The Middle East For Dummies E-Book

Craig S. Davis

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 588

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Demystifies the area's culture, politics, and religions Explore Middle Eastern history from ancient to modern times Looking to better understand the Middle East? This plain-English guide explains the importance of the region, especially in light of recent events. You'll meet its people and their leaders, discover the differences and similarities between Arab and Western mindsets, and examine the wars and conflicts - including the Israeli-Palestinian turmoil - that led up to the current political situation. The Dummies Way * Explanations in plain English * "Get in, get out" information * Icons and other navigational aids * Tear-out cheat sheet * Top ten lists * A dash of humor and fun

Leseprobe

The Middle East For Dummies

by Craig S. Davis, PhD

The Middle East For Dummies®

Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc. 111 River Street Hoboken, NJ 07030 www.wiley.com

Copyright ” 2003 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana

Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Manufactured in the United States of America

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About the Author

Craig S. Davis earned a dual PhD in Near Eastern Languages and Cultures and in Religious Studies from Indiana University in 2002. He has conducted research in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India on contemporary primary education and medieval history. In the spring of 2002, he published an article on images of violence in Afghan primary education textbooks entitled “‘A’ is for Allah, ‘J’ is for Jihad” in World Policy Journal. His dissertation focused on a textual analysis of medieval Persian texts from the Mughal Empire. He studied Arabic in Jordan, Urdu and Pashtu in Pakistan, as well as Persian and other regional languages in the United States. Today, he works for the International Child Labor Program at the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of International Labor Affairs. Craig lives in Maryland with his wife Mirna and their four children: Helen, Trevor, Tellie, and Cassie.

Dedication

I dedicate this book to two very important individuals who helped to shape my understanding of freedom and justice during my formative years. The first is “Scud” McCrary, my middle school history teacher, who taught me the values of democracy and civil liberties that have stuck with me to this very day. The second is my high school Latin and German teacher, Lester Kerns, who influenced my teen years as much as anyone. I will never forget either.

Author’s Acknowledgments

Without the patience and understanding of my wife, Mirna, and my children, Helen, Trevor, Tellie, and Cassie over the past six months, this book would not have been possible. I would also like to thank Kevin Farris and Nick Levintow who lent their support. Jamsheed Choksy’s unwavering direction, both technical and otherwise, is always appreciated. I am grateful to Pam Mourouzis who provided assistance in the initial stages of the project. I also wish to thank Tim Gallan and Chad Sievers.

Publisher’s Acknowledgments

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Contents

Title

Introduction

About This Book

Conventions Used in This Book

Foolish Assumptions

How This Book Is Organized

Icons Used in This Book

Where to Go from Here

Part I : Getting Acquainted with the Middle East

Chapter 1: The Middle East’s Relevance in the 21st Century

Making Sense of It All

Navigating Through the Book

Chapter 2: Charting a Map

Getting Acquainted with the Region

Identifying the Countries, the Land, and the Climate

Chapter 3: Middle Eastern Hospitality

Meeting the People

Welcoming You into Their Homes

Trying the Cuisine

Part II : The History of the Middle East

Chapter 4: The Ancient Middle East

The Land Formerly Known as Mesopotamia (Iraq)

The Promised Land (Kings, Gods, and Prophets)

Egypt (Pharaohs, Gods, and Pyramids)

Iran

Anatolia (Turkey)

Chapter 5: The Medieval Middle East

Islam’s Birth and Adolescence

A Series of Crusades: Business as Usual

Uninvited Guests: The Mongols

Succeeding the Mongols: The Ilkhanids and Timurids

Unifying and Conquering: The Ottomans

Converting Safavids to Shiism

Chapter 6: The Modern Middle East

A Love-Hate Relationship: The West in the Middle East

Clashing Ideologies: Zionism, Arab Nationalism, and the Islamic Revivalism

Putting the “Saudi” in Saudi Arabia

Establishing the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

Carving Israel from Palestine

Coming of Age: Egypt Grows Up

The Shah(s) of Iran

Talking Turkey

Claiming the Prize: Lebanon and Syria

Part III : Politics, Islam, and Oil: Three Reasons Not to Ignore the Middle East

Chapter 7: Leadership: Kings, Presidents, and Dictators

Monarchy: Failures and Triumphs

Democracy: Failures and Triumphs

Theocracy: Failures and Triumphs

Socialism

Communism

Disputed Areas

Chapter 8: Islamic Militancy in a Nutshell

The Holy Warrior: Terrorist or Freedom Fighter?

Jihad: Holy War or Struggle?

