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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The Wax Moth: A Problem or a Solution? Covers the biology, development, morphometric characters, pheromones, mating and reproduction of the greater wax moth, which is a major pest in bee colonies. It also gives tips to beekeeping enthusiasts and professionals on how to manage wax moth infestations. Finally, it elucidates the involvement of wax moths in plastic degradation.
Key Features
· A complete overview of the basic biology of the greater wax moth
· A quick guide on wax moth pest control
· Tips for beekeepers to enhance colony growth for sustainable apiculture
· Information for researchers on the wax moth’s involvement in plastic degradation
· Simple text for readers of all levels
· References for additional reading
The Wax Moth: A Problem or a Solution? Is a comprehensive yet quick reference that is ideal for entomology and agriculture students, researchers, academicians and beekeepers (both professional and hobbyist).
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Seitenzahl: 188
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2008
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FOREWORD
Honey bees, next to man, are the most wonderful creation of God. There is nothing that a honey bee does, right from the production of sweet honey to the painful sting it inflicts, which is not in one way or another useful for man. The hive of the honey bee is a treasure vault of valuable products that attract mankind and other animals. No wonder then that the bee hive is under attack from pests, parasites, and enemies. The wax moth is one such problem in apiaries. Belonging to the order Lepidoptera of the class Hexapoda, there are two types of wax moth-infesting honey bee colonies the world over; the greater wax moth Galleria melonella and the lesser wax moth Achroia grisella. Old combs, combs in storage and unattended weak colonies are more prone to attacks which can be seen in the form of hard-cocooned pupae on the top of bee frames and anastomosing silken threads of webbing on the surface of the comb. The larvae tunnel through the wax comb, feeding on it and damaging comb and brood in a manner that hinders honey bee life processes ultimately lead to absconding, causing economic loss to the beekeeper. The problem, therefore, needs to be urgently attended and there are chemical, biological, and physical measures for the same. The book addresses all these in a clear and immaculate manner. What is more interesting is the novel concept of utilizing this pest for its more useful activity of plastic degradation. An insect capable of metabolizing complex fatty acids and esters making up beeswax can definitely adapt to digesting similar components that constitute plastic. Whether this is done with the help of gut microbiome as in some cellulose-digesting insects such as termites and cockroaches or by the insect’s own enzymes is the unresolved question. This chapter in the book makes it an interesting reading material. Honey bee lovers, parasitologists, entomologists, naturalists, and environmentalists, will definitely enjoy the book. My good wishes to the author.
PREFACE
The book Wax Moth: A Problem or Solution? has been written especially for B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D. students, bee-keepers, and academicians highlighting various aspects of the wax moth life cycle. Although certain books are available on various pests, pathogens, and predators of the honey bees, very limited information is available on the wax moths. The wax worms are devastating pests of food commodities and the beekeeping industry, which results in great economic loss globally. The wax moth invades the bee colony, proliferates, reproduces, and destroys the colony, forcing the original occupant to abandon the hive. Its biotic potential is regressive, which overpowers the dominance and hold of honey bees in hives. Different control strategies help in dealing with the challenging infestation of a concerned pest, but those also influence apicultural products.
The wax moth possesses the potential to degrade different types of plastics. A few research explorations are available that witness this exceptional ability of the above-cited insect. The present book highlights the specific characteristics and uses of the wax moth to resolve challenges of the human population. For the completion of this book, a vast review of the literature has been carried out, and this book carries the latest information related to the distress pest of honey bees.
During the preparation of this book, authenticated information from various research papers, review articles, and other books has been considered. While practising apiculture, the challenge imposed by wax moths for beekeepers has been observed. This has motivated the compiling of available information about the wax moth in one book. Images incorporated in various chapters are original, having been clicked while maintaining an infested honey bee colony.
