The Handbook of Intercultural Discourse and Communication E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1188

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

The Handbook of Intercultural Discourse and Communication Intercultural discourse and communication is emerging as an important area of research in a highly globalized and connected world, where language and culture contact is frequent and cultural misunderstandings and misconceptions abound. The handbook contains contributions from established scholars and up-and-coming researchers from a range of subfields to survey the theoretical perspectives and applied work in this burgeoning area of linguistics. This timely volume features first a part that introduces the background detailing the scope and topics of the field; followed by one that describes four different theoretical approaches and their basic research questions, from Ethnography of Speaking and John Gumperz's Interactional Sociolinguistics to Critical Approaches and Postmodernism. The third part, "Interactional Discourse Features," describes and explains the features of talk that are frequently studied in cross-cultural research, such as turn-taking and politeness. The volume also includes a section on Interactional Discourse sites, examining cross-cultural communication (such as Greek-Turkish discourse). The final part considers a variety of domains in which interaction takes place, such as Translation, Business, Law, Medicine, Education, and Religion.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics

Title page

Copyright page

Notes on Contributors

Preface

Introduction

Part I: Background

1 Intercultural Communication: An Overview

Introduction

“Having a Culture”

Beyond “Having a Culture”

Empirical Intercultural Communication

Language in “Intercultural Communication”

Inequality in Intercultural Communication

Conclusion

2 Perspectives on Intercultural Discourse and Communication

Perspectives on Intercultural Discourse and Communication

Culture and Communication: 1900s to World War II

Intercultural Communication: 1950s to 1980s

Discourse Analysis: 1950s to 1980s

Discourse Analysis Meets Intercultural Communication: 1990s to 2000s

Revisiting Culture and Communication: Current Linguistic Anthropology

Looking Forward

3 Cultures and Languages in Contact: Towards a Typology

The Typological Thrust

Geographical Beginnings

Beyond Geography

Linguistic Categorization: The Work of Charles Ferguson and William Stewart

Languages and Communities: The Work of Heinz Kloss

Language Ecology: The Work of Einar Haugen

Ethnolinguistic Vitality: The Work of Howard Giles

Ecology Revisited: The Work of Harald Haarmann

Some Further Insights

A New Approach: Introductory Remarks

The Dimensions of a Comprehensive Typological Model

Concluding Comments

Part II: Theoretical Perspectives

4 Interactional Sociolinguistics: Perspectives on Intercultural Communication

Cultural Difference as a Discourse Problem

Diversity as a Key Theme in Interactional Sociolinguisics

Interpretation in Interaction

Difference in Framing Talk

Difference as Divergent Discourse Expectations

Difference as a Rhetorical Strategy

Conclusion

5 Ethnography of Speaking

Canonical SPEAKING “Grid”

Gatherings in Two Cultures

6 Critical Approaches to Intercultural Discourse and Communication

Critical Approaches to Applied Linguistics

Critical Approaches to Culture

Critical Approach to Intercultural Investigations of Written Discourse

General Findings of Contrastive Rhetoric

Toward Critical Approaches to Intercultural Communication and Discourse

7 Postmodernism and Intercultural Discourse: World Englishes

Social and Theoretical Context

Language/Culture Connection

Models of World Englishes and Assumptions of Culture

Negotiation Strategies in Intercultural Communication

Theoretical and Pedagogical Implications

Conclusion

Part III: Interactional Discourse Features

8 Turn-Taking and Intercultural Discourse and Communication

Overview

Turn-Taking in Intercultural Perspective

Evidence for Intercultural Turn-Taking Patterns

The Place of Turn-Taking Studies in Discourse Analysis

Intracultural Variation in the Use of Overlap in Turn Exchange

Attitudes toward Silence and their Relation to Turn-Taking

Non-Verbal and Paralinguistic Signaling in Turn Exchange

Turn-Taking and Gender

Conclusion

9 Silence

Units of Silence

Functions of Silence

Silence and Cultures

Silence in Intercultural Communication

Silence and Second-Language Speakers

Concluding Remarks

10 Indirectness

Indirect Performativity

Indirect Performativity in Interaction: On Politeness Theory

Indirect Addressivity

Indirectness Resolved?

“Cultures” of (In)directness?