Manipulating Madrasas: When Schools Teach Islamic Militancy

Chapter 9: Islam and the West

The Clash of Civilizations

The Clash of Values

Remaining Aware of Uneasy Friendships and Mutual Distrust

Deciphering the Contradiction: Western Culture and Technology

Chapter 10: It’s All About the Oil: Economics in the Middle East

Struggling to Compete

If It Runs, It Runs on Oil

Economic Failures

Linking Economics to Politics

Part IV : Regions in Turmoil

Chapter 11: The Powder Keg: Israel and Palestine

Keeping the Mapmakers Busy

Uncovering the Origins of Militancy

Firefighting with a Blowtorch: The Third Arab-Israeli War

Adding More Fuel to the Fire: The Israeli Settlements

Sending International “Firefighters” to the Rescue: The Fourth Arab-Israeli War

Fanning the Flames in Lebanon

Lighting the Fuses: The First Intifada

Trying to Stomp Out the Fuses: Ehud Barak

Burning Still: The Cycle of Violence Continues

Approaching the Fire with a Cool Head

Chapter 12: Iraq

Weathering Iraq’s Stormy Romance with the West

Saddam Hussein: A Killer Statesman

Chapter 13: Afghanistan

Setting the Stage for the Soviet Invasion

Fraternizing with the Soviets

New Kids on the Block: The Taliban and Al-Qaeda

Waging War on Terrorism: The United States Strikes Back

Chapter 14: Pakistan

Partitioning India

Drawing a Blueprint for a Nuke

Helping the United States Fight the War on Terrorism

Part V : Regions in Repair

Chapter 15: North Africa

Algeria

A Rebounding Egypt

Libya: Trouble on the Shores of Tripoli

The Sudan: A Land of Civil War and Famine

Chapter 16: Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria

Juggling Diplomacy: How Current Politics Took Their Shape

Lebanon

Syria

Chapter 17: The Arabian Peninsula

Saudi Arabia

Yemen

Chapter 18: Non-Arab Muslim States

Iran

Somalia

Turkey: Politicians, Generals, and Kurds

Part VI : Cultural Contributions of the Middle East

Chapter 19: A Mosaic of Religions

Judaism

Christianity

Islam

Chapter 20: Religions on the Edge

Religious Minorities

Mysticism

Chapter 21: The Family: The Hub of Middle Eastern Life

Family Dynamics: Love, Honor, and Responsibility

The Lives of Women: Separation and Modesty

Chapter 22: Language and Literature

Language, Ethnicity, and Tradition: You Are What You Speak

A Little Background on the Literature of the Middle East

Ancient Literature

Medieval Literature

Modern Literature

Chapter 23: Arts and Sciences

Science and Philosophy: A Middle East Contribution

The Arts and Beyond

Part VII : The Part of Tens

Chapter 24: Ten Key Ethnic Groups

Arab

Armenians

Ashkenazim

Bedouin

Berbers

Kurds

Pashtuns

Persians

Sephardim/Oriental Jews

Turks

Chapter 25: Ten Key Militant Groups

Al-Qaeda (International)

Hezbollah (Lebanon)

Kach and Kahane Chai (Israel)

Armed Islamic Group (Algeria)

Al-Gamaat al-Islamiyya (Egypt)

Islamic Jihads (Palestine and Egypt)

Hamas (Palestine)

Harakat al-Mujahidin (Pakistan and Kashmir)

Jaish-i Muhammad (Pakistan and Kashmir)

Kurdistan Workers Party (Turkey)

Chapter 26: Ten Key Challenges

Assigning the Blame

Coming into the Nuclear Age

Economic Development and Poverty

Ethnic and Religious Pluralism

Gender Inequity

Islamic Extremism

Military Spending

Overcoming the Colonial Legacy

Unequal Distribution of Wealth

Western-Style Democracy

Introduction

For nearly two decades now, I have dedicated myself to the study of the history, languages, and culture of the region loosely called the Middle East. It’s been a fascinating journey. I’ve lived, traveled, studied, and/or conducted research in Egypt, Palestine, Jordan, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Kashmir. For most of my adult life, I’ve taught or explained that violence, militancy, and religious extremism are only a small, albeit politically significant, part of everyday life in the region.

The aftermath of September 11, 2001, has affected us all. Those of us who know and love the Middle East have been no less jolted than the rest. Since that fateful day, the Middle East has been on almost everyone’s mind. With all that’s been written and everything that’s appeared on the TV screen — the War on Terrorism and the hunt for Osama bin Laden, a war in Afghanistan, another in Iraq, nuclear neighbors of Pakistan and India squaring off, cycles of violence in Palestine and Israel — I relished the opportunity to draw on my experience and expertise of the region to make sense of it all in this easy-to-understand The Middle East For Dummies. This book describes the recent political dynamics that snatch the headlines and weigh on everyone’s mind, but it also goes much further. It explains the rich history of the Middle East from ancient Mesopotamia to the formation of the modern state of Israel. The book also details the diverse religious and cultural heritage, showcases the region’s literary treasure chest, and explains the Middle East’s culinary and familial customs.

About This Book

The Middle East For Dummies provides a window into the Middle East. Whether you’re interested in ancient Egypt, the Crusades, Libya’s brush with the United States, Arab cuisine, modern film, or literature, suicide bombings, the Taliban, or the peace process in Israel and Palestine, The Middle East For Dummies has something for you. This user-friendly book written in the typical Dummies fashion provides, at the flip of a page, easily accessible information on very relevant events and pertinent issues.

Conventions Used in This Book

For the purposes of this book, the Middle East refers broadly to the region stretching from Morocco in the west to Pakistan in the east. The region runs from Turkey in the north to the Sudan, Somalia, and Yemen in the south. An area so vast naturally includes a variety of languages — Arabic, Hebrew, and Farsi to name but a few. Reading foreign words is always difficult. To make matters worse, some of the letters in those languages don’t have English equivalents. Specialists in the field have adapted sophisticated transliteration systems that include symbols like ’ or ` to represent foreign letters, but they don’t mean much to nonspecialists. Wading through a paragraph of foreign names and terms filled with odd symbols can be confusing. Therefore, this book has simplified the process by eliminating those symbols almost entirely and replacing foreign words with the English equivalents whenever possible. When certain foreign terms are unavoidable, I provide the simplified foreign word with its trusty English translation at its side (at least a few times until you catch on).

You also notice that the book uses the traditional abbreviations B.C. (before Christ) and A.D. (anno Domini, meaning in the year of the Lord) for dates.

Foolish Assumptions

This book makes the following assumptions about you:

You’ve seen something on the TV or radio, read about it, or heard part of a conversation dealing with the Middle East, and now you want to find out more.

With so many apparent contradictions in the media and diversity of opinion, you’re not sure what to believe.

You like to check things out for yourself. You don’t really trust everything you hear.

You want to fill in the gaps. You understand a lot of the basics about the Middle East but need a reference book to fall back on.

You read a lot. After September 11, 2001, you rushed out and loaded up on reading material, but got hung up on some of the technical stuff. You’ve been waiting for a book to provide all the essentials.

This book spans the whole spectrum of topics on the region, including religion. But if you want more on religion, you also may want to check out Islam For Dummies by Malcolm Clark, Judaism For Dummies by Ted Falcon and David Blatner, and Religion For Dummies by Rabbi Marc Gellman and Monsignor Thomas Hartman (all by Wiley Publishing, Inc.).

How This Book Is Organized

This book contains 26 chapters divided into seven parts. You can pick up this reader-friendly book, thumb through it and stop and read what stands out, look up specific topics in the table of contents or index, or read it cover to cover. Take your pick. A brief description of each part follows.

Part I: Getting Acquainted with the Middle East

Part I introduces you to the Middle East. This part provides a variety of reasons why the Middle East is important to you. It spans the geography from Morocco to Pakistan and identifies important rivers, mountains, and deserts located in each area. This part also paints a portrait of the people and their hospitality.

