The Global Manufacturing Revolution E-Book

Yoram Koren

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Wiley Series in Systems Engineering and Management
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 670

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2010

Beschreibung

The concrete tools manufacturing enterprises need to thrive in today's global environment

For a manufacturing enterprise to succeed in this current volatile economic environment, a revolution is needed in restructuring its three main components: product design, manufacturing, and business model. The Global Manufacturing Revolution is the first book to focus on these issues. Based on the author's long-standing course work at the University of Michigan, this unique volume proposes new technologies and new business strategies that can increase an enterprise's speed of responsiveness to volatile markets, as well as enhance the integration of its own engineering and business.

Introduced here are innovations to the entire manufacturing culture:

• An original approach to the analysis of manufacturing paradigms

• Suggested methods for developing creativity in product design

• A quantitative analysis of manufacturing system configurations

• A new manufacturing "reconfigurable" paradigm, in which the speed of responsiveness is the prime business goal

• An original approach to using information technology for workforce empowerment

The book also offers analysis and original models of previous manufacturing paradigms' technical and business dimensions—including mass production and mass customization—in order to fully explain the current revolution in global manufacturing enterprises. In addition, 200 original illustrations and pictures help to clarify the topics.

Globalization is creating both opportunities and challenges for companies that manufacture durable goods. The tools, theories, and case studies in this volume will be invaluable to engineers pursuing leadership careers in the manufacturing industry, as well as to leaders of global enterprises and business students who are motivated to lead manufacturing enterprises and ensure their growth.

Leseprobe

Also written by Yoram Koren

Computer Control of Manufacturing Systems

and

Robotics for Engineers

both published by McGraw Hill, New York

and

Numerical Control of Machine Tools

published by Kahana Publishers, Delhi

Copyright

Copyright © 2010 by John Wiley & Sons.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written vsales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-470-58377-7

Dedication

Dedicated to my loving and supporting wife, Alina, who encouraged the writing of this book

In memory of Professor Shien-Ming (Sam) Wu (1924-1992) Pioneer in introducing advanced statistical techniques to manufacturing research

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Also written by Yoram Koren

Copyright

Preface

Acknowledgments

1 - Globalization and Manufacturing Paradigms

1.1 - The Importance of Manufacturing to Society

1.2 - The Basics of Manufacturing in Large Quantities

1.3 - The 1990s: A Decade of Intensified Globalization

1.4 - The Global Manufacturing Revolution

1.5 - The Manufacturing Paradigm Model

1.6 - Four Major Manufacturing Paradigms

1.7 - Paradigm Transitions Over Time

Problems

References

2 - Product Invention Strategy

2.1 - Technology-Driven Products

2.2 - Customer-Driven Products

2.3 - Competition-Driven Products

2.4 - Classification of Product Inventions

2.5 - Product Development for Globalization

2.6 - The Product Development Process

2.7 - Head in the Sky, Feet on the Ground—Be a Dreamer on a Solid Foundation

Problems

References

3 - Customized, Personalized and Reconfigurable Products

3.1 - Introduction to Customization

3.2 - Design for Mass Customization

3.3 - Personalized Products

3.4 - Product Modularity

3.5 - Reconfigurable Products

3.6 - Design of Customized and Reconfigurable Products

Problems

References

4 - Mass Production and Lean Manufacturing

4.1 - The Principles of Mass Production

4.2 - Supply and Demand

4.3 - The Mathematical Model of Mass Production

4.4 - Lean Production—Goals and Benefits

4.5 - The Principles of Lean Production

Problems

References

5 - Analysis of Mass Customization

5.1 - Introduction to Mass Customization

5.2 - Business Strategies of Mass Customization

5.3 - Manufacturing System Characteristics

5.4 - Economics of Product Variation

5.5 - Mathematical Analysis of Mass Customization

5.6 - Summary

Problems

6 - Traditional Manufacturing Systems

6.1 - Manufacturing Systems

6.2 - Production of Complex Products

6.3 - The State of Art at the End of the Twentieth Century

6.4 - Assembly Systems

6.5 - Industry Experience with FMS—A Survey

Problems

References

7 - Economics of System Design

7.1 - Life-Cycle Economics

7.2 - Capacity Planning Strategies

7.3 - Economics of System Configurations

7.4 - The Economics of Buffers

7.5 - Batch Production

7.6 - Optimal Cutting Speeds

Problems

References

8 - Reconfigurable Machines

8.1 - The Rationale for Reconfigurable Machines

8.2 - Characteristics and Principles of Reconfigurable Machines

8.3 - Reconfigurable Machine Tools

8.4 - Reconfigurable Fixtures

8.5 - Reconfigurable Inspection Machines

8.6 - Open-Architecture Controllers

Problems

References

9 - Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems

9.1 - The Challenges of Globalization

9.2 - RMS—A New Class of Systems

9.3 - Characteristics and Principles of Reconfiguration

9.4 - Integrated RMS Configurations

9.5 - System Rapid Ramp-Up

9.6 - Hexagonal RMS Configurations

Problems

References

10 - System Configuration Analysis

10.1 - Classification of Configurations

10.2 - Comparing RMS with Cell Configurations

10.3 - Calculating the Number of RMS Configurations

10.4 - Example of System Design

10.5 - Impact of Configuration on Performance

Problems

References

11 - Business Models for Global Manufacturing Enterprises

11.1 - Examples of Business Models

11.2 - Business Model of Manufacturing Companies

11.3 - Competitive Advantage

11.4 - Strategic Resources

11.5 - Supply Chains

11.6 - Responsive Business Models for Global Opportunities

11.7 - Product Life cycle Business Model

Problems

Case Study I—The Rise and Fail of FriendlyRobotics

Case Study II—He Bet on Botox and Won

References

12 - IT-Based Enterprise Organizational Structure

12.1 - Twentieth-Century Organizational Structure

12.2 - Twenty-First Century IT-Based Organizational Structure

12.3 - Information Transfer in Manufacturing Systems

12.4 - IT-Based Maintenance of Large Systems

Problems

References

13 - Enterprise Globalization Strategies

13.1 - Why Enterprises Become Global

13.2 - Countries of Potential New Markets

13.3 - Product Design for Globalization

13.4 - Location of Manufacturing Plants

13.5 - Global Business Strategies

13.6 - Global Strategic Alliances

Problems

References

14 - The Twenty-first Century Global Manufacturing Enterprise

14.1 - P—Productivity

14.2 - R—Responsiveness and Reconfiguration

14.3 - I—Integration of Product, Process, and Business

14.4 - D—Design for the Global Manufacturing Paradigm

14.5 - E—Empowerment of the Workforce

14.6 - The Dilemma of Globalization

14.7 - Where are Manufacturing Enterprises Headed?