Currently, different synthetic chemicals are used that no doubt control wax moth infestation but impose an insecticide contamination problem in apiculture products. On one hand, excessive synthetic chemical application induces insecticide resistance in pests, and on the other hand, these chemicals degrade the nutraceutical value of natural bee products. Therefore, the challenging need for this pest control and the right use of this specific pest acted as triggering factors for the completion of this comprehensive book. The concerned books elaborate on the general introduction, morphology, development, pheromonal profile, mating, reproduction, control, and plastic degradation characteristics of specific pests. With these features, it is hoped that this book will be a complete guide for meeting the needs of the students. A special thanks to Prof. Neelima R. Kumar, Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh for providing immensely valuable suggestions while drafting the book.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
An Introductory Review on the Wax Moth; a Devastating Pest of the Honey Bees
LovleenAbstract
Galleria mellonella L. (Greater Wax Moth) and Achroia grisella E (Lesser Wax Moth) are honey bees' most disastrous and economically important pests. Furthermore, in comparison to adults, larvae are a primary destructive stage for honey bee colonies. Voraciously feeding larvae prefer to take bee combs, stored pollen reserves, honey, larval and pupal exuviate, slum gum of the hive, wax capping, natural bee wax, and queen-rearing material containing wax in the storage. Larvae bore the hive, constructing silken tunnels in the colony combs to feed on stored products in the hive. The infested combs become covered with a mass of webbing and faecal matter that results in the condition of gallariasis. Weaker, queen-less, poorly managed, less ventilated colonies and abandoned bee hives become easy targets of wax moth infestation.
Further, the strong colonies are also prone to infestation, being a potential host for the heavy growth of this destructive breeder pest. However, after infestation, the bee population of strong colonies declines quickly, and eventually, the hive is destroyed. The present chapter highlights the introduction of the concerned disastrous pest, morphology, development, mating, reproduction, and control. The wax moth is considered a problem by apiarists. In contrast, while considering other characteristic features of this insect, the potential ability to degrade plastic of variant types, it provides an excellent solution to increasing plastic pollution. Considering both characteristics of this insect, the present book is titled 'Wax Moth a Problem or Solution?
INTRODUCTION OF THE WAX MOTH
There is a rapid decline in the honey bee population due to habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, pesticide application, pests, and pathogens. In addition, a wide variety of problems, including wax moths, ants, beetles, robber flies, dragonflies, wasps, cockroaches, mites, praying mantis, death-headed moths, termites, birds, lizards, snakes, frogs, mammals, etc., challenge honey bee colonies, throughout
the world (Williams, 1978; Caron, 1999; Swamy, 2000; Ellis et al., 2013; Lalita et al., 2018; Vijayakumar et al., 2019).
The common name for a species of moth that invades, attacks, and damages honey bee colonies and apiculture products is wax moth (WM). Other names for the wax moth are wax worm, bee moth, and wax miller. Furthermore, WM is referred to divergent species of moth, including, The Greater Wax Moth (Galleria mellonella), The Lesser Wax Moth (Achroia grisella Fabricius), The Indian Meal Moth (Plodia interpunctella Hubner), The Bumble Bee Wax Moth (Aphomia sociella Linnaeus), The Dried Fruit Moth (Vistula spp.), Ephestia kuhniella (Zell), E. cautella and The Flour Moth (Anagasta kuehniella Zeller) (Paddock, 1918; Okumura. 1966; Wilson and Brewer, 1974; Grant, 1976; Shimanuki, 1980; Kumar, 1996; Williams, 1997; Ellis et al., 2013; Chantawannakul, and de Guzman,2016).
Galleria mellonella L. (G. mellonella) and Achroia grisella E (A. grisella), Vistula spp., Plodia interpunctela, Ephestia kuhniella are associated with infestation of Apis cerana, Apis mellifera. Apis dorsata and Apis florea (Kumar, 1996). Among all predominant species are Galleria mellonella (G. mellonella L.) and Achroia grisella (A. grisella), which cause tremendous damage to bee hives. Therefore, almost all Asian honey bee colonies are susceptible to infestation (Adlakha and Sharma, 1975: Brar et al., 1985: Viraktamath, 1989).