Part II: The History of the Middle East

Part II is where you find the Middle East’s historical background. The three chapters in this part detail the Middle East’s ancient, medieval, and modern histories. The ancient period starts at about 3000 B.C. and explores the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Canaan, Anatolia (Turkey), and Iran up through the mid-sixth century A.D. The Medieval period starts with the birth of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, in the late sixth century and runs through the 17th or 18th centuries. The religious and political dynamics of this period paved the way for the Modern period, which picks up where the Medieval period left off and runs through the mid-20th century. The events in the Modern period have set the stage for the Middle East, as we know it in the 21st century.

Part III: Politics, Islam, and Oil: Three Reasons Not to Ignore the Middle East

Part III outlines the region’s political, religious, and economic dynamics. This part discusses how the Middle East’s political systems have transformed, or remained the same, in some cases. Some nations have dabbled with communism, socialism, democracy, and theocracy. Regardless of the political system, the leadership all too often has become authoritarian.

This part also delves into the question of Islamic militancy, jihad (holy war), extremist points of view, and madrasas. You see how the history of extremist interpretations has laid groundwork for militancy in the 21st century. This section also explains a number of reasons for the rocky relationship between Islam and the West. Finally, this part discusses the region’s economics in the context of some important factors that come into play: oil, failed strategies, politics, and war.

Part IV: Regions in Turmoil

Part IV deals with four regions currently suffering from conflict. When you speak of conflict in the Middle East, Israel and Palestine first come to mind. This section explains the current crisis and describes the forces at play threatening to pull it apart. Before the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s, Iraq was one of the region’s wealthiest countries. This section outlines Iraq’s troubled history from its inception after World War I through the 2003 U.S.-led invasion. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan set this poverty-stricken nation on a path to destruction from which it has yet to recover. Pakistan, which recently entered the nuclear age, enters the 21st century with a combination of political and social ills that pose a threat to the Muslim country itself and other countries in the vicinity. This section explores the recent history of these two neighbors and provides a down-to-earth assessment of the current turmoil.

Part V: Regions in Repair

This part deals with a number of countries that have had their fair share of suffering but recently moved from a state of turmoil to one of repair. Countries, like Algeria, Sudan, Lebanon, and Somalia, have been entrenched in civil war and have endured unspeakable misery in the past but are now struggling to rebound. The recent histories of Egypt, Libya, Jordan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iran, and Turkey are filled with violence, intolerance, and suffering no less unsettling. These regions are also attempting to put their pasts behind them and find their way in the 21st century.

Part VI: Cultural Contributions of the Middle East

Part VI lays out the Middle East’s contributions to the world. The region’s religions almost immediately come to mind. This part highlights various dynamics of the three major religions — Judaism, Christianity, and Islam — while describing numerous religious minorities and mystics’ belief systems as well. The cultural contributions also include important family dynamics, like the family unit, marriage, and gender issues. This part also describes essential elements of language in the region and showcases 5,000 years of Middle Eastern literature. The discussion on arts and sciences demonstrates that the Middle East has probably contributed to basic science and philosophy in ways you had never imagined, while the various dimensions of the region’s art and entertainment are definitely worth checking out.

Part VII: The Part of Tens

Part VII lays out ten important ethnic groups and ten key militant organizations. These guides are insightful on the first read through, and may come in handy as a reference tool when you get stuck on a particular ethnic or militant group. The last part discusses ten challenges facing the Middle East. These challenges represent common themes for discussion that you’ll likely come across again and again in the media or in other literature on the Middle East. So, you may want to look at these chapters more than once.

Icons Used in This Book

Icons are these peculiar little pictures that surface in the margin from time to time in each chapter to let you know that the following topic is special in some way. The Middle East For Dummies utilizes the following four icons.

The Check It Out icon alerts you to a truly significant example of something, like art, food, literature, or music, is worth looking into. Go ahead, check it out.

The Tip icon provides a suggestion. If you choose to take the tip, you’ll probably digest the information a little easier.

I use the Remember icon in two ways. First, this icon flags an item to keep in mind (remember) because that item may come in handy later. Second, I use this icon to refresh your memory, saying, “Hey! You remember this, don’t you?”

The Ground Rules icon establishes a time out in the flow of the text so that I can lay down the political rules of the game. The rules following the icon let you know that distasteful offenses that the players (rulers, politicians, or tyrants) actually did may not be any worse than other players (rulers, politicians, or tyrants) did because they were just following the ground rules. As long as the players know the rules of the game and play on a level field, then all is fair in love and war (and politics).

Where to Go from Here

I didn’t write this book in a linear fashion. Although the chapters in Parts II, IV, and V may read like an historical narrative, you can read the book by topics or in chunks. Basically, you can start anywhere. If, for example, you want to read up on the Camp David Accords or find out more on the history of the Occupied Territories, you can look those topics up in the index and read about them in Chapter 11. Next, you may decide to read about the Taliban or the pyramids. Just flip to your topic and voilá. If you have a more generalized feel for what you’re looking for, you may want to run down the Table of Contents until you find it. If, however, you want to brush up on history, you may choose to select a chapter and read the whole thing.

Right now, if you have no idea where to start, I have a few suggestions. Start with Chapter 1 to explore some reasons why the Middle East is important to you. If you like friendly people, check out the part on hospitality in Chapter 3. If you just want to get a feel for current affairs, browse Parts IV and V until something catches your eye.

Part I

Getting Acquainted with the Middle East

In this part . . .

Part I helps to make sense of it all by explaining why the Middle East should be relevant to you. This part further charts a map of the region, identifying the geography and climate. Finally, this part introduces you to the Middle East’s greatest asset: its people, along with their hospitality and cuisine.

Chapter 1

The Middle East’s Relevance in the 21st Century

In This Chapter

Grasping the Middle East’s relevant issues

Tracing contemporary violence in the Middle East to two major political events: World War II and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

Destroying stereotypes and breaking monoliths

Understanding varying perspectives on terrorism (militancy)

Like it or not, you live in a global society where nearly everything you do affects others, and other people’s actions also affect you. Every time you purchase a product made abroad (which is more often than you may imagine), you’re contributing to a global network of mechanisms that influence the lives of millions of people you’ll never meet. Every time OPEC (Organi-zation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) raises the price of oil, higher prices make their way to the gas pump, impinging on your budget and reducing your ability to buy items for your family and yourself.