References

Appendix A: Computer Controlled Milling Machine in 1973

Appendix B: Three Types of Manufacturing Systems

Appendix C: Business Cycles

Appendix D: Term Project: Project Description and Requirements

Author Biography

Author Index

Subject Index

Series Plate

Preface

I began teaching a class on global manufacturing in 1995. Since there were no books on this topic (and prior to this publication, there are still none) I started to write this book in 2002. The first edition of this book was submitted to an NSF review panel in May 2004. This current 2009 edition includes much new data, additional numerical examples, and professionally done drawings.

The book is intended for engineers who desire to pursue managerial careers in the manufacturing industry, to students in business schools who are motivated to lead manufacturing enterprises, as well as to leaders of global enterprises. It provides the tools and knowledge needed for making manufacturing enterprises thrive and ensure their growth in a global environment.

The theme of the book is: “globalization creates both opportunities and challenges for companies that manufacture durable goods.” My main challenge in writing a book on globalization is that the pace of events involving the manufacturing industry in the last few years is changing faster than my writing speed. The book aims at helping manufacturing companies to succeed in this turbulent business environment of a newly interconnected world where all competitors have similar opportunities. The book proposes new technologies and new business strategies that can increase an enterprise's responsiveness to volatile markets and enhance the integration of its own engineering and business. Both are crucial for global success.

For manufacturing enterprises to succeed in this current volatile economic environment, a revolution is needed in restructuring all three main components of a manufacturing enterprise: product design, manufacturing, and business model. A company can succeed in globalization if and only if it has (1) a sound strategy for developing new innovative products that fit cultural needs in several world's regions, (2) business models that encompass a global strategy, and (3) factories with reconfigurable manufacturing systems (RMS) that can be rapidly changed to produce new products and quickly respond to changes in market demand. These topics are covered and mathematically analyzed in this book.

I first became concerned about the future impact of globalization on the U.S. manufacturing industry and jobs in the early 1990s. In 1992, the European Union had been formed, and in 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) became public. People in the United States were becoming acutely concerned for the future of the domestic automotive industry. We looked for technical solutions and wrote a large proposal to the National Science Foundation (NSF).

On August 1, 1996, we opened the Engineering Research Center (ERC) for RMS with an 11-year grant of $35 million from the NSF to develop and implement reconfigurable systems. Establishing the RMS Center opened the era of reconfigurable manufacturing in which the speed of responsiveness is the prime business goal and reconfiguration is an important technology enabler for achieving our goal:

“Exactly the capacity and functionality needed, exactly when needed.”

To understand the current revolution in global manufacturing enterprises it is necessary to analyze the technical and business dimensions of previous manufacturing paradigms, such as mass production and mass customization. Original models are offered here to study these paradigms. This book introduces many innovations to the whole manufacturing culture: an original approach to the analysis of paradigms; suggested methods for developing creativity in product design; a quantitative analysis of manufacturing system configurations; discussions of the globalization impact on enterprises, and an original approach to the use of information technology for workforce empowerment. The book contains 200 original illustrations and pictures that clarify the topics.

Chapters 2 and 3 of this book deal with product design for globalization with emphasis on creativity and developing innovation skills. The topic of Chapters 6 through 10 is manufacturing systems, including thorough analysis of RMS. Chapters 11, 12, and 13 focus on business issues relevant to manufacturing enterprises: business models, company organization, and enterprise globalization strategies needed in the twenty-first century. The focus of Chapters 1, 4, 5 and 14 is the integration of product–manufacturing-system–business. This integration is the systems-view approach that is very essential for leading manufacturing enterprises in the future.

This book is unique in focusing on these globalization issues; as of this printing there have been no others. Thomas Friedman's famous book, The World is Flat, deals with the impact of globalization on society and business. Although his work does not discuss manufacturing in detail, it explains how the newly leveled playing field of an integrated world has created a revolution in global business. We have been energized by Friedman's work but we have focused on the manufacturing industry and offered many concrete enterprise and engineering solutions.

This serves as a textbook for a graduate-level class entitled “Global Manufacturing,” which is offered at the University of Michigan to graduate engineering students and MBA students. Student's assignments include solving problems, submitting chapter reviews, and a team project that is described in Appendix D. The publisher's website includes material that may help instructors in teaching a similar course. Throughout each chapter we have included the comments of students of previous classes about the material presented. Since the book introduces new ideas, original models, and novel technologies, I asked students (most of whom have had at least some industrial background) to compare their experience with the theories and claims made in the book. I am grateful for their contributions and find them to be very thoughtful and enlightening.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife Alina, who suggested that I write this book and encouraged me through its writing; to Rod Hill for the many professionally prepared illustrations and cartoons and for his editorial support; to my colleagues for their interest and assistance; and to the readers who sent comments, only a small sample of which could be published here.

Yoram Koren

College of Engineering

The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

August 1, 2009

Acknowledgments

This book has drawn on the talents of the researchers at the NSF-sponsored Engineering Research Center for Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems (ERC-RMS), at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, as well as the numerous committed industry members of the Center. The generous financial support of the Engineering Directorate at NSF to the ERC-RMS during the years 1996 to 2007 (NSF Grant EEC95–92125) is gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks to Lynn Preston, the director of the ERC program at NSF.

Chapter 1

Globalization and Manufacturing Paradigms

Globalization is the integration and interdependency of world markets and resources in producing consumer goods and services

Globalization has created a new, unprecedented landscape for the manufacturing industry, one of fierce competition, short windows of market opportunity, frequent product introductions, and rapid changes in product demand. Indeed, globalization is challenging, but it presents both threats and opportunities. To capitalize on the opportunities, industry needs to offer products that are innovative and also can be made to appeal to buyers from many cultures so they can be sold all over the globe. The challenge, however, is to succeed in a turbulent business environment where all competitors have similar opportunities.

Success in such a turbulent environment requires a global enterprise structure that can rapidly respond to changing markets and customer's needs. This enterprise should be equipped with a manufacturing system that can be rapidly changed and reconfigured to respond to volatile demand. This new generation of manufacturing systems will need to be reconfigured within two categories: product quantities (changed capacity) and product mix (changed functionality). Capacity reconfiguration is needed to produce exactly the product quantities required by the market at any given time. Manufacturing system and supply-chain functionality must also be reconfigured to support an accelerated pace of product innovation, and to produce the right mix of products required by various regions around the globe.