The greater wax moth (GWM) is a potentially devastating and economically important pest of honey bees. Even Aristotle (284 BC) mentioned the specific pest in his writings on agriculture (Burges, 1978). Galleria mellonella belongs to the order Lepidopteran family Pyralidae. GWM was previously classified as Galleria cereana by Fabricius and Galleria obliquella by Walker, but it was later reclassified as G. mellonella by Linnaeus. Compared to more incredible wax moths, lesser wax moths are less destructive and less common (Paddock, 1918; Williams, 1997; Ellis et al., 2013; Harding et al., 2013; Kwadha et al., 2017).
The wax moth severely harms the beekeeping industry by damaging both normal and abandoned combs (1a-c). Generally, weak colonies become easy targets for the wax moth attacks (Williams et al., 1976; Kapil and Singh, 1983; Basavarajappa, 2011). Furthermore, improperly cleaned wax combs and queen-less, poorly managed colonies are also prone to infestation. Moreover, colonies become vulnerable to wax moth attacks for various reasons, including malnutrition, disease and widespread mortality due to pesticide poisoning (Pirk, 2016). The wax moths are more pronounced in summer and the rainy season. Therefore, the wax moth infestation is more pronounced in summer and the rainy season.
The general life cycle of this lepidopteron pest includes egg, larval, pupal and adult stages. Pupa hatches to adult form, which stays in the hive for a few days/weeks. Mating of male and female wax moths occurs on nearby trees, and the female returns to the hive to oviposit. The eggs get hatched into larvae under favourable conditions. The emerged larvae move on bee wax comb and get distributed in the hive. While feeding on bee wax, the larvae construct web tunnels for their passage (Kebede et al., 2015).
Numerous reports witness the seasonal prevalence of this pest. Lalita et al. (2018) reported that wax moth infestation had increased from April to July. After that, a decline was reported. Other studies have found that the greatest wax moth peak activity occurs from June to November (Ramachandran and Mahadevan, 1951; Brar et al., 1985; Gupta, 1987; Garg and Kashyap, 1998). Furthermore, according to Thakur, 1991, the wax moth population increased from March, reaching a peak in August; after that declined. All honey bee colonies of Asia are prone to wax moth attacks (Adalakha and Sharma, 1975; Brar et al., 1985; Viraktamath, 1989). The concerned pest exhibits diapause during larval and pupal stages (Gulati and Kaushik, 2004).
The information above points out that the wax moth is a difficult challenge for the beekeeping industry. However, some reports attribute its use as an excellent test model for toxicological and developmental explorations and a plastic scavenger to address the issue of accumulating plastic on the planet. According to Ellis et al., 2013, Neumann et al., 2013 and Dietemann et al., 2013, the wax moth is an excellent in vivo test model for divergent pathology, entomological, and physiological studies. Additionally, it is also used as a lure for fish bait. The wax moth hosts the hymenopteran species Pimpla turionellae and Itoplectis naranyae, which are potential pests of various lepidopteran insects. The greater wax moth acts as a factitious host for many larval parasitoids and entomopathogenic nematodes (Ehlers and Shapiro-Ilan, 2005). Further, the wax moths can be used for the biodegradation of different types of plastic and eventually produce ethylene glycol (Bombelli et al., 2017). The wax moth is an excellent experimental model for the study of insect morphology, anatomy, physiology, genomics, proteomics, immunology and reproduction.
THE WAX MOTH AS HONEY BEES' PEST
The wax moths include two predominant types, Galleria mellonella (Greater Wax Moth) and Achroia grisella (Lesser Wax Moth), which are ubiquitous pests of honey bee colonies (Paddock, 1918; Kumar, 1996; Williams, 1997; Dessalegn, 2001; Gillard, 2009; Ellis et al., 2013; Kwadha et al., 2017). The wax moth is a cosmopolitan and notorious pest of Apis mellifera and Apis cerana Fabricius, with worldwide distribution. The wax moths cause significant damage in tropical and subtropical regions, resulting in a decline in the honey bee population. The greater wax moth is responsible for heavy economic losses of about 60-70 percent in beekeeping.
Wax moths are nocturnal insects which remain concealed in dark places during the day (Gillard, 2009). The concerned pest generally lives in warm, dark areas with poor ventilation in the hive that is not regularly visited by honey bees (Paddock, 1918; Williams, 1997; Ellis et al., 2013). Wax moths are opportunistic pests that invade weaker colonies with enough unattended wax combs. Wax moth females oviposit eggs in darker and unattended combs (Figs. 1a-c). After three days, eggs hatch out into the larvae, which destroy hexagonal cells of the hive filled with brood, pollen, and honey (Chase, 1921; Warren and Huddleston, 1962; Smith, 1965; Arbogast et al., 1980; Eischen and Dietz, 1986; 1987; Dessalegn, 2001).
Fig. (1a, b)) Comb of honey bees after being heavily infested with the wax moth. The disorganized hexagonal cells are visible with silken webs secreted by the larvae while feeding on the bee wax. Fig. (1c)) The click depicting wax moth larvae and the pupae at the bottom of a bee hive.The larvae of wax moths burrow the edges of unsealed cells and secrete masses of webs, resulting in galleriasis. Furthermore, the larvae destroy the hexagonal cells while feeding on bee wax, making tunnels and spinning silken threads that engulf the entire hive, eventually destroying the complete pack and forcing the honey bee colony to abandon the hive. The wax moths are also responsible for causing the bald brood. As the larvae feed on bee wax and remove the caps of the wax cells, exposing the pupae and other tunnels through wax cells can affect the final moult and result in defective pupa development. The greater wax moth larvae moult for 5-8 moults depending upon environmental cues (Chase, 1921; Smith, 1965; Eischen and Dietz, 1987; Ellis et al., 2013).
The specific insect pest generally prevails in most seasons, either in active or diapause form, but becomes most destructive during the warmer climates (Crane, 2000). Their destruction is not very intense at temperatures below 25°C. The wax moths infest weaker colonies, which results in absconding, and similarly, in stronger colonies, destruction has also been recorded in severe infestation (Kapil and Sihag, 1983 Hanumanthaswamy, 2000; Neumann et al., 2013; Ellis et al., 2013; Dietemann et al., 2013). Further, the infestation is more common in queen-less conditions, starvation, diseases, or temperature variations (Lalita et al., 2018; Komala and Devina, 2020; Shiwani et al., 2020).
The more incredible wax moths feed on honey, pollen, and bee wax under natural conditions, and, in laboratory conditions, they can also be maintained on an artificial diet (Delobel and Laviolette, 1969; Desai et al., 2019).
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WAX MOTH
The wax moth, a devastating pest of apiculture, is a holometabolous insect with developmental stages including eggs, larvae, pupae and adults.
The Eggs of The Wax MothThe fertilized eggs are elliptical with a colour of pearly white in air-unexposed conditions and pink in air-exposed conditions. The eggs are marked externally with diagonally wavy lines. The gravid female wax moth prefers to lay eggs in the cracks and crevices of honey bee hives under natural conditions. The females prefer to oviposit from the late evening to the early morning. The pre-emerged larvae can be easily detected shortly before the hatching and are visible under the egg membrane. According to Swamy et al. (2008), eggs of the wax moth are 0.44 ± 0.02 mm long and 0.29 ±0.02 mm broad, with a hatching duration of 8.6 ±0.48 days. Further, the egg-hatching time varies according to the different ecological conditions. Elsawaf (1950) reported that the egg stage needs 9-10 days for hatching.
The Larvae of The Wax Moth