While you were going about your business on September 11, 2001, 19 Arabs hijacked four civilian airliners and flew three of them into the World Trade Center and Pentagon, killing more than 3,000 innocent people. This single event has likely changed your life, your worldview, and your opinions on the Middle East. First, you may have been among the throngs of people who began a concerted effort to educate themselves on the Middle East. Bookstores rushed to keep the shelves stocked with books on the Near East, Islam, and terrorism, while regional experts tirelessly attempted to keep up with requests to speak on TV and radio, give lectures, and participate in panel discussions on Middle Eastern issues. Religious studies and Near East studies departments struggled to answer phones and meet the growing demand of students who suddenly wanted crash courses in Islam and the Near East. Suddenly, the Middle East was relevant.

This chapter discusses the importance of the Middle East to our 21st-century world by highlighting issues relevant to you: oil, economy, terrorism, environment, art, literature, and human rights among them.

Making Sense of It All

With the recent turmoil in the Middle East, many people in the West have tried to find out more about the underlying issues, but this task can be a confusing one. The information they gleaned from the TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, and the Internet, at times seemed contradictory or filled with obscure terminology, complex concepts, and scores of foreign names of people and places.

Because I’ve lived, studied, and traveled in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kashmir, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, and Egypt, my friends, family, and colleagues often ask me questions about the Taliban, madrasas (theological schools), Pashtuns, Hamas, General Pervez Musharraf, martyrdom, sharia (Islamic law), and the Quran, along with a whole host of other topics. The Middle East For Dummies provides the essentials on religion, politics, society, and history of the Middle East so that you can process all the data that you’re downloading from the Internet, TV, newspapers, and other sources.

Following the headlines

The events taking place in the far-off Middle East have a lot to do with you. In fact, the Middle East is so relevant to Westerners that they can no longer afford to ignore it. You read about the region in the headlines everyday, and the most visible reason that the Middle East’s events, trends, and politics affect you is the impact that terrorism has had on the West. If you traveled abroad in the past, you probably think twice about flying overseas now, don’t you? In fact, you may think twice about flying at all. The tighter restrictions, longer lines, and baggage screening at airports are a direct result of September 11. After the July 2002 murder of three people standing at the El Al airline ticket counter at the Los Angeles International Airport, many people feel even less comfortable just waiting in lines.

Understanding global Islamic militancy

A wave of anti-Western feelings is currently washing over the Muslim World. All too often this anti-Western sentiment has taken the form of deadly violence against innocent civilians. Islamic militancy has struck in many parts of the world. Consider the following in the month of October 2002.

Bali: Militants bomb two Bali nightclubs, killing 183 people. Most of the victims are Australian, British, and Indonesian.

French Oil Tanker Limberg: Suicide bombers attack a French oil tanker, killing a Bulgarian crewmember in Yemen.

Moscow: Approximately 50 Chechen separatists storm the Moscow Palace of Cultural Theater, taking approximately 750 hostages, only three of whom are Americans. More than 100 die when Russian security forces pump an airborne chemical agent into the theater in order to disable the militants.

Unfortunately, Islamic militancy has impacted the West and has dominated the media, much in the same way that violence and conflict fills history books. Other issues, often filled with controversy, also fill the headlines.

Art, architecture, and history

Five millennia of art and architecture telling the region’s history saturate the Middle East. Egypt’s pyramids, royal tombs, and ancient relics, like mummies, sarcophagi, and statues, and the Holy Land’s countless sites held sacred by Jews, Christians, and Muslims, like the Wailing Wall, Church of the Holy Sepulcher, and Dome of the Rock are just glimpses into the Middle East’s treasure chest of art, architecture, and history (for more, see Chapter 23). You’re probably also aware the region’s art has suffered setbacks recently. In 2001, the Taliban destroyed the 50-meter tall Buddhist statues that had endured two millennia in Bamiyan, Afghanistan. During the wars in Iraq in 1991 and 2003, looters decimated holdings, most notably in Iraq’s National Museum of Antiquities.

Gender and human rights

Gender in the Middle East is a complex topic. Turkey, Israel, and Pakistan can boast having elected female prime ministers. The highly publicized activities of educated, visible Jordanian queens Nur and Rania represent the more progressive elements in Middle Eastern society. An increase in women-run businesses and improved education for girls in several countries signals a shift in traditional attitudes. Yet women continue to suffer in the region.

The Taliban became the most recent regime in the Middle East to emerge as poster boys for human rights abuses. The most commonly cited infraction was their treatment of women. In many parts of Afghanistan, women were forbidden to work in most jobs and travel outside the home alone or without a chador (type of veil). Furthermore, in many areas, girls and women were denied access to education. Women also weren’t allowed to drive cars. When found in violation of these Islamic regulations, a special religious police under the Ministry for the Prevention of Vice and the Promotion of Virtue would beat or arrest the perpetrators.

Figure 1-1: One of several Buddhist statues destroyed by the Taliban in Bamiyan, Afghanistan.

© Paul Almasy/CORBIS.

The Taliban didn’t create all these practices; many they borrowed from Saudi Arabia. The issue of forbidding women to drive, for instance, came to a head in Saudi Arabia in November 1990 with the arrival of 500,000 Americans to the country for the Gulf War. Hoping to draw international sympathy for their cause (women’s rights), 45 Saudi women drove automobiles to downtown Riyadh defying the ban. The Saudi Commission for the Prevention of Vice and Promotion of Virtue arrested the women. The most vociferous of the religious police labeled the women “communist whores.” Some of the women lost their jobs. More controversial yet was the incident in March 2002, when religious police blocked an exit of a burning school, preventing the girls from fleeing the fire because the girls weren’t wearing the appropriate Islamic attire presentable for the public. Even though 15 girls lie inside dying in the fire, outside the religious police dutifully busied themselves with beating young girls for not wearing the abaya (black robe and headdress).