In short, a new global manufacturing revolution is needed to succeed in the new global economy; it must be a revolution based on responsive manufacturing systems and responsive business models. Responsive business models should aim at expanding into global markets by developing products that fit the culture of those markets and can be sold there. The business model must encompass not only selling, but also the international buying of components, and establishing global supply chains. The global enterprise should more closely integrate product design with its manufacturing systems and its global business model.

Charles R. Darwin's statement in his book On the Origin of Speciesa: “It is not the strongest species that survive, nor the most intelligent, but the ones most responsive to change,” is now valid for global manufacturing enterprises.

1.1 The Importance of Manufacturing to Society

Why are we worried about manufacturing in the twenty-first century? Isn't manufacturing an “old-economy” profession that should be relegated to only poor countries? Is manufacturing really so important for a fully developed nation in the global economy?

Manufacturing is today, as it always has been, a cornerstone of the U.S. economy as it is for other developed nations. Having a strong base of manufacturing is important to any advanced country because it impels and stimulates all the other sectors of the economy. It provides a wide variety of jobs, both blue- and white-collar jobs, which bring higher standards of living to many sectors in society, and builds a strong middle class. Simply put, its most important benefit to society is that manufacturing creates wealth.

Think about this:

Only art, agriculture, construction, and manufacturing, and more recently the software industry, create something of value from nothing.

However, there is a big difference in the types of jobs that each industry creates.

An important advantage of manufacturing is that it creates a whole range of diverse jobs. Whereas agriculture and construction generate lots of low-skilled jobs, and art and software create a few jobs for higher-skilled elites, manufacturing calls on the skills of everyone from entry-level factory workers to scientists, engineers, and business professionals.

To meet its far-ranging needs, manufacturing stimulates employment in other sectors of the economy. It has been calculated in 2001 by the Association of Manufacturing Technology (AMT) that each $1 million in sales of manufacturing goods produced in the United States supports eight jobs in the manufacturing sector and an additional six jobs in other sectors, such as information technology (IT), transportation, and construction. That means an average of 14 jobs are created by the U.S. manufacturing industry for each $1 million in sales. No other sector comes even close.

American manufacturing has been a strong contributor to the U.S. national economy for generations. In addition, gains in manufacturing productivity pass down to other sectors, building wealth and generating employment through the whole economy. The finished goods amount to only a portion of manufacturing's value. Production of intermediate-level goods (parts included in other products like engines, compressors, pumps, etc.) contributes significantly to the economy. Further, the design and production of manufacturing infrastructure, tooling, and equipment are industries of their own. And this says nothing of the high levels of transportation, information, and communications infrastructure that are all required to support world-class manufacturing. Because of its scale and volume, no other industry can replace manufacturing industry in any nation's economy. While the products America builds may and must change over time, domestic manufacturing continues to play a critical role in U.S. prosperity.

Manufacturing was, is, and shall remain the foundation of a strong economy. No other sector can replace it. Without a solid manufacturing base, the service and finance sectors will collapse.

As shown in Figure 1.1, the percentage of GDP of the U.S. private manufacturing sector has been gradually declining from 32% in 1950 to 13.4% in 2007.b From 1950, the manufacturing sector was constantly the highest in GDP percentage until 2005. In 2006, the real-estate sector moved ahead (14.9%) with manufacturing second (13.8%), and, as depicted in Figure 1.2, these sectors were 14.3% (real-estate) and 13.4% (manufacturing). However, even 13% is still a huge portion of the economy. In fact, manufacturing still remains the largest productive sector in the overall U.S. economy.

Figure 1.1 Manufacturing share of the U.S. Gross Domestic Product, 1950–2007 (as a percentage of the private industry).

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis.

Figure 1.2 Decomposition of private industries in 2007.

The GDP percentages of several sectors of the economy are shown in Table 1.1. In the late 1980s, “information” emerged as a new sector, which gradually increased to 5% in 2000. It is worth noting that, since 1990, investments in IT on behalf of manufacturing enterprises have contributed significantly to development of the information sector.

Table 1.1 Sectors of Private Industries From 1970 to 2006 (in %)

Table 1.1 shows that the productive sectors of the economy halved in 35 years. Simultaneously with the 50% decline in manufacturing in the last 35 years, agriculture also declined at the same percentage. During the same period, the service sectors (including education, health, finance, and insurance) doubled. These data show that the U.S. economy is becoming more of a service economy than an economy that creates tangible wealth. But, is this a healthy trend?

Some renowned economists argue that the future of the United States is in the service industry. However, many portions of the service industry depend on the domestic manufacturing industry—trucking, financing, education, and infrastructure. Furthermore, an export of the service industry is very limited. A balance of export and trade is vital to a nation's economy, and therefore for the economy to thrive, manufacturing must remain healthy.

Advanced industrial countries, including the United States, heavily subsidize agriculture, rendering that sectors benefit to the nation's economy as questionable. And yet, by contrast, manufacturing is not subsidized in the United States, even though its growth directly contributes to the wealth of the country.

Enhancing manufacturing growth depends on increasing productivity and inventing manufacturing technologies. Many major innovations in manufacturing methods originated in the United States—the invention of mass production by Henry Ford at the beginning of the twentieth century, the invention of numerical control (NC) machines of the 1950s, and the invention of reconfigurable manufacturing systems (RMSs) in the late 1990s. Coincidently, these three inventions that contribute to productivity improvements were started in the state of Michigan—the first in Dearborn, the second in Traverse City, and latest in Ann Arbor.

1.2 The Basics of Manufacturing in Large Quantities

Manufacturing revolves around the production of quantities of new products. First, the product is developed, then it is manufactured, and finally it is sold to customers. Important factors for product developers to consider include how products look, how they work, and how the user interacts with them. To verify the product design, a product prototype is often constructed and tested to validate the design and product functionality. A prototype is built as a one-of-a-kind, essentially a work of art, and that can take a lot of time and labor. Even so, the prototyping method can be cost-effective when only a handful of copies are ever going to be sold.