Projects of (In)directness: On Language Ideology

11 Politeness in Intercultural Discourse and Communication

Introduction

Cross-cultural Communication and Intercultural Communication

Defining Politeness

Theoretical Frameworks for Analyzing Politeness in Intercultural Communication

Methods of Researching Intercultural Politeness

Cultural Differences in Politeness Norms

Intercultural Politeness in Interaction

Conclusion

APPENDIX

Part IV: Intercultural Discourse Sites

12 Anglo–Arab Intercultural Communication

Introduction

Previous Work on Anglo–Arab Interaction

Reflections and Suggestions

Conclusion

13 Japan/Anglo-American Cross-Cultural Communication

Collectivism and Individualism

Hierarchy/Egalitarianism

Direct/Indirect Communication

Conclusion

14 “Those Venezuelans are so easy-going!” National Stereotypes and Self-Representations in Discourse about the Other

1. Self- and Other-Representation

2. An Empirical Study on Reciprocal Stereotyping

3. Complementary Categorization

4. Reciprocal Stereotyping

5. Identity Defense

6. “So What Else Is New?” Concluding Remarks

APPENDIX: TRANSCRIPTION CONVENTIONS

15 “Face,” Stereotyping, and Claims of Power: The Greeks and Turks in Interaction

1. Introduction

2. Intercultural Communication

3. Theoretical Background

4. Discussion

5. Concluding Remarks

16 Intercultural Communication and Vocational Language Learning in South Africa: Law and Healthcare

An Intercultural Communication Paradigm

Rhodes University Law and Pharmacy Programs: A Case Study

An Intercultural, Discipline-Related Teaching Model

Intercultural Communication in the Workplace: A Broader Perspective

“Mindfulness”: A Comparative Perspective

Language, Thought, and Context

Kewana versus Santam Insurance: A Case Study

Analysis of Selected Transcripts

Conclusion

17 Indigenous–Mestizo Interaction in Mexico

Theoretical Framework

Talking about Indians, But Not with Them

Interaction at Schools

The San Isidro and Uringuitiro Curricular Project

Interaction at the Market

Trading at the Patamban Market

Language and Domination: The Extent of Intercultural Education

Conclusions

Part V: Interactional Domains

18 Translation and Intercultural Communication: Bridges and Barriers

Introduction

Translation as a Medium for Intercultural Exchange

The Translator as an Agent of Intercultural Communication

Conclusion

19 Cultural Differences in Business Communication

High- and Low-Context Communication

Regulating Behavior

Contracts

Negotiation and Decision-Making

Relationship-Based and Rule-Based Cultures

Transparency

Marketing and Advertising

Conceptions of Human Nature

Deference

Bureaucracy

Variations among Rule-Based Cultures

Variations among Relationship-Based Cultures

Intercultural Business Communication

Further Reading

20 Intercultural Communication in the Law

Introduction

Second-Language Speakers

Speakers of Creole Languages

Deaf Sign Language Users

Second-Language Speakers without Interpreters

Second-dialect speakers

Cultural Presuppositions about Communicative Style

Cultural Presuppositions about Actions outside Legal Contexts

The Politics of Intercultural Communication in the Legal Process

The Culture of the Law: Worldview, Language Ideologies, and Linguistic Practices

Conclusion

21 Medicine

Medical Interpreting: A Field of Inquiry in Its Own Right

Studies in Healthcare Interpreting

A Healthcare Interpreter in Action: Talk as Activity and Interaction

The Role of the Interpreter: A Continuum of Visibility as Enactment of Agency

Ethics in Medical Interpreting

The Education of Healthcare Interpreters

Certification of Healthcare Interpreters

Conclusion

22 Intercultural Discourse and Communication in Education

Overview of Intercultural Communication in Education

History of Intercultural Communication in Education

Current Theories of Communication, Culture, Identities, and Difference

Methods of Researching Intercultural Communication in Education

Overview of Recent Findings on Intercultural Communication in Schools

Strategies that Improve Intercultural Communication in Schools

Conclusion

APPENDIX A: TRANSCRIPT KEY

APPENDIX B: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

23 Religion as a Domain of Intercultural Discourse

Religion is Necessarily Intercultural

The Language of Religion as Intercultural Common Ground

Language Conservatism in Cultural Crossover

Religious Doctrine Breeds Philosophy of Language

Language Change Due to Intercultural Religious Contact

Religious Language: Intercultural Connector or Divider?

Index

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The Handbook of Intercultural Discourse and Communication

Edited by Christina Bratt Paulston, Scott F. Kiesling, and Elizabeth S. Rangel

This edition first published 2012

© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The handbook of intercultural discourse and communication / edited by Christina Bratt Paulston, Scott F. Kiesling, and Elizabeth S. Rangel.

p. cm. – (Blackwell handbooks in linguistics)

 Includes bibliographical references and index.