Oil and economy

Because most of the world’s oil reserves lie in the Middle East, the global economy hinges on the unimpeded production and flow of that oil. Disturbances of any type — war, rumors of war, or militancy — upset the delicate balance of the global economy and can affect countries for a variety of reasons. For example, since the USS Cole bombing in 2000, Yemen’s already ailing economy has been reeling. After a wave of tribal kidnappings, bombings, and other violence, estimates indicate a loss of $7.6 million a month, which is substantial for a small developing nation of 18 million people. The bombing of two Bali nightclubs in October 2002 has had a devastating impact on Indonesia’s economy, which relies heavily on tourism. The Jakarta Stock Exchange plunged 10 percent immediately after the bombings because investors worried that the violence may convince foreign firms to pull out.

Ecology and environment

On October 6, 2002, a suicide bomber attacked the French oil tanker Limburg off the coast of Yemen, killing one Bulgarian crewmember and spilling 90 million barrels of oil. The oil spill has caused serious ecological damage to coral reefs, fish, birds, and other marine life. This spill is dwarfed by the destruction wreaked in the eight-year Iran-Iraq War when offshore oil platforms and oil tankers served as military targets. A recent U.N. report found that 25 years of war, drought, and famine have devastated Afghanistan’s environment. Deforestation, desertification, water contamination, oil dumps, and soil erosion are among the country’s most prominent environmental problems. And you probably remember that Saddam Hussein’s soldiers set 1,164 Kuwaiti oil wells ablaze as they were withdrawing in 1991.

Humanitarian issues

Take Lebanon, for instance, where an estimated 100,000 Lebanese were killed, 250,000 maimed or injured, and more than 1 million forced to flee their homes during the civil war. In the Iran-Iraq War, some 500,000 were killed. After 25 years of war, Afghanistan’s soil is saturated with land mines, infesting an estimated 344 million square meters of territory. More than 150 people a month, frequently children, fall victim to mines. In 1992, a growing humanitarian crisis in Somalia, brought on by the century’s worst drought and exacerbated by civil war, left 300,000 dead. Tribal warlords demanded loyalty from the starving population in return for access to food. Rival factions used military force to strangle U.N. supply routes, raid and hoard food supplies, and extort money from relief agencies. U.S. and U.N. peacekeepers stepped in to lend stability to the suffering Somalis.

Judeo-Christian tradition

If you live in the West, you’re a product of Judeo-Christian tradition, which itself was born in the ancient Middle East. The Bible’s origins, for instance, lie in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Canaan. The notion of hell that has played an important role in Western religion, culture, and literature, not to mention a central theme in so many Hollywood movies, originated in the Middle East (see Chapter 4). Ever wonder why you get Sunday off? It’s a religious day of rest. Christmas, Easter, and Hanukkah are all holidays embedded in our society. The Middle Eastern story of infant Moses floating down the River Nile or concepts like sacrifice and the golden rule are so ingrained in our culture that imagining life without them is difficult.

Apart from these few reasons why the Middle East is relevant, I could name many more. Approximately 1.2 billion Muslims populate the globe. Islam is America’s fastest-growing religion; an estimated 5 million Muslims live in the United States. If you pay taxes, then you support military and economic aid to both Israel and Egypt, as well as Turkey and many other countries in the region. You probably have friends or family members who have recently served in the military in Afghanistan or Iraq or who have been stationed in the Near East. Middle Eastern work, travel, trade, food, and other elements are woven into the very fabric of our Western society. Our destiny is intertwined with that of the Middle East. The first step in beginning to understand the Middle East is meeting it halfway.

Meeting the Middle East halfway

The issues that I mention in previous sections dominate the headlines, and you’ve probably already run across many of them. Just as history books and headlines are generally filled with wars and invasions and other brutalities of which humanity is capable, The Middle East For Dummies discusses the Middle East’s historical and political developments. This political history requires an accounting of revolts, revolutions, wars, torture, invasions, and yes, Islamic militancy. In order to understand the current “mess” that you read about or watch on TV, you have to face some tough issues.

The Middle East’s greatest asset

The Middle East’s greatest asset — its people along with their customs — is the main reason the Middle East should interest you. Daily life for most people in the Middle East is pretty routine. Parents raise their children, kids go to school and do homework (yuck), and families attend functions, such as weddings and parties. People sing, dance, write poetry, create art, joke and laugh, cook fantastic food, work long hours, pay their bills, have kids, grow old, and do most of the things you do. I have, therefore, reserved a considerable portion of the book to capture various dimensions of Middle Eastern life. The chapters on food, literature, ethnicity, customs, and art provide a window into the Middle East’s rich and diverse culture.

Although Islamic militancy and religious and ethnic violence currently snatch the lion’s share of headlines, most of the world’s Middle Easterners have never participated in any act of violence, nor have they even picked up a firearm or even seen an explosive device in real life. Most have never conspired against any nation, burned effigies of a U.S. president, or shouted “Death to America.” By and large, Middle Easterners are among the kindest, most tolerant, and most hospitable people on earth. Although the vast majority of Middle Eastern people don’t actively participate in violence, they still may harbor ill will against the West or sympathize with suicide bombers or people the West labels as “terrorists.”

If you’re truly going to understand why Islamic militants hate the Westand how some Muslims (and Christians) could possibly sympathize with Islamic militants, you need to release the old biases and stereotypes and attempt to look at various Middle Eastern worldviews. This advice doesn’t mean sympathizing with any particular group or accepting its justifications, but rather it means you must meet the Middle East halfway. The Middle East is a multifaceted world that can best be fully appreciated with an open mind.

Wiping out the monoliths

Middle Eastern people, whether Jews, Arabs, Muslims, Christians, or whoever, are as diverse as any other religious or ethnic group. You can’t lump all Jews or all Muslims into monolithic categories where all members think, walk, and act alike. Like Westerners, members of all these communities disagree, argue, challenge, reconcile, and fight.

In the January 2003 elections in Israel, for instance, the Likud party ran on a platform of stiff resistance against the Palestinians, while the Labor party campaigned to negotiate with the Palestinians and withdraw from the Occupied Territories (see Chapter 11).

