (45th)

2nd West Lancashire Division (57th)

2nd/1st London Division (58th)

2nd North Midland Division (59th)

2nd/2nd London Division (60th)

2nd South Midland Division (61st)

2nd West Riding Division (62nd)

2nd Northumbrian Division (63rd)

2nd Highland Division (64th)

2nd Lowland Division (65th)

2nd East Lancashire Division (66th)

2nd Home Counties Division (67th)

2nd Welsh Division (68th)

2nd East Anglian Division (69th)

Recruiting began in earnest in September 1914 and the divisions began to form in November 1914 though the men continued to live at home during the winter months. The divisions had reached full establishment by the spring of 1915 and replaced the 1st Line divisions in Central Force or along the coast.

COASTALDEFENCES

62nd Division: Yorkshire and Lincolnshire.

63rd Division: Tyne defences.

64th Division: Firth of Tay defences.

65th Division: Firth of Forth defences.

CENTRALFORCE

First Army:

61st, 68th and 69th Divisions in Suffolk and Northamptonshire.

Second Army:

57th and 67th Divisions in Surrey and Kent; 66th Division joined in August.

Third Army:

59th and 60th Divisions in Hertfordshire and Essex; 61st Division transferred from First Army in April and 58th Division joined in August.

The government decided to send some of the divisions to France and another selection was made in August 1915; 3rd Line units were formed for Home Service men and recruits. During training men were continuously drafted overseas to join 1st Line divisions and units struggled to keep up to strength.

Kitchener’s imposing figure enticed many young men to join the New Armies. (IWM Q48378)

Third Army disbanded over the winter of 1915–16 and 3 divisions moved to Salisbury Plain to complete their training; 60th and 61st sailed to France in June.

REORGANISINGHOMEDEFENCE

By March 1916 seven of the 2nd Line Territorial divisions were preparing to leave England, requiring a reorganization of Central Force. It was split into Northern and Southern Armies; reporting to Field Marshal Sir John French, now the Commander-in-Chief of Home Forces.

NORTHERNARMY

58th, 62nd and 64th Divisions covered the east coast as far south as Norfolk.

SOUTHERNARMY

65th, 66th and 67th Divisions covered the Suffolk, Essex and Kent coast.

In April 1916 59th Division was posted to Ireland to suppress the Easter Rising (65th Division took its place in September). Two divisions were based at Aldershot and Salisbury Plain during the second half of 1916 as an Emergency Reserve while a third division formed the General Reserve for Home Forces.

Five divisions (57th, 58th, 59th, 62nd and 66th) left for the Western Front at the start of 1917, leaving 3 divisions covering the Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex coasts (they reported to XXIII Corps after February 1918); they remained in England until the end of the war.

HOMESERVICEDIVISIONS

In November 1916, 71st, 72nd and 73rd Divisions (there was no 70th Division) were formed from a mixture of Provisional, Garrison and 2nd Line Territorial battalions. Two guarded the south coast while the third covered the Lancashire coast. The Provisional battalions were affiliated to line regiments in April 1917 and the divisions joined Southern Army. Graduated battalions (made up of new conscripts) of the Training Reserve replaced some battalions but the Home Service divisions were disbanded in 1918.

KITCHENER’SRECRUITMENTCAMPAIGN

On 5 August 1914 Field Marshal Earl Kitchener was appointed Secretary of State for War and the following day the House of Commons authorized the Regular Army to treble in size, aiming to add 500,000 men between the ages of 19 and 30. The announcement overturned Viscount Haldane’s plans to use the county associations for recruitment. Kitchener was one of the few leaders who believed that the war would not be over by Christmas and he therefore wanted to raise 70 new divisions over the next 3 years; it was going to need the full mobilization of British manpower.

Kitchener wanted to create a New Army avoiding the traditional class conditions of the Regular Army. He believed that the Territorial Force did not have the appropriate structure or facilities to cope with the expansion and was concerned that the home service restrictions would complicate recruitment. His New Army was for volunteers signing up for 3 years’ overseas service or for the duration of the war.

A massive propaganda campaign started on 11 August, calling for 100,000 men. The public responded immediately to the call ‘Your King and Country Need You’, and thousands of men flocked to recruiting offices.

The reasons why men volunteered for the Army were many, not least that the British people had not been involved in a major overseas conflict since 1815. Daily reports of the heroic deeds of the BEF at Mons and on the retreat to the Marne helped to inspire many men while others were swayed by popular propaganda. Peer pressure and the desire to join with friends or to attract the ladies persuaded others to volunteer. Many men had a genuine ambition to escape their humdrum lives, and wanted to see the world; others wanted to escape family or financial troubles.

Temporary recruiting offices were kept busy as hundreds of men queued up to take their turn filling in the forms and passing a medical examination. After the new recruit had sworn the oath and taken the King’s Shilling (the recruiting sergeant was awarded sixpence per man) the new recruit returned home to wait for his travel warrant and instructions.

Men with previous Army service could re-enlist up to the age of 45 but some volunteers lied about their age to avoid rejection. Many under-age boys and over-age men were also encouraged to sign up by the eager recruiting sergeants.

Volunteers were normally assigned to units of the New Armies and most were allowed to choose which branch of the service they wanted to serve in. Thousands enlisted in local units, many of them raised by dignitaries or organizations, while others travelled miles to join a particular regiment or corps.

By the middle of September 1914, 500,000 men had volunteered, forcing the Army to introduce a temporary increase in physical standards to reduce the number of recruits. Numbers had topped a million by February 1915 and 1.5 million in September 1915.

THENEWARMIES

Thirty New Army divisions, grouped into 5 New Armies, eventually saw overseas service. The New Army infantry divisions (there were no New Army cavalry divisions) were organized along the same lines as the Regular divisions.

FIRSTNEWARMY: K1

Following Parliament’s agreement to add 500,000 men to the Army on 6 August 1914, a proclamation was issued on 11 August 1914 asking 100,000 volunteers aged between 19 and 30 to sign up for General Service. Enough troops for 6 divisions had been signed up by the end of the month and as they assembled at their training grounds across the United Kingdom an Army Order authorized their formation into divisions, numbering them 8th to 13th (8th was renumbered 14th when the 8th Regular Division formed). The First New Army of 6 divisions was constituted on 21 August 1914.

Infantry battalions were given consecutive numbers in their regiments following the Territorials, with the word Service after the unit number. Most line infantry regiments raised one K1 battalion but some raised two.

The divisions were as follows:

9th (Scottish) Division: Assembled on Salisbury Plain in September 1914.

10th (Irish) Division: Moved to Basingstoke in England in May 1915.

11th (Northern) Division: Spent the winter around Grantham, moving to Aldershot in April 1915.

A grim-faced sergeant looks on as the officer leans on his crutches to hear new recruits swear the oath on the Bible. (IWM Q30071)

12th (Eastern) Division: Assembled around Colchester; winter weather forced the men into billets around Hythe; the division reached Aldershot in February 1915.

13th (Western) Division: Gathered on Salisbury Plain, then spent the winter in billets around Chiseldon, Cirencester and Basingstoke; returned to Salisbury Plain in February 1915.