When the manufacturer intends to produce large quantities of the product, as in the production of automobiles, refrigerators, or microprocessors, a more economical method is required. If large quantities were produced in the same way as the prototype, each product could be 10–20 times more expensive than the ones produced by a well-designed manufacturing system. For large quantities of products, a manufacturing system capable of mass production has to be developed.

The goal of a manufacturing system is to produce high-quality products at a fraction of what it took to build the prototype, so they can be sold at a marketable price. The manufacturing system achieves “economies of scale” that the prototype shop cannot, neither in output nor in consistency. In a globally competitive environment, designing a cost-effective manufacturing system and operating it efficiently is a key competitive challenge especially when competitors have an advantage in countries where labor costs are substantially smaller.

Manufacturing systems typically consist of multiple stages, where each stage contains a machine or an assembly station to perform a given set of operations, as is illustrated in Figure 1.3. The machines are connected with a material transport system.

Figure 1.3 Examples of multi-stage manufacturing systems: six stages (top) and five stages (bottom).

When the operations in one stage are completed, the raw product is transferred to the next stage, and so forth until all needed operations are completed and the product is finished. When especially large quantities are needed, multiple machines (or assembly stations) can be installed in parallel to perform the same operations at the same time on each machine (Figure 1.3, bottom), which increases the system throughput but makes the system design and operation more complex.

Most manufacturing is applied in multi-stage systems including assembly, such as those used to build automobiles, office chairs, or personal computers from given parts; or they may be systems with chemical processes, such as those on which semi-conductor wafers are produced; or they may be machining systems for products that have to be machined, such as engine blocks, motors, pumps, and compressors. In machining systems, the products start out as rough castings that have to be drilled, milled, shaped, and polished using computerized numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools.

1.2.1 Dedicated and Flexible Systems

At the dawn of the twenty-first century, industries around the world used two basic types of manufacturing systems: dedicated manufacturing lines (DMLs) and flexible manufacturing systems (FMSs). Dedicated lines (often referred to as “transfer lines”) are designed to produce very large quantities of just one product, and they operate at very high productivity because the machines are simple and robustly designed. For example, engine blocks for cars can be machined on dedicated machining lines at a cycle time of 30 seconds (two engines are produced every minute). Therefore, once the line is properly tuned and calibrated, and as long as the dedicated line operates at its planned high-volume capacity, it produces products very quickly at very attractive prices (but it is only able to produce that one single product per line).

So what happens when there is no longer a need for that many engines, and demand is reduced to say one engine every 3 minutes (1/6 of the line designed capacity)? When that happens the dedicated line is underutilized, and therefore, the cost per product becomes higher. A report published in Italy1 in 1998 indicated that the average utilization of the surveyed DMLs in the European auto-industry was only 53%. That means that barely half of the potential capacity was being utilized and the lines stood idle for long periods.

Furthermore, DMLs cannot be easily converted to produce new products even if they are similar and of the same product family. In the new global manufacturing paradigm, this is the main drawback of DMLs. With globalization, the marketable life of products is becoming shorter and shorter, and new products are being introduced faster and faster. These realities make DMLs uneconomical, and in fact they are vanishing in many manufacturing industries.

On the other end of the product volume versus variety spectrum (Figure 1.4) are FMSs. Unlike DMLs where each machine does a few simple operations, FMSs include machines that are capable of performing a variety of operations, and by extension can produce a large range of different products. FMSs, however, fit the factory portfolio only when relatively small product volumes are needed because they are slow and expensive (compared to DMLs).

Figure 1.4 Volume–variety spectrum.

FMS systems are expensive most particularly because the equipment possesses features enabling general flexibility that are expensive to build and maintain. Obtaining general flexibility requires added degrees of freedom, motors, mechanical components, and complex control. They are also expensive in the sense that companies typically purchase machines with more functionality than they really need, because they think they may use them in the future. However, the extra flexibility and functionality that the general-purpose FMS can offer is in many cases a waste of resources, since the extra cost paid for this general functionality equals unrealized capital investment until the extra functionality is actually used. Experience shows these extra resources are rarely utilized.c

The spectrum of products that are produced with FMS is quite large, and includes optical parts, missiles, aircrafts, automotive engines, integrated circuit boards, and even shoes. There are even applications in which the FMS is not built for multi-stage operations. In these cases, the FMS consists of a group of identical CNC machines that are arranged in parallel and each machine does the whole set of operations.

1.2.2 Business Models

Products are developed, then manufactured, and finally sold. The business unit of the manufacturing enterprise is in charge of marketing and selling, and the business model actually drives the whole enterprise. Our definition of a business model is:

A business model is a strategic approach for creating economic value for the company by utilizing the competitive advantage of the company, for enhancing the product value to its customers

A business model considers three essential elements: (1) economic value (e.g., profit from selling products); (2) competitive advantage (over competitors); and (3) value to the customer. The business model should define who the customer is and how to create economic value for the company by providing customers with a product or service from which they can derive benefit.

For some products it is not so easy to define who is the customer, and a thorough understanding of the market may be required. Suppose a manufacturer tries to market a mechanical mini-robot that aids in orthopedic surgery. The customers of this technology are, in the order of importance: (1) orthopedic surgeons, (2) hospitals, (3) insurance companies, and (4) the patients. Yes, the patients come last. If the surgeons don't like the device, it will not be bought; if they do like it, they will recommend it to the hospitals. But only when the hospitals are convinced of the usefulness of the robot for improving surgery results, will they ask for an approval from their insurance companies. Finally, the patients must be convinced that a robotic-aided surgery enhances the success of their surgery. Each one of these four customer groups represents a necessary, but in themselves insufficient condition for the product success. Note that insurance coverage procedures are country-dependent, which makes the global marketing of this device more challenging.

In the business model of the surgery-aid robot, the product (i.e., the robot) may not necessarily generate the full economic value for the manufacturer. It's the consumables! In particular the disposable clamps that connect the mini-robot to the patient's spine generate the main economic value. Because of contamination this clamp must be thrown away after every use. Since a sole supplier (a monopoly) provides this clamp at non-competitive prices, it is the primary economic value for the robot manufacturer. Computer printer manufacturers utilize a similar business model: they sell inexpensive printers that consume very expensive ink cartridges.

In many cases, inventing a new business model rather than a new product can generate success. Tom Monaghan, for example, became a billionaire by starting a new firm in Ann Arbor, Michigan—Domino's Pizza. This firm created an economic value not by inventing a new product (the pizza was invented in Italy hundreds of years ago) and not by inventing the process of making the pizza, but rather by inventing a business model of home delivery of his pizza. Home delivery added benefits for the customer, and none of the competition had pizza home delivery when Domino Pizza started. Dominos' competitive advantage was its delivery system and transportation fleet.