You really can’t view the controversial Taliban who ruled Afghanistan with a heavy hand as a monolithic entity. Taliban rulers in the capital of Kabul outlawed girls’ education, forcing dedicated female teachers to set up clandestine schools in their homes. Yet, in May 2000, just 40 miles from the capital in the Taliban stronghold of Gardez, I visited a number of legal girls’ schools filled with daughters of Taliban rank and file.

We’re Muslims, not terrorists

If you want to conduct a simple examination of perspectives on terrorism, read a few articles from Pakistani newspapers on violence in Kashmir, and then read a handful on the same events in Indian newspapers. Pakistani articles routinely use the term freedom fighters or mujahideen (holy warriors) while Indians call the same militants terrorists. (I cover this multifaceted debate in more detail in Chapter 8.)

Most of the Muslim community, whether living in the West or in the Muslim World, is a little peeved. The Muslims feel slighted, even offended, that the West now looks at them with suspicious eyes. In an effort to crack the monoliths, try to appreciate the complexities of the term so loosely referred to as terrorism in the West. Although all but the most extreme Muslims renounce terrorism, various nuances regarding armed resistance against the enemy deserve special consideration:

Condemning terrorism: Most Muslims condemn terrorism (including the state variety), which to them means unfair or unacceptable violence against innocent civilians. Interpretation of the categories of acceptable and unacceptable targets becomes tricky.

Denouncing all forms of Islamic terrorism:Many Muslims, especially those who’ve been acculturated to the West, condemn all forms of terrorism and militancy.

Interpreting terrorism: Even among Islamic militants a debate rages on about how best to interpret acceptable acts of armed resistance. Some proponents of Palestinian militancy, for instance, attempt to rationalize harmful actions by arguing that suicide bombings and killing of Israeli civilians is okay only in the Occupied Territories, but not in Israel proper.

Sympathizing with terrorists: Many Muslims (and Christians) denounce terrorism, but sympathize with the plight of those Muslims they feel are forced through desperation to commit such militant acts.

Understanding state terrorism: Many Muslims charge that hostile governments have utilized unwarranted, brutal force against civilians that amounts to state terrorism.

Using the terms“terrorism” or “freedom fighting”: Other Muslims condone armed opposition against those they perceive as repressive forces, such as the Indian army in Kashmir or the Israeli Defense Force in Palestine. In such cases, they argue, Muslim resistance should be labeled freedom fighting, not terrorism.

Do these points seem difficult to understand? You can try to reconcile such a line of thought by trying to imagine Christian fundamentalists who may condemn the bombing of an abortion clinic while sympathizing with the terrorists’ cause. Certainly not all demonstrators against abortion are terrorists or militants. Because the definition of terrorism and terrorist becomes increasingly difficult when taking various points of view into account, throughout the remainder of the book, I generally refer to such acts of violence as militancy.

Navigating Through the Book

The Middle East For Dummies is organized into seven parts. The rest of Part I acquaints you with the diverse geography and climate of the Middle East as well as its people, their culture, and hospitality. Part II provides the essentials for Middle Eastern history. This part is broken into ancient, medieval, and modern history running to about the mid-20th century. Part III discusses political and economic issues related to current events. Within this part, Chapter 7 treats various types of leadership in the region, as well as experiments in communism, socialism, and democracy. Chapter 8 describes Islamic militancy in a nutshell, while Chapter 9 deals with the stormy romance between Islam and the West. Chapter 10 rounds out this part with a general discussion of oil and economics in the region.

Regions in turmoil is the topic for Part IV. If you really want to get to the meat of Middle Eastern affairs today, this section is for you. It begins with Chapter 11 that digs into the complicated events in Israel and Palestine. The next three chapters describe the history of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan respectively, laying out the important historical developments leading to the most recent ongoing crises. Part V looks at regions in repair — North Africa, the Fertile Crescent, the Arabian Peninsula, and the non-Arab states — that represent numerous nations attempting to recover from turmoil in their recent pasts.

Next is Part VI, which deals with religion and culture in detail, including major and minor religions in addition to family dynamics, language and literature, and arts and sciences in the Middle Eastern context. The Part of Tens closes out the book in Part VII. These three chapters should be significant to you as they deal with ten key ethnic groups, ten key militant groups, and ten key challenges facing the Middle East in the 21st century.

Chapter 2

Charting a Map

In This Chapter

Staking out the Middle East’s parameters

Understanding the region’s geography

Getting your bearings

In the winter of 1983 and 1984, I traveled to Pakistan and Afghanistan for the first time. A number of Afghans befriended me, welcoming me into their homes and lives. One arranged for me to travel into Afghanistan dressed as a mujahid (holy warrior). The Afghan Mujahideen were at the time embroiled in a jihad (holy war) against Afghan communists and the Soviet Red Army, which felt that the barren Afghan soil was as good as any place to invade.

A couple of months later I left my new friends and returned to the United States with an appreciation for the complexities, not only of the Afghan conflict, but also of the entire region in general. Apart from the Afghan guerrilla resistance against the Soviets, I discovered Afghan communists secretly providing information to their Mujahideen opponents. Relief agencies struggled to keep the medical supplies they were providing to refugee camps from surfacing on the black market. Accusations circled that Pakistan siphoned off substantial portions of U.S. military aid before handing it over to the Mujahideen leaders, who countered by taking a share before passing the aid along to the commanders. I heard stories that Afghan refugee boys and men who had fled to Iran were being conscripted and sent to the front line against Iraq. Arabs in the region were funding, or fighting for, the resistance; the Chinese and Iranians were providing weapons; and the CIA and Soviet intelligence were keeping tabs on it all.

Upon returning to the United States, I naively explained to friends and family that if a Third World War were to erupt, it would originate in the Middle East. Little did I know how the Afghan War would profoundly affect Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Kashmir militarily, politically, and ideologically, and how it would set the stage for Arab Islamic militant attacks against U.S. targets on September 11, 2001. Since those attacks, the world has found out just how Afghanistan and Pakistan are inextricably linked to the Arab World (Saudi Arabia, Palestine, and Egypt, for instance).