 ISBN 978-1-4051-6272-2 (alk. paper)

 1. Intercultural communication–Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Identity (Psychology) I. Paulston, Christina Bratt, 1932– II. Kiesling, Scott F.— III. Rangel, Elizabeth S.

 P94.6H358 2011

 306.44–dc23

2011026132

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978-1-4443-5431-7 (epdf)

ISBN 978-1-4443-5432-4 (epub)

ISBN 978-1-4443-5433-1 (mobi)

Notes on Contributors

Claudia V. Angelelli is the author of Medical Interpreting and Cross-cultural Communication and Revisiting the Role of the Interpreter, and the co-editor of Testing and Assessment in Translation and Interpreting Studies. Her articles appear in Interpreting, META, MONTI (Monografias de Traducción e Interpretación), The Translator, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Critical Link, TIS (Translation and Interpreting Studies), and ATA Chronicle. She is the author of the first empirically driven language proficiency and interpreter readiness test for the California Endowment and Hablamos Juntos. She is President of ATISA, World Project Leader for ISO Standards on Community Interpreting, and Director of the Consortium of Distinguished Language Centers.

Arın Bayraktarolu did her first degree in Turkey and her PhD in the UK. She received her matriculation from the University of Cambridge in 1977 and taught Turkish linguistics at the Faculty of Oriental Studies until the end of her tenure in 1982, although she returned as a visiting member of the Faculty, on and off, until 1995. Apart from publishing papers in various periodicals mainly on politeness, she also co-edited (with Maria Sifianou) a book entitled Linguistic Politeness across Boundaries: The Case of Greek and Turkish. She has been a member of Lucy Cavendish College Cambridge since 1986, Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Linguists (UK) since 2005, and Specialist in Turkish on the Asset Languages project of OCR (Oxford Cambridge and RSA Examinations) Board since 2006. She worked from 1995 to 1999 as the Editor-in-Chief of TASG News: Newsletter of the Turkish Area Study Group and since 2005 she has been a member of the Advisory Board, Journal of Politeness Research: Language, Behaviour, Culture. Her research interests have been in pragmatics in general and (im)politeness in particular, as well as in the linguistic and cultural aspects of Turkish.

Abdelali Bentahila was born in Fez, Morocco, and after pursuing his undergrad­uate studies in English at University Mohammed V, Rabat, he obtained an MA and a PhD in linguistics from the University of Wales (UK). Since then he has pursued his academic career in Morocco, becoming professor and head of the English department at Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, and later professor at Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan. He is currently teaching at this university’s business school, in Tangier. He has published extensively on the sociolinguistics of Morocco, particularly Moroccan bilingualism, language planning policies, language teaching, and Arabic–French codeswitching. His own intercultural encounters include a British wife, and life in a bicultural household has given him many insights into the problems of communication across cultures.

Steven Brown is Professor of English and TESOL Director at Youngstown State University, Ohio, USA. He has a BA from the University of California at Santa Cruz and a PhD from the University of Pittsburgh. He has co-authored two series of ELT textbooks, Active Listening and English Firsthand, as well as several teacher-education texts, including Topics in Language and Culture for Teachers. He taught English for ten years in Japan, where he also trained teachers in the Columbia University Teachers College MATESOL program. He also more recently taught English for six months at Lunghwa University of Science and Technology in Taiwan, on a faculty exchange.

Suresh Canagarajah is Edwin Erle Sparks Professor in the departments of English and applied linguistics at the Pennsylvania State University. He had his early education in the war-torn northern region of Sri Lanka where he taught English language and literature for students from mostly rural backgrounds at the University of Jaffna. Later, he joined the faculty at the City University of New York (Baruch College and the Graduate Center) where he taught multilingual urban students for a decade. His book Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching (1999) won the Modern Language Association’s Mina Shaughnessy Award for the best research publication on the teaching of language and literacy. His subsequent publication Geopolitics of Academic Writing (2002) won the Gary Olson Award for the best book in social and rhetorical theory. Critical Academic Writing and Multilingual Students (2002) applies composition research and scholarship for the needs of multilingual students. His edited collection Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice (2005) examines linguistic and literacy constructs in the context of globalization. His study of World Englishes in Composition won the 2007 Braddock Award for the best article in the College Composition and Communication journal.