Michael Dell also became a billionaire by creating a new business model. By integrating online communication with simple assembly factories for Dell Computers, he created a combination that generates huge economic value. His business model—exactly the computer that you need—benefits the customer, although it required a substantially complex IT infrastructure that Dell built into a competitive advantage.

1.2.3 The Traditional Sequence—Product, Process, Business

Traditionally, the marketing, product design, and manufacturing units work successively on the development of new products. First, the marketing unit conducts research and furnishes the design team with requirements and specifications for a new product, together with its target price and forecasted sales. The product design team must develop a product that includes all the features given by marketing, no matter how much it costs to produce each feature. The real production cost of each feature is not a parameter when marketing makes decisions. The product design team then optimizes for performance versus cost tradeoffs, where material cost is given. Only then is a manufacturing system built to produce the product. This routine substantially increases the product time-to-market, often by many months. By the time the product is manufactured, and the business unit tries to sell it, the customer's requirements and interest may have moved on or been fulfilled by a competitor. In the globalization era, this routine must be changed to speed up the product time-to-market.

1.3 The 1990s: A Decade of Intensified Globalization

Modern globalization means the integration and interdependency of world markets in producing consumer goods and services. But when did the era of globalization begin? Goods have been traded globally for thousands of years; for example, the Silk Road between China and Europe spanned the whole Eurasian supercontinent. And before that, some 4000 years ago, King Solomon in Jerusalem traded with Queen Sheba of Ethiopia in Africa. Nevertheless, globalization, as we know it today, emerged in just the last decade of the twentieth century.

The globalization revolution was shaped mainly by the events that occurred during the 10 years from 1991 to 2001. This decade started with the economic liberalization of India in 1991 that was initiated by Dr. M. Singh, then Indian finance minister, and allowed automatic approval of foreign investment in India. The last landmark in this decade was the inclusion of China as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on December 11, 2001. To do so, China agreed to undertake a series of commitments to open and liberalize its market to foreign products. The WTO, which developed to its current structure in 1995, is a multi-governmental entity (as of July 2008 it had 153 countries as members) that facilitates doing business internationally by (1) formulating rules to govern global trade and capital flows through member consensus and (2) supervising member countries to ensure that the trade rules are implemented.

During that same decade the European Union (EU) and the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) were also created. The EU was established on November 1, 1993 along with the European Economic Community. The EU is not only a free trade zone, but also an economic and political union of 27 countries, with 500 million people (in 2007), that has its own parliament. NAFTA is a trilateral trade bloc created by the governments of the United States, Canada, and Mexico, which came into effect on January 1, 1994. It is one of the most powerful, wide-reaching treaties in the world.

In addition to these four government initiatives, Russian president Yeltsin initiated changes in 1993 that started to privatize industries in that country that were government controlled prior to that time. These five governmental initiatives are marked 1–5 in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Significant Events Marking a Decade of Intensified Globalization

11991India was opened to foreign investments by “economic liberalization package,” initiated by Dr. Singh, at that time India Finance Minister (he later became Prime Minister)21992The European Union was created31992Russia's prices were freed and President Yeltsin started enterprise privatization1993Boeing Design Center was established in Moscow with 350 engineers41994NAFTA (North America Free Trade Agreement—US, Canada, Mexico) was formed1994GM decided to build engine parts in China1995Ford India was established as a joint venture with Mahindra to assemble the Ford Escort1995Delphi Automotive opened its first factory in China (producing batteries)1997General Motors Shanghai (GMS) was established as a 50–50 joint venture partnership with Shanghai Automotive Industry Corp. In 2005, GMS sold 325,000 vehicles in China1998DaimlerChrysler was formed by a merger of Daimler–Benz (the manufacturer of Mercedes–Benz, Germany) and the Chrysler Corp. (USA)1999Ford India bought out a majority stake from Mahindra and started to produce the Ikon, Fusion, and Fiesta52001China joined the World Trade Organizationa–h1992–2001High-capacity Transoceanic fiber-optic cable deployments around the world (see Table 1.3)

In parallel to these governmental initiatives, U.S. and European manufacturing industries started to take advantage of the new global conditions. The manufacturing world was shocked when in 1994 GM announced its plan to open factories in China “to penetrate Asia's growing market and to save money by using low-cost Chinese labor.”2 Before then, no one had imagined the fierce competition that was to come across the ocean from China. At the same time, U.S. manufacturing industry, and especially the automotive industry, started to migrate abroad, first to Mexico and later to other parts of Asia as well.

All through that decade, high-capacity fiber-optic cables were laid across the oceans. These cables serve as the information highways of the world and enable Western companies to utilize brainpower in countries where talented professionals can work while we sleep; for example, because of the time difference, GM R&D in Warren, Michigan can send a problem in the late afternoon, to GM R&D in Bangalore, India, and get an answer the next morning; and there are no language barriers. These fiber-optics cables are the blood vessels of globalization, enabling integration of the world's knowledge and markets.

On January 1, 2002, the Euro currency was adopted in 12 countries of the EU and stands as a symbolic milestone at the end of this decade of intensified globalization. From that point forward, globalization rolled like a tsunami, engulfing the entire world economy.

Table 1.2 and Figure 1.5 describe the main events that intensified globalization in the years 1991–2001. Three forces generated these events: governments (marked 1–5), manufacturing enterprises (e.g., Boeing, General Motors), and new technology (undersea fiber-optic cables, a–h). The synergy among these three forces intensified globalization in an unprecedentedly short period of just 10 years.

Figure 1.5 The major government initiatives in five global regions that created the modern globalization era (1–5 on the map) occurred during a single decade (1991–2001); at the same time, high-capacity fiber-optic cables were laid across the oceans (a–h on the map).

Table 1.3 shows examples of fiber-optic cables that were laid across the oceans (a–h on the map and in Table 1.3). The transoceanic bandwidth frequency (in bit/second) grew by a factor of 1000 in just 10 years, dramatically increasing overall communication speed over global distances. (Brazil and South America were connected to the United States in 2002.)

Table 1.3 Examples of Transoceanic Fiber-optics Cables; Frequency × 1000 Within 10 Years

1.4 The Global Manufacturing Revolution

The global manufacturing revolution started in the last decade of the twentieth century with evolutionary, and largely independent, developments in three important areas: (1) Governmental policy changed in several regions around the globe opened India, China, and Russia to free trade, and created new multi-country free-trade zones including NAFTA and the EU. (2) Global expansions of the manufacturing industry exponentially increased the potential manufacturing capacity available to all. (3) The laying of a huge network of transoceanic fiber-optics cables increased the volume of inexpensive information flow around the world. The synergy of these fundamental changes has created the global manufacturing revolution (Figure 1.6) and the new global manufacturing paradigm, which erupted at full strength in the first years of the twenty-first century.

Figure 1.6 The global manufacturing revolution emerged due to changes in governmental policies, global expansion of manufacturing industry, and the development of transoceanic fiber-optics cable networks around the world. The synergy between these three independent forces has created the global manufacturing revolution.

Globalization created a new type of market dynamic driven by fierce worldwide competition among companies that are located in different countries and produce similar products (e.g., cars, furniture, refrigerators, and shoes). When many large corporations produce similar products, a global excess capacity is created. In 2002, the total world automobile production capacity was 80 million units, and actual worldwide sale was 55 million vehicles (69% capacity utilization3). A large global excess capacity, with supply much greater than demand, destabilized the market with large fluctuations in product sales per company.

In addition to over-capacity, global enterprises must carefully monitor currency exchange rates. A company's profit margin, say 9%, in one country can be completely wiped out by an equal fluctuation of 9% in the exchange rate of the country in which products are sold. When exchange rates are volatile, this can also have an impact on complex global supply chains that take years to establish.

The fortunes of global manufacturing enterprises are also strongly impacted by changing oil prices, and we are not just talking about the type of cars that people buy. Domestic manufacturers benefit from a rise in oil prices ($140 per barrel in April 2008), because rising ocean freight costs are affected by the cost of fuel, making imports more expensive compared with domestic products. From 2000 to April 2008, the cost of shipping a 40-foot container from East Asia to the United States rose from $3000 to $8000, making the manufacturing of some products in the United States cheaper than importing them. In anticipation of this, global enterprises often build factories in the local markets to minimize transportation costs. For example, IKEA, the world's leading home furnishings retailer, opened its first furniture factory in the United States (in Virginia) in May 2008.

But what happens when shipping prices drop back down to their previous levels? Won't imported cars and other products be suddenly less expensive? This points to the heart of our argument that manufacturing needs to be responsive to such change. Domestic production should be positioned so that it can (a) scale back on excess production volume and (b) introduce new innovations to compete with a resurgent importation. This second tactic includes offering personalized products, produced for individual designs and built by domestic manufacturers in closer proximity to these high-end customers who are less willing to wait for products designed and made just for them.d

Globalization has created many new opportunities and becoming a global manufacturing enterprise has several benefits:

Globalization reduces manufacturing costs by utilizing low labor-cost countries.Globalization reduces business risk and filters currency exchange fluctuations.Globalization is a source for enterprise growth, achieved by accessing new markets.

Globalization means not only that large companies are becoming global in terms of their world-wide sales and the location of their production facilities, but also that they can offer innovative products to satisfy specific customer culture and preferences in different countries and different world regions. A global market with a large number of competing suppliers increases the customer's purchasing power, and these potential consumers now live all over the world. China, for example, now has 1 million millionaires and a large middle class. Many countries in South America also have a strong new middle class with increased purchasing power, and some countries in Eastern Europe (not a part of the EU and economically repressed for decades) have been prospering.

Markets are now global; but competing successfully in the global production paradigm requires reconsideration of the three components of the enterprise: product development, manufacturing system, and business model. These three components have always been in a precarious balance, especially when responding to unanticipated market events, and now these events occur in a much larger arena.

1.4.1 The Way We Are Heading

Increased responsiveness to changing market conditions is crucial for manufacturing enterprises to flourish in a global market and sustain continuous growth. Product development, the manufacturing system, and the business model must all be designed to rapidly respond to unpredictable changes, and be planned by a global strategy that determines issues such as which products to develop, for which regions on the globe, where to locate factories, and how to integrate global supply chains. These issues are the essence of the global manufacturing revolution.

1.4.1.1 Product Development

In addition to product development for traditional mass-customization markets, product development in the global manufacturing paradigm will have two new aspects:

1. Producing regionalized products that fit customer's culture in different world regions

2. Producing personalized products that fit individual needs (aiming at a market of one).

Designers of global products must be responsive to customers who live in different cultures and in dissimilar climate zones, and who have a wide range of purchasing power. To compete in those regional markets their products must be designed for regional customization in mind. To allow cost-effective regionalization and personalization, products should be highly modular, and be designed with changeable functionality within product families.

1.4.1.2 Manufacturing Systems

For global manufacturing systems, responsiveness is an essential feature that can be achieved by developing RMSs that have a production capacity that is highly adaptable to market demand. Possession of RMSs enables companies to adjust their capacity (i.e., volume per product variant) to quickly match market demand, rapidly retool for new products, and upgrade with new functionality to produce different product variety. They provide…

…exactly the capacity and functionality needed, exactly when needed.

1.4.1.3 Business Models

In the global manufacturing paradigm, the enterprise must be responsive to volatile markets and capable of rapidly taking advantage of market opportunities. The business model should be of a pull-type, encouraging customers to send their product preferences to the manufacturer via the Internet and receive their products in a timely manner. Industry's marketing must coordinate its actions with the product development team and consider manufacturing costs and constraints earlier in the product development.

As said above, traditionally, the marketing, product design, and manufacturing units work successively on the development of new products. With this approach marketing would often ask for a list of desirable product features to maximize sales, even though manufacturing of these features is very expensive. Marketing is traditionally disconnected from manufacturing and often sets target prices without consideration of the manufacturing costs and capabilities. With globalization this approach must be changed—marketing should consider the manufacturing costs and the capabilities of existing manufacturing systems when deciding upon new product requirements.

1.4.1.4 Globalization Fundamentals

In summary, the three components of the global manufacturing enterprise must adapt to a new age, age of rapid responsiveness.

The global manufacturing revolution should stand on four fundamentals:

1. Innovative products for global markets and for personalization in domestic markets

2. Reconfigurable manufacturing systems

3. Global business strategies with rapid responsiveness to customers and markets

4. A solid integration between product, process (i.e., manufacturing system), and business

We will elaborate on these topics below.

1.4.2 Innovative Products for Global Markets

In an increasingly competitive global economy, establishing cost leadership over industrial competitors, by itself, is not sufficient to gain prosperity and revenue growth. Leadership in product innovation and in frequent introduction of innovative products is also critical to success in a global economy.

Manufacturing companies must create an environment for creating innovations in existing products and strategies for inventing new products. Inventing products that do not exist today gives one the potential of developing new markets. Past examples include refrigeration, which opened new markets for food, and air conditioning, which enabled increases in population in places like Nevada. New markets of new products will create far more jobs and generate more new wealth in the global economy than simply building things cheaper.

A survey conducted in 2005 by the Deloitte's Global Benchmark Study program4 of 650 of the world's leading manufacturers revealed that:

Manufacturers cite launching new products as the No. 1 driver of revenue growth, yet admit that supporting product innovation is one of their least important priorities.This is largely because 50–70% of all new product introductions fail.And yet, products representing more than 70% of 2005 sales will be obsolete by 2010 due to changing customer demands and competitive offerings.

If new, innovative products are the main source of a company's growth, why is the support of innovation so low, and why do new products fail so frequently? The report shows that many manufacturers were unable to bring new products to market profitably because of several key reasons including:

Insufficient information on customer needsInferior suppliers unable to provide quality parts on timeA disjointed approach to innovation across product and supply chain operations.

To capitalize on new products as the main source of revenue and produce them at lowmanufacturing cost, global companies should pay attention to the following points:

New Products—There is a compelling need for developing company strategies aimed at product innovations and, in particular, at new products with global markets in mind. As such, these products will be the main source of growth and revenues.

Shorten Lead time by Developing Supplier Capabilities—New product development must be done simultaneously with developing global supply chains and enhancing supplier capabilities. This will further guarantee low-cost, high-quality products that will generate growth in sales of new products and in new markets.

Product Architecture—Competing within the global manufacturing paradigm requires developing a product platform architecture onto which modular products can be built, each designed to fit a region or a particular culture. This strategy enables the design of products that can be customized and regionalized to fit those sectors and cultures, and still be manufactured at low cost. That same architecture enables manufacturers to produce personalized products at reasonable cost for domestic markets.

Product's Regional Fit—Besides culture and market, regionalization must take into account additional limitations: purchasing power, climate, and legal regulations (e.g., safety, environmental limitations, and driving on the left side of the road). Market research that collects and analyzes information about the habits and needs of customers in the target country is a necessity for the product's success.

Product Personalization—Products that are manufactured to fit the buyer's exact needs are likely to become a new source of revenue in developed countries.

New product release timing is always critical and made more so because of the short windows of opportunity for new products due to global competition. Therefore, a competitive advantage exists for manufacturers who can use existing manufacturing systems that can be rapidly reconfigured to produce new products. To accomplish this, it is essential to add constraints on new product design so they can be made on existing manufacturing systems that currently produce other products. These requirements go well beyond those of existing product design for manufacturability (DFM) methods.

1.4.3 Reconfigurable Manufacturing System (RMS)

The RMS is a modern system that bridges the gap between the DML and the FMS. RMS design is focused on producing a particular family of parts rather than an infinite range of parts limited only by the machine's geometric and operational envelope, as is the case with FMS. The RMS trades a bit of flexibility for higher throughput. While an RMS does not provide the general flexibility that FMS offers, it can have just enough flexibility (i.e., functionality) to produce the whole part family for which it was designed. Therefore, the RMS has the advantages of both FMS and DMLs without their drawbacks.

More importantly, an RMS includes added advantages that neither of the others possesses. An RMS is designed to “reconfigure,” to grow and change within the scope of its lifetime, and so it can respond to market changes quickly. In other words, the RMS is designed for changes in its production capacity (the number of products it can produce) and in its functionality (which provides the capability to produce new parts and products) in ways that do not affect its overall robustness or reliability. Reconfiguration allows an RMS to achieve throughput approaching that of a DML but allows it to produce simultaneously several products.

Figure 1.7 shows the advantages that RMS represents. In this example, the RMS is initially built to produce only Product A. After some time, the system is reconfigured to produce Product B as well. However, since this requires overall higher production output, the system capacity must be higher (phase 2). As the market for Product B grows, more production units are added to the RMS (phase 3). Finally, after a few years, Product A is phased out completely but a new Product C is introduced; the RMS can fulfill all these requirements (phase 4 in Figure 1.7) without a major redesign of the system. The RMS is designed at the outset so that adding capacity can be done cost-effectively, and the system alterations needed to produce new products are done just as easily.

Figure 1.7 Changes in an RMS during its lifetime in response to new products.

Our definition of an RMS:

A reconfigurable manufacturing system (RMS) is one designed for rapid adjustment of production capacity and functionality, across a product family, by rearrangement or change of its components (hardware and software)

The following anecdote illustrates the risks of fixed production-volume systems and the potential economic benefit of an RMS. In the winter of 1996, the manufacturing lines of Cadillac (a luxury car produced by General Motors Corp.) sat half-idle because of low demand for Cadillac cars. At the same time, an unexpected increase in demand for GM trucks exceeded supply by some 20%. GM considered building new truck manufacturing lines to meet the additional demand but viewed it as a high-risk investment and declined. So, overall, GM lost on both ends. The company lost a portion of their truck market share (for those they could not build), and lost money on their underutilized Cadillac assembly lines (for the capacity they could not use). One solution would be to have the Cadillac manufacturing lines reconfigured for production of small trucks for a few months. However, this required a reconfigurable assembly line, a technology that did not exist in 1996. Imagine the huge economic benefits that a company could gain by being able to build exactly the product needed, at exactly the time that the market demands. That is the manufacturing ideal and the goal of RMS.

1.4.4 Global Business Models

Dell Computers is a global company. The parts for Dell computers (memory, hard disks, etc.) are manufactured in China and Taiwan and shipped to assembly plants in Nashville, TN and Austin, TX in the United States. The company utilizes its mastery of IT (in the early 2000s) to coordinate its complex global supply chain, as well as its customer's orders.

Although the orders of Dell computers are stochastic (customers order computers at random through the Internet), the company avoids both overproduction and shortage by quite accurately forecasting the part quantities that will be needed in the assembly plants, and organizing their shipment exactly on time. This cost-effective global supply-chain model is a competitive advantage for Dell. In fact, like Dell, many types of companies are now restructuring their supply chains to take advantage of globalization. It is difficult, however, to adapt Dell's business model, with its complex information infrastructure, to, for example, the automotive industry, because of the differences in scale and product complexity. In general, a global business model must fit the industry type.