Getting Acquainted with the Region

Somewhere on a continent far, far away, a cartographer grappled with the term Middle East. This cartographer had to consider how other cartographers, scholars, journalists, and politicians used the term, and that wasn’t easy. Often the Middle East refers to part of the Arab World as far west as Egypt, as far east as Iran, and as far north as Turkey. Because the rest of the Arab World (Morocco, Algeria, Sudan, Tunisia, and Libya) is in North Africa, some people employ the term MENA (Middle East North Africa). Others coin the term the Near East (as opposed to the Far East) to cover this region, and toss in Afghanistan for good measure. This term (Near East) didn’t really catch on in the media, so today scholars and political analysts are just about the only ones who use it.

To simplify, others stubbornly just use the Middle East to refer to all those countries and sometimes lump in Pakistan because it’s culturally, politically, and religiously linked. Some people argue that Afghanistan and Pakistan don’t belong on the indistinguishable Middle East’s map (and that strictly speaking they belong on the map of Central and/or South Asia). But nowadays, more and more people equate these two countries with the Middle East. Since September 11, 2001, separating Afghanistan and Pakistan from the Middle East has been increasingly difficult.

Therefore, I have solved the cartographer’s dilemma (and expect to be rewarded handsomely). For the purposes of the Middle East For Dummies, the Middle East stretches from Morocco in the west to Pakistan in the east (see Figure 2-1). The Middle East extends to Turkey in the north and Yemen, Somalia, and Sudan in the south. Likewise, I occasionally use the term Near East interchangeably with Middle East (so don’t hold it against me).

Figure 2-1: The Middle East.

Identifying the Countries, the Land, and the Climate

When you think of the Middle East, you probably think of sand dunes, flat-roofed mud houses clustered in a desert, and minarets rising out of a dry, dusty Egyptian city. Well, all that exists, but the Middle East is a little more diverse. Take a look!

Nature reserve: In the middle of the dry desert on the shore of the Dead Sea in Israel lies the Ein Gedi natural reserve: an oasis of waterfalls, fresh water springs, and wildlife refuge for a number of species, including ibex and fox.

Rainfall: Rain in the mountains of Kurdistan is quite significant.

Semitropical region: The Salalah Plain of Oman receives an annual monsoon that creates a unique tropical-like region on the Arabian Peninsula.

Snow: Lebanese mountains have been a favorite for snow skiers for generations. The Elburz Mountains of northern Iran, which are often mentioned in ski magazines, Morocco’s Atlas Mountains, Afghanistan’s Hindu Kush, and Pakistan’s Himalayas also receive abundant snowfall.

Verdant valley:In the mountains of Pakistan, the Hunza Valley makes for a breathtaking panorama.

From the earliest civilizations, dating back thousands of years before the Common Era (a euphemism for the era formerly known as A.D.), people typically lived near sources of water, usually rivers (see Chapter 4). Even today, in the age of desalinization plants and sophisticated underground water systems, the Middle East’s survival depends on rivers and other natural sources of water.

The Arab World stretches from Morocco in the west to Iraq in the east, and from Syria in the north to Yemen in the southern Arabian Peninsula, encompassing 17 countries: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen (see Figure 2-2). You can throw in Palestine although it’s not yet an independent country.

Figure 2-2: The Arab World.

North Africa

North Africa runs from the Atlantic Ocean at Mauritania, along the Mediterranean Sea, and across the Nile River to the Red Sea. Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, and Sudan comprise North Africa. The Sahara Desert stretches across most of North Africa. Sand dunes occupy about 15 percent of the Sahara, while huge bare plateaus of stone cover 2/3 of the desert. Temperatures are hot, and the climate is dry. With the exception of Morocco, which has 18 percent arable land, less than 5 percent of the soil in North Africa is tillable. The Atlas Mountains stretch from Morocco through Algeria and into Tunisia. The northern slopes of these mountains form flowing river basins that produce fertile farmland and forests and allow for irrigation. In Morocco, for instance, the majority of the population lives in the Atlas Mountains foothills and farms the fertile plains, valleys, and plateaus between the mountains and the coast.

More than 90 percent of Egypt is barren desert. The Nile River sustains life in the desert throughout Egypt and parts of the Sudan. The Nile also provides hydroelectric energy. The Sinai Peninsula is east of the Nile, with Mount Katherine and Mount Sinai at the peninsula’s center. Egypt is hot and dry, and even in the winter, average temperatures are about 70 degrees in the day. Some parts receive almost no rainfall, while Alexandria boasts a whopping seven inches a year.

The Arabian Peninsula

Three bodies of water — the Red Sea to the west, the Persian Gulf to the east, and the Arabian Sea to the southeast — surround the Arabian Peninsula. The climate is mostly a harsh, dry uninhabitable sandy desert. Temperatures exceeding 120 degrees from May to September aren’t out of the ordinary. Rub al-Khali Desert (or the Empty Quarter) occupies the northwest region and receives almost no rainfall at all compared to other parts that receive six inches per year. Had it not been for the famous well of Zam Zam, the holy city of Mecca could never have sustained life.

A host of smaller Gulf States line the periphery of the peninsula: Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Oman and Yemen eclipse a significant portion of the Arabian Peninsula’s southern tip. Jordan and Iraq lie to the north of the peninsula. Farmers can work very little of the peninsula, and most of the nations rely on petroleum production. The Asir Mountains run along the southwestern coast of Saudi Arabia and receive 25 times the national average rainfall. The Jebel Akhdar Mountains are a luscious green contrast to the peninsula’s overwhelming barrenness. The fertile Batinah Plain runs near Muscat, while the Salalah Plain in the south near Dhofar is a lush semitropical area as a result of the summer monsoon lasting from June to September.

The Fertile Crescent

The Fertile Crescent runs from the Mediterranean Sea along the coast of Israel, Lebanon, and Syria across the Rift Valley through Jordan and over to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq in the east. In the summer, the coastline is hot and balmy, and in the winter, rain and snow can fall in Palestine and Israel. The bulk of the region from the Negev and Judean deserts in southern Israel across the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley reaching into Iraq is hot and dry. About 17 percent of Israel’s and Palestine’s land is arable, primarily in the north, which receives more rainfall and where you can find a wide range of wildlife. Nestled in the Lebanon Mountains, the Cedars is the famous winter resort where snowfall is so abundant that the French set up a ski resort in the 1930s. After World War II, Lebanon earned a reputation as The Switzerland of the Middle East (see Chapter 16).