Jenny Cook-Gumperz is professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara in the Gervirtz Graduate School of Education specializing in interactional sociolinguistics and the sociology of literacy. Her publications include The Social Construction of Literacy (2nd edition 2006), Children’s Worlds and Children’s Language (edited with William Corsaro and Jurgen Streeck, 1986), Social Control and Socialization (1973), and numerous papers. She is currently working on a new book with John J. Gumperz, Communicating Diversity, to be published in 2012.

Eirlys E. Davies was born and raised in Wales, UK, but after obtaining a PhD in linguistics from the University of Wales, she moved to Morocco, where she has now lived for almost thirty years. She was formerly a professor at Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, and now works at the King Fahd School of Translation, part of Abdelmalek Essaadi University, in Tangier. She has taught courses in semantics, stylistics, and pragmatics, and at present teaches translation and translation theory. Her publications range over the fields of bilingualism, particularly codeswitching, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, and translation. Many years of frank discussion with Moroccan students, together with marriage to a Moroccan, have inspired in her an abiding interest in intercultural dialogue and the relations between the Arab world and the West.

Diana Eades (adjunct associate professor, University of New England, Australia) works on language in the legal system, particularly the language used by, to, and about Australian Aboriginal people. Her latest books are Courtroom Talk and Neocolonial Control (2008) and Sociolinguistics and the Legal Process (2010). She has been President, Vice-President, and Secretary of the International Association of Forensic Linguists, and is co-editor of The International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law.

John Edwards is professor of the history of psychology at St. Francis Xavier University, Nova Scotia, and a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. He edits the Routledge Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, and the Multilingual Matters book series for the Bristol publisher of the same name. His own books include Language, Society and Identity (1985), Multilingualism (1995), Language in Canada (1998) and, more recently, Un mundo de lenguas (2009), Language and Identity (2009), Language Diversity in the Classroom (2010), Minority Languages and Group Identity (2010), and Challenges in the Social Life of Language (2011).

Lars Fant is professor of Ibero-Romance languages at Stockholm University. His research interests include cross-cultural and intercultural communication, semantics, pragmatics, general and critical discourse analysis, conversation and dialogue analysis, politeness studies and second-language acquisition, in particular with regard to high-proficient second-language use. He has conducted several large research projects, e.g. “Negotiation interaction: cross-cultural studies of Scandinavian and Hispanic patterns,” “Activity types and conversation structure in native and non-native (Swedish) speakers of Spanish,” and “Interaction, identity and language structure.” He is currently co-conducting a research program on “High-level proficiency in second language use” and is also involved in several co-operation projects with Latin American higher education institutions.

Rocío Fuentes (PhD, University of Pittsburgh) is a visiting assistant professor of Spanish, and faculty member of the Latino and Latin American Studies Committee at the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts. Her main fields of interest are the education of linguistic minorities, educational discourse analysis, and intercultural communication.

Amanda J. Godley is an associate professor in the Department of Instruction and Learning at the University of Pittsburgh. A former middle-and high-school teacher, she now researches critical grammar and language instruction and issues of language, literacy, and identity in urban high-school English classrooms.

John J. Gumperz is Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley. Among his best-known publications are Directions in Sociolinguistics (co-edited with Dell Hymes; 1972, 1986 re-issued 2001), Discourse Strategies (1982), Language and Social Identity (1982); and Re-Thinking Linguistic Relativity (co-edited with Stephen Levinson, 1996). Gumperz is currently at work on two volumes: a follow-up to Directions in Sociolinguistics entitled New Ethnographies of Communication (co-edited with Marco Jaquemet) to be published in 2012, and Communicating Diversity (co-written with Jenny Cook-Gumperz) to be published in 2012.

Brenda Hayashi is associate professor in the Department of Intercultural Studies at Miyagi Gakuin Women’s University, Sendai, Japan. She has an MA in TESL from the University of California at Los Angeles and is presently in the linguistics doctoral program at Macquarie University. She has co-authored English textbooks for Japanese high-school and university students. Witnessing cultural “bumps” that arise when Japanese students venture to the United States, England, Scotland, Australia, the Philippines, Thailand, Oman, and Tanzania, she firmly believes in the importance of cross-cultural communication training.

Janet Holmes holds a personal chair in linguistics at Victoria University of Wellington. She teaches sociolinguistics courses, specializing in workplace discourse, New Zealand English, and language and gender. She is Director of the Wellington Language in the Workplace project (see www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/lwp) and a Fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand. Her books include Gendered Talk at Work, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, now in its third edition, and the Handbook of Language and Gender (co-edited with Miriam Meyerhoff). Her recent work focuses on leadership discourse and the relevance of gender and ethnicity in the workplace. She is co-author of Leadership, Discourse and Ethnicity to be published in 2011 which examines effective leadership in Mori and Pkeh organizations. Most recently she has been investigating the discourse of skilled migrants as they enter the New Zealand workplace.

John Hooker is T. Jerome Holleran Professor of Business Ethics and Social Responsibility, and Professor of Operations Research, at Carnegie Mellon University. He holds doctoral degrees in philosophy and management science. His research interests include operations research, business ethics, and cross-cultural issues. He is founding editor-in-chief of the Journal of Business Ethics Education and a Fellow of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences. He has published over 130 articles, five books, and five edited volumes, including the textbook Working across Cultures. He has lived and worked in Australia, China, Denmark, India, Qatar, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Zimbabwe, and has extensive experience in Germany and Mexico.

Russell H. Kaschula is an award-winning author of a number of academic works, novels, and short stories, in both isiXhosa and English. He is Professor of African language studies and Head of the School of Languages at Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa.

Scott F. Kiesling is associate professor of Linguistics at the University of Pittsburgh. He served as chair of the department from 2006 to 2009. His work includes areas such as language and masculinities, sociolinguistic variation, discourse analysis, ethnicity in Australian English, and Pittsburgh English. His publications include the books Linguistic Variation and Change (2011) and Intercultural Discourse and Communication: The Essential Readings (2005, edited with Christina Bratt Paulston). He is probably best known for his article “Dude” (2004), which appeared in the journal American Speech.

Ryuko Kubota is a professor at British Columbia University, Vancouver, Canada. She obtained her PhD in education from the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at University of Toronto in 1992. Before her current post, she taught at Monterey Institute for International Studies and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Her areas of specialization include second-/foreign-language teacher education, critical pedagogies, and multiculturalism. She is an editor of Race, Culture, and Identities in Second Language: Exploring Critically Engaged Practice (2009). She has published many book chapters and articles in such journals as Canadian Modern Language Review, Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, Foreign Language Annals, Japanese Language and Literature, Journal of Second Language Writing, Modern Language Journal, TESOL Quarterly, Written Communication, and World Englishes.

Michael Lempert is an assistant professor of anthropology at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor and previously taught linguistics at Georgetown University. He received his PhD in anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania and specializes in the study of face-to-face interaction. His first book, Discipline and Debate: The Language of Violence in a Tibetan Buddhist Monastery, details how interaction rituals like monastic debate and public reprimand are changing as reformers take seriously liberal-democratic ideals. Lempert has also written on poetic structure in discourse, stance and affect, addressivity, and gesture, and is presently co-authoring a book on US political communication.

Pamela Maseko is a senior lecturer in the African language studies section of the School of Languages at Rhodes University, South Africa. Her research and teaching interests are language policy and planning and language development, particularly the intellectualization of African languages. She holds a PhD.

Leila Monaghan teaches anthropology and disability studies at the University of Wyoming and the University of Maryland, University College. She received her PhD in linguistic anthropology at the University of California, Los Angeles and her dissertation work was with the New Zealand Deaf community. Her publications include a co-edited book, Many Ways to be Deaf (2003), on the international development of Deaf communities, a 2002 Annual Review of Anthropology article with Richard Senghas, and HIV/AIDS and Deafness (co-edited with Constanze Schmaling, 2006). She also does research on the history of linguistic anthropology and wrote the 2010 review of the year in linguistic anthropology for the American Anthropologist on the revival of interest in historical approaches in the field. Monaghan was a visiting scholar at the University of Wyoming Department of Anthropology’s George C. Frison Institute from 2008 to 2009 when the majority of this chapter was written and thanks the Frison Institute for its support.

Ikuko Nakane is a senior lecturer in the Asia Institute at the University of Melbourne, Australia. Her research interests include silence in intercultural communication and more recently language and the law, in particular analysis of courtroom and police interview discourse. She is the author of Silence in Intercultural Communication (2007).

Christina Bratt Paulston, born in Sweden, is Professor Emerita of linguistics at the University of Pittsburgh. She served as chair of the department from 1974 to 1989 and as director of the English Language Institute from 1969 to 1998. Her numerous publications include Intercultural Discourse and Communication: The Essential Readings (2005, edited with Scott F. Kiesling), Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings (2003, edited with G. Richard Tucker), and Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Bilingual Education (1992).

Ingrid Piller is professor of applied linguistics at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. She holds a PhD from the Technical University of Dresden, Germany, and has taught at universities in Australia, Europe, the Middle East, and North America. She has published widely on the sociolinguistics of language learning, multilingualism, and intercultural communication. She is the author of the textbook Intercultural Communication: A Critical Introduction (2011). She blogs about her research at www.languageonthemove.org.

Elizabeth S. Rangel is a research associate at Learning Research and Development Center (LRDC), a cognitive research institute at the University of Pittsburgh. She is earning her PhD in foreign-language education from the University of Pittsburgh. Before completing her doctorate, she taught college-level Spanish and courses in language acquisition, cultural diversity, and sociolinguistics. Her research on early elementary language learners has focused on native-language phonological interference in the reading acquisition process. Her most recent publications include chapters in the third edition (2009) of the International Encyclopedia of Education, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ’s (OECD, 2010), Innovative Learning Environments.

Maria Sifianou is professor of linguistics at the Faculty of English Studies, University of Athens. Her publications include the books Politeness Phenomena in England and Greece (1992/1999/2002) and Discourse Analysis (2006) and a number of articles in edited books and international journals. She has co-edited Themes in Greek Linguistics (1994), Anatomies of Silence (1999), Linguistic Politeness across Boundaries: The Case of Greek and Turkish (with Arın Bayraktarolu, 2001) and Current Trends in Greek Linguistics: Essays in Honour of Irene Philippaki-Warburton (2003). She was a member of the scientific committee on intercultural communication in the framework of the Thematic Network Project in the Area of Languages of the European Union (1997–). Her main research interests include politeness phenomena and discourse analysis in an intercultural perspective.

Deborah Tannen is University professor and Professor of linguistics at Georgetown University. She is author of eleven books and editor or co-editor of eleven others. Among her books, You Just Don’t Understand: Women and Men in Conversation was on the New York Times bestseller list for nearly four years, including eight months as No. 1, and has been translated into thirty languages. Conversational Style: Analyzing Talk Among Friends and Talking Voices: Repetition, Dialogue, and Imagery in Conversational Discourse have been reissued in second editions. She is Associate Editor of Language in Society and is on the editorial boards of many other journals. Her cross-cultural communication research has addressed the conversational and narrative styles of New Yorkers and Californians, Greeks and Americans, and women and men. She has won many fellowships and awards including a Rockefeller Humanities Fellowship and grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Science Foundation, and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. She received her PhD in linguistics from the University of California, Berkeley, and has been awarded five honorary doctorates. Her website is deborahtannen.com.

Jonathan M. Watt is professor of biblical studies at Geneva College (Beaver Falls, PA) and adjunct professor at the Reformed Presbyterian Theological Seminary (Pittsburgh). His publications often address the intersection of sociolinguistics and biblical or religious issues. They include Code-Switching in Luke and Acts, a chapter on religious literacy in Blackwell’s Handbook of Educational Linguistics (Bernard Spolsky and Francis M. Hult, eds.), and a forthcoming volume on Colossians-Philemon in the new Brill Exegetical Commentary Series.

Kikue Yamamoto has worked in and outside of Japan as a corporate trainer, executive coach, and management consultant for about twenty years. She has co-authored a book titled Competencies on Relationship Building at Multi-cultural Societies with Kyoko Yashiro. Among many articles, one is based on her three-time research (1987, 1991, 2005) at NUMMI, the Toyota and GM joint-venture, USA. She teaches at Miyagi Gakuin Women’s University and Tohoku University in Sendai, Japan. She has a BA in English and American literature from Hosei University, a second BA in Mass Communication from San Francisco State University, and an MA in Communication from the University of New Mexico. She has her own business: Office Yamamoto Ltd.

Preface

When we set out to compile a handbook for the vast field of intercultural discourse and communication, we knew that we wanted to have something that was in some sense really a handbook. A book you keep returning to to jog your memory about how to do something, or remind you not to forget something. In Intercultural Discourse and Communication (IDC), that means having a perspective that is both theoretical and practical, that keeps in focus both the discourse and the communication, and that is truly intercultural (and, although not in the title, multicultural and cross-cultural, the definitions of which we will not dwell on, but are discussed in several of the chapters, especially Chapters 1 and 2). Our audience is thus an eclectic one: people who will read to understand the state of a field that really isn’t a single field, students just learning how to do analyses and also to theorize their ideas, and we hope also people “in the trenches” doing work in intercultural situations.

The first two parts comprise an overview handbook, containing chapters that provide historical context as well as theoretical perspectives. Our experience teaching also suggests that readers will be interested in surveys of different kinds of discourse phenomena that repeatedly arise as problematic in intercultural discourse contact. So the third part forms a mini-handbook on these phenomena: turn taking, silence, indirectness, and politeness.

Some of the most useful things in any handbook are examples, so the fourth section is that: several examples of researchers analyzing particular cross-cultural situations. Such a section could of course fill a library (or we could just refer the reader to a journal), but we have asked a number of researchers with varying interests in diverse cultural combinations and situations to provide a few. These studies of course do not exhaust the types of situations or the possible cultural combinations (an impossible task), but we have tried to make sure there is not a heavy focus on Anglo-American contexts, and we have also tried to include diverse ways of conceiving the analysis. Finally, we know that for most people IDC is not a theoretical endeavor but a practical one, and so we have included some overviews of how the study of IDC has been applied in different domains.

This handbook can be used in a number of ways, including for a course in IDC. However, we would encourage anyone so using the handbook to supplement it with either some more original readings, such as those contained in our reader Kiesling and Paulston (2003) or in a textbook on intercultural or cross-cultural communication (such as Bonvillain 2003 or Scollon and Scollon 2001) or linguistic anthropology (such as Foley 1997 or Duranti 1997). Journals that contain important IDC articles include the Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, the Journal of Pragmatics, Language in Society, Language and Intercultural Communication, Multilingua, and Pragmatics.

We would like to thank a number of very patient people who have helped this volume become a reality. First and foremost are the authors of these contributions. Some have been waiting literally years to finally see their chapter in print, and some have graciously stepped in at the last minute to fill a gap that suddenly appeared. The team at Wiley-Blackwell has put up with us graciously, and we are grateful for their patience and persistence. Specifically, we want to thank Danielle Descoteaux, Rebecca du Plessis, Julia Kirk, Sue Leigh, and Eunice Tan. We have also insisted on thanking those who have filled normally invisible roles in book production but who are essential, our proofreader Glynis Baguley and our indexer Zeb Korycinska. Last but certainly not least, we want to acknowledge that this volume would not have happened if there had not been mentors who over the years helped us along, some of whom have contributions in this volume.

REFERENCES

Bonvillain, Nancy. 2003. Language, Culture, and Communication: The Meaning of Messages. 4th edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Duranti, Alessandro. 1997. Linguistic Anthro­pology. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguis­tics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Foley, William A. 1997. Anthropological Lin­guistics: An Introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Kiesling, Scott F. and Christina Bratt Paulston (eds.). 2005. Intercultural Dis­course and Communication: The Essential Readings. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell.

Scollon, Ron and Suzanne Wong-Scollon. 2001. Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach. 2nd edn. Oxford: Blackwell.

Introduction

From the earliest times that we have language written in a more convenient form than clay tablets, steles, or rune stones, we find travelers writing anecdotes about strange peoples. Herodotus (c.484 c.425 BC) was called not only the father of history but also the first travel writer. He was fascinated by the Scythians, whom he visited on the northern shore of the Black Sea, and so gave us the first description in western literature of a people living beyond the pale of civili­zation, as Casson puts it. He “describes the various tribes and how they live (by agriculture, grazing or hunting), how hard the winters are, how this affects horses very little but mules and donkeys very much” (Casson [1974] 1994: 108). We have Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, born in Uzbekistan but Persian in language and culture (c.973 c.1048 AD), sometimes named the first anthropologist, who focused in his description of India on caste, class system, rites and customs, cultural practice and women’s issues. And there is Ibn Khaldun of the fourteenth century from Morocco, historian and inventor of sociology, also writer about strange facts.

Cultures may have been in contact since time immemorial but the means of sharing such experiences long-distance and over time did not exist as it does today. It does not need much reflection to realize that such sharing as did then exist was based on features which struck the writer as noticeable and unusual. In other words, consciously or not, these descriptions were based on a comparison with the writers’ native culture. Ethnographic descriptions still tend to be based on some comparison. That is why Nacirema works as a parody. These rather simplistic statements about comparison carry implications for the field and scholarship of intercultural discourse. The occasional reflections in this Handbook on culture as a process of social construction as well as critiques of an understanding of culture as reified and essentialist are certainly appropriate but become at times in the field at large somewhat strained by excess, given that such discussions of data are based on assumptions that people possess a culture, certainly a reified view.

Let us use an illustrative example of the same phenomena from another aspect of the study of language. Most researchers now agree that a man and woman exchanging meaningful utterances in society belong to a class called gender which is a social construct, not the essentialist class of sex which belongs to biology. But still the operational definition of gender in most if not all experi­mental research is one based on biological primary and secondary sexual characteristics. In other words, a certain degree of inconsistency thus holds between our theoretical and operational definitions. The careful reader will see traces of the same kind of inconsistency between some of the theoretical claims and intercultural phenomena of discourse. Inconsistency can be a good thing when it gives us Lebensraum to find new thoughts and not be boxed in by official theory as we were for example by Skinnerian habit-formation theory and audio-lingual language teaching methodology. But we should admit that such is the nature of our beast.

Another implication which follows from this background is that the ancient travelers were rarely idle tourists, but men (and they were men) of a practical bent, traders and businessmen, soldiers and explorers in search of gold and treasure. They had no interest in languages per se and got by with pidgins such as Sabir and lingua francas – in 250 AD you could travel from the shores of Euphrates to Britain under the pax romana with only two languages, koine Greek and Latin (Casson [1974] 1994: 122). Even today, many scholars writing about cross-cultural communication tend to ignore language. For example, under the Wikipedia heading of “Cross-Cultural Communication” there is no mention of linguistics or anthropology as disciplines which promote the study of cross-cultural communication, nor does the bibliography cite a single linguist. Nor has the subject received much interest or respect from linguists; communication is after all a topic with language at its core. Or as Piller puts it, if in another context: “Intercultural Communication [has had] a somewhat old-fashioned, dowdy, not quite-with-it … image”(this volume, p.3).

So called “Cross-cultural Studies” has fared differently in anthropology. During World War II and thereafter, various governmental departments turned to anthropologists for an understanding of national character (essentialist and implicitly comparative in nature); highly respected work by Gregory Bateson, Margaret Mead, and Ruth Benedict was the result (Scollon and Scollon 2003: 542). George Murdock’s renowned data set “The Human Relations Area Files” and later Douglas White’s “Standard Cross-Cultural Sample” (see Murdock and White 1969) are collections of field data from a large sample of societies in a format which enables cross-cultural comparisons in quantitative studies to establish statistical evidence of significance.

It is only within the last half-century with the development of sociolinguistics that intercultural discourse has become a respected field of study and this Handbook is the result of it. We the editors and all the future readers owe considerable gratitude to the authors of these chapters for making sense of and providing coherence to these fairly untilled fields of human experience. In fact, this Handbook is a new experience, and we are grateful.

Christina Bratt Paulston

Scott F. Kiesling

Elizabeth S. RangelPittsburgh

September 2011

REFERENCES

Casson, Lionel. [1974] 1994. Travel in the Ancient World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Murdock, G. P. and Douglas R. White. 1969. Standard cross-cultural sample. Ethnology 8, 329–69.

Scollon, Ron and Suzanne Scollon. 2003. Discourse and intercultural communi­cation. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, and H. E. Hamilton (eds.). The Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell. 538–47.

Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cross-cultural_communication. Updated March 10, 2011.

I: Background

Part I of the Handbook contains three chapters which serve to introduce and contextualize the rest of the contributions in the volume as well as the field itself. Of course, an overview might be accomplished in one essay. But Intercultural Discourse and Communication (IDC) can be conceived of in many ways (and indeed is referred to in many ways), so we need views of the field that approach it from a number of perspectives. The three views represented in this section differ largely in the scope of the type of IDC work considered, although there is some overlap as one would expect. But they are also complementary in the principles used to organize each essay: critical, historical, and typological.

1

 Intercultural Communication: An Overview 1

INGRID PILLER

Introduction

This chapter is intended to serve as an overview of intercultural communication studies by introducing key issues and assumptions, describing some of the major studies in the field, and pointing out problematic aspects. Traditionally, intercultural communication studies have been most widely understood as comprising studies, whether of a comparative or an interactional nature, that take cultural group membership as a given. This predominant essentialism makes intercultural communication studies an exception in the social sciences, where social constructionist approaches have become the preferred framework in studies of identity (Piller 2011). Rather than taking culture and identity as given, social constructionism insists that it is linguistic and social practices that bring culture and identity into being (Burr 2003). The essentialist assumption that people belong to a culture or have a culture, which is typically taken as a given in intercultural communication studies, has given the field a somewhat old-fashioned, dowdy, not-quite-with-it, even reactionary image, an image which one recent commentator describes as follows:

To many teachers and researchers working … under the broad designation of media and cultural studies, the subfield of “intercultural communication” might seem a bit suspect. … there is a legacy of rather functionalist and technicist tendencies in the background, a legacy that has had its impact upon the intellectual quality of many areas of ‘communications’ research.