The business model of a manufacturing enterprise must be supported by the company's production capability. With the globalization of manufacturing, hardly a single company, if any, makes their entire product. The successful global manufacturing company focuses on its core competency and shifts production of modules and sub-assemblies to suppliers whose own core competency is to manufacture these sub-assemblies and give them value. Another tier of suppliers produces parts for these sub-assemblies, thus forming a supply chain. Managing the information and material flow within supply chains has become an integral part of the enterprise organization and its business model. Supply chains are now a worldwide operation, since suppliers are globally spread and domestic and international logistics became variables that are critical to success.

1.4.5 Integration of the Global Enterprise—Product–Process–Business

Strategic planning of a global enterprise means not only global production facilities and global sales, but also that the enterprise should:

Design products that can be regionalized to address customers' requirements in several world regions. For example, cars designed for India do not need the luxury and safety features required in the United States, but the chassis and engine may be the same. Global enterprises must be responsive to a diverse customer base—customers with different habits, in dissimilar climate zones, with a wide range of purchasing power.Operate RMS that have a production capacity adaptable to market demand, and thereby are responsive to fluctuations in product demand caused by the global excess production capacity.Develop responsive business models that take advantage of market opportunities to enhance sales and rapidly penetrate new markets.

These refinements of the three domains are equally important, as illustrated in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8 The manufacturing enterprise is like a three-legged stool—to be stable, it needs three equally strong legs:Innovative, customizable productsReconfigurable manufacturing systems, whose capacity and functionality are rapidly adaptable to changing market demandsResponsive business models to sell, distribute, and maintain a variety of products, as well as form global alliances for new products

It is increasingly important to offer customers as much variety as can be economically justified, and to be able to introduce new goods quickly as technology and customer's demand change. In other words, such enterprises have to achieve rapid responsiveness to customers and markets wherever they are on the globe. This responsiveness must encompass all three domains: product design, manufacturing, and the business model.

Manufacturing companies must develop tools in all three components of the manufacturing enterprise to compete under the emerging global manufacturing paradigm:

Products designed for regional customization in different market segments, and for personalization for domestic high-end customers.

Manufacturing systems (i.e., process) designed for reconfiguration to produce products at volumes needed by the market.

Business models are responsive to volatile markets and to customers.

Globalization has brought a revolution to the enterprise organization as well. The three components are now more interdependent than ever before, as shown in Figure 1.9, and therefore their integration (the ring in Figure 1.9) is essential for an enterprise to succeed. If a company makes products with modular structure, for example, the manufacturing system must be designed to be able to produce the whole family of products based on those modules, and the business model should support personal orders of products that have a modular structure.

Figure 1.9 To be successful, the global enterprise must integrate its innovative products with its manufacturing system capabilities and a flexible business model.

In globalization, cooperative efforts between marketing, design, and manufacturing should begin during product development. The design team should analyze the product features and determine which specifications are not realistic and must be modified given a business target. This is feedback to the business unit, which must review the product price in response to the new specifications. The new price and modified product features may also change the projected demand and production volume targets, which, in turn, will impact the configuration and reconfiguration plan of the manufacturing system.

This way capacity allocation and manufacturing costs are coordinated with marketing targets during product development. Furthermore, in order to reduce time-to-market and decrease costs, every new product must be produced on available machines and on existing manufacturing systems that can be reconfigured for the new product production.

Remedying a major problem in one component of the enterprise necessitates changes in the other two. Changes in product design affects manufacturing and vice versa; plant productivity relates to the product selling rate, and vice versa. If one of these three components fails, the enterprise will fail.

1.5 The Manufacturing Paradigm Model

Since its birth some two centuries agoe, manufacturing industry has undergone several revolutionary paradigms induced by (1) new market and economy conditions and (2) emerging societal imperatives driven by customers (Figure 1.10).5

Figure 1.10 The manufacturing paradigm.

Societal needs may arise from the desire to have more products to choose from to satisfy individual tastes and preferences, small purchasing power of a certain population that drives a decrease in product prices, or environmental concerns. Market depends on the economy and may change, for example, because of substantial increase in product supply—making more products than customers buy—or the emergence of new economic powers, like China and India, that change global product prices.

Industry has responded to these market and societal imperatives by developing new types of manufacturing systems to produce products, and new business models to sell them. The integration of the new manufacturing system with the new business model and with the product architecture creates a new manufacturing paradigm. For example, the societal need to reduce automobile cost was realized by the invention of the moving assembly line (which, in 1913, was a new type of manufacturing system). The moving assembly line combined with the technology of interchangeable parts enabled the creation of the mass production paradigm.

We define a manufacturing paradigm as:

A Manufacturing Paradigm

A revolutionary integrated production model that arises in response to changing societal and market imperatives, and is enabled by the creation of a new type of manufacturing system

Figure 1.11 depicts our manufacturing paradigm generic model. As we said, the goal of each paradigm is driven by new market conditions or by emerging societal needs. Each new manufacturing paradigm is composed of a new type of manufacturing system, a new business model, and appropriate product architecture.

Figure 1.11 Manufacturing paradigm model.

New paradigms become possible as new technology enablers are introduced and subsequently used to create new types of manufacturing systems. For each new paradigm, a new type of manufacturing system is developed—a system that is based on a new technology enabler and addresses the paradigm imperatives. For example, the emergence of the mass customization paradigm was driven by society's demand for expanded product variety. Producing a wider product variety became possible with the invention of the FMS. The new enabling technology of FMS was the mini-computer that was first integrated in the 1970s into controllers of CNC and industrial automation devices (see Appendix A). Thus, the mass customization paradigm became possible with the invention of the mini-computer.

The product architecture also transforms with the paradigm change. As product variety further expanded, product architecture became more and more modular. Each paradigm has its own business model that fits its nature and addresses its imperatives—society's needs and market conditions.

Each manufacturing paradigm addresses three basic elements: Design, Make, and Sell, as shown in Figure 1.12.

Design: Designing the product and its functions to satisfy particular societal requirements.

Make: Making the product by a manufacturing system that can quickly respond to the market's needs and opportunities.

Sell: Selling products to customers in order to satisfy their needs and to make a profit for the enterprise.

Figure 1.12 A manufacturing enterprise has three basic elements: Design, Make, and Sell.

Is the sequence of these three elements always the same?