The Jordan, Tigris, and Euphrates rivers have sustained life in Jordan and Iraq for thousands of years. Very little of Jordanian land and only about 12 percent of Iraqi land can be farmed. Although most of Syrian territory is semiarid and desert plateau, about a quarter of the land is used for agriculture. The Anti-Lebanon Mountains create a natural border between Lebanon and Syria, just as the Zagros Mountains and the Shatt al-Arab waterway do between Iraq and Iran.

Anatolia

Rising north from Syria is the Anatolian Plateau, which is home to modern-day Turkey. This country extends from Greece and the Mediterranean Sea in the west and southwest, to a narrow strip bordering Bulgaria in the northwest, and to the Black Sea in the north. Turkey borders Armenia and Iran in the east. The terrain and climate contrast the Middle East’s other dry desert regions. Turkey has sprawling plains, thick forests, rolling steppes, tall mountains, and powerful rivers and streams. More than a third of the territory is arable. Assorted wildlife is native to Turkey. The winters can be cold with considerable snow in the mountains. Summers are cool on the Black Sea coast and on the Anatolian Plateau but extremely hot in the country’s southeast region.

Iranian Plateau

The Zagros Mountains and the Shatt al-Arab waterway in western Iran form a natural border with Iraq. The Elburz Mountains in the north run along the Caspian Sea. Iran shares northern borders with Turkmenistan east of the Caspian and Azerbaijan west of the Caspian. The eastern Iranian frontier runs adjacent to Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Persian Gulf flanks Iran to the south. Although the Caspian coast is subtropical, as a result of heavy rain and snowfall on the northern slope of the Elburz, Iran is mostly arid. Much of Iran’s terrain is dry, particularly its two massive deserts — Dasht-i Kavir and Dasht-i Lut — which lie in the eastern and northeastern regions of the country. Iran can be cold in the winter, although summers can reach 105 degrees in the southwest. Iran’s oil reserves are significant, but only about 10 percent of the land can be farmed.

Afghanistan and Pakistan

Afghanistan and Pakistan pick up in the west where Iran leaves off. Southwestern Afghanistan is flat and dry, and gives way to the Hindu Kush Mountains occupying most of the remainder of the country. These mountains became famous after 2001 as U.S.-led coalition troops conducted operations against the Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces holed up in sophisticated caves designed with elaborate ventilation systems and generators for electricity. The mountainous region is cool in the summer and extremely cold in the winter. Some regions receive heavy snowfall. Afghanistan shares a border with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north, Pakistan in the south, and a small sliver of China in the east. About 12 percent of the land is arable.

Don’t think about traveling alone through Pakistan’s western no-man’s lands! Extending eastward from the Iranian border are the inhospitable climates of Baluchistan and the Makran coast, where Alexander the Great’s army was nearly decimated by the brutal heat and aridity. The Indus River and its five famous river tributaries (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas) offset the bulk of Pakistan’s dry and flat terrain, giving the region of the Punjab (five rivers) its name. These rivers flow southwest and have provided life for millennia. Originating high in the mountains of eastern Pakistan near the border with China, these five rivers help to make 28 percent of Pakistan’s land farmable. India and the Arabian Sea delineate the southeastern border of Pakistan.

Chapter 3

Middle Eastern Hospitality

In This Chapter

Getting to know the people of the Middle East

Uncovering the “conspiracy”

Tasting the cuisine

By far, the coolest thing about the Middle East is visiting it. After you arrive, you can interact with the people, experience the culture, enjoy the food, witness the sights, share in the customs, listen to the music, and bustle your way through bazaars. This chapter introduces you to the people, the warmth of their hospitality, and the flavor of their cuisine.

Meeting the People

The overwhelming majority of people living in the Middle East are Muslim. Therefore, the tendency to speak in general terms about Middle Eastern culture as if it were Muslim culture is great. For the sake of simplicity, The Middle East For Dummies often succumbs to that tendency, because it is impossible to stop at every point made and find suitable examples for each religious minority. With this thought in mind, wherever appropriate, the book also goes to great lengths to highlight the rich diversity of Middle Eastern culture.

Making introductions

Middle Easterners are diverse. Each country, region, subculture, and community has an assortment of music, customs, clothes, languages, religions, and food that are equally diverse. I want to introduce you to just a few Middle Easterners.

Bedouin: The Bedouins are Arab nomadic tribes living on the Arabian Peninsula, in Jordan, Israel, Egypt, and elsewhere. They make up about 10 percent of the Arab population. They’re traditionally known to herd sheep and camels, moving freely from region to region across borders. In the 20th century, many have abandoned nomadic life and taken up farming or other sedentary occupations (see Chapter 24).

Berbers: Throughout Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, approximately 12 million people speak Berber. Most belong to the Berber ethnic group of loosely knit tribes whose heritage in the region stretches back to 2400 B.C. (see Chapter 24).

Copts: The Copts are an indigenous Egyptian Christian sect that predates Islam. As a spoken language, Coptic died out in favor of Arabic around the 12th century, but it continues to be used in religious rites. The Copts circumcise their infant sons and have their own pope.

Druze: Some 300,000 members of this religious sect survive in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan as an offshoot of Islam. Because of their beliefs in God’s incarnation in the form of their 12th-century leader al-Hakim, Neo-Platonic tenets, and reincarnation, the Druze have often been persecuted by more orthodox Muslims. As a result, Druze have customarily hidden their identity, blending in among Christians or Muslims (see Chapter 20).

Hijras: In South Asia, eunuchs and male crossdressers don attractive female clothing, apply makeup, and attend wedding ceremonies as paid singers, dancers, and musicians. In a society where female participants in such ceremonies are kept separate from the men, the attendance of these pseudo-women performers comes in handy.

Ismailis of Hunza: Nestled in the mountainous enclave near the border of China on the Pakistani side is the utopian region of Hunza. The people speak Burushashki, and although this community of Ismailis is an offshoot of Islam, the people of Hunza are considered neither Muslim nor Pakistanis. With their features and colorful clothing, the people of Hunza resemble the indigenous populations of the Andes (yes, the South American Andes Mountains — on the other side of the world).

Kurds: