The Wiley Handbook on Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Wiley Clinical Psychology Handbooks
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1299

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

The essential resource to the most recent research and practice on offenders with intellectual and developmental disabilities

The Wiley Handbook on Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities is a comprehensive compendium to the research and evidence supporting clinical work with people with intellectual and developmental disabilities who offend or are at risk of offending. With contributions from an international panel of experts, the text reviews the most recent developments in the assessment, treatment and management of various types of offenders with intellectual disabilities including violent offenders, sexual offenders and firesetters. The text also explores the developments in research on risk assessment and management of people with intellectual disabilities who offend or are at risk of offending.

In addition, the handbook also contains information on developments in research into the epidemiology of offending in this population, pathways into services and the trajectories of the criminal careers of those who will later go on to offend. This important resource:

• Includes contributions from expert international researchers and practitioners in the field
• Describes a range of theoretical, conceptual and ethical assessments as well as treatment and service development issues that are relevant practitioners in clinical practice
• Presents the ethical-legal considerations that offer a conceptual framework for the handbook
• Sets out a variety of the most current evidence-based interventions

Written for psychologists, psychiatrists, nurses and other mental health professionals, and those in education and training, The Wiley Handbook on Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities offers a much-needed resource on the latest developments in the field.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

About the Editors

Preface

References

Part I: Historical, Theoretical, Epidemiological, Legal, and Ethical Considerations

1 Historical and Theoretical Approaches to Offending in People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Introduction and Historical Roots

Intelligence and Crime

Theories of Offending and Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Conclusions

References

2 Criminal Behavior and Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Introduction

Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities and Offending

Incidence and Prevalence Studies

Prevalence of People with a Possible Intellectual or Developmental Disability in the Criminal Justice System

Prevalence of Offending in Services for People with Intellectual or Developmental Disabilities

Conclusions from Prevalence Studies

Future Research Considerations

References

3 Pathways into Offending and Through Forensic Services for People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Historical Context

Developmental Risk Factors

The Role of Personality Disorder in Offending by People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

The Societal Context

The Northumbria, Cambridge and Abertay Pathways (NCAP) Study

Conclusions

References

4 Legal Issues Concerning Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Introduction

Terminology and Definitions

Fitness for Interview

Fitness to Stand Trial

Disposal Options after Findings of Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity or Unfitness to Stand Trial

Unsafe Convictions

Sentencing

Specific Jurisprudence

The Death Penalty

Overview

References

5 Criminal Justice Responses to Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Introduction

Prisons

Probation and Parole

Innovative Court Programs

Innovative Community‐Based Programs

Rehabilitation Opportunities and Issues

Conclusion

References

6 Ethical Considerations in Treating People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities who have Offended

The Ethics of Interpreting Prevalence Rates

Ethics and Rights

Ethics Involving Offenders with IDD

Summary

References

Part II: Assessment and Evaluation

7 Static Risk Assessment in Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Introduction

Risk Factors for Offending

Risk Assessment Instruments

Predictive Validity of Static Risk Assessment Instruments in Offenders with IDD

Future Directions

References

8 Dynamic Risk Assessment for Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Introduction

Risk Assessment

Dynamic Risk and Offenders with IDD

Dynamic Risk Measures Developed for Offenders with IDD

Conceptual Understanding of Risk in Offenders with IDD

Conclusions

Future Research

References

9 Assessment of Inappropriate Sexual Behavior and Sexual Offending

Introduction

Risk Assessment

Socioaffective Functioning

Assessment Issues Related to Development and Maturation

Assessment of Sexual Knowledge and Emotional Regulation

Assessment for Inappropriate Sexual Preference and Persistence of Sexual Behavior

Sexual Self‐Regulation

Summary and Conclusions

References

10 Assessment of Anger and Aggression

The Northgate Anger Project: A Research‐Grounded Anger Assessment Protocol

Issues in Assessing Anger with Offenders with Intellectual Disabilities

Anger Assessments Suitable for Use with Offenders with Intellectual Disabilities

Case Formulation of Anger Problems

Concluding Perspective

References

11 Assessment and Treatment of Personality Disorders in Offenders with Intellectual Disabilities

Introduction

The Concept and Definition of Personality Disorder

Research on Personality Disorder and Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Psychiatric Disorders, Personality Disorder and Personality

The Assessment of Personality Disorder and People with IDD

Dimensional Assessment from Normal to Maladaptive Personality – DSM‐5

Case Study – Amy

The Treatment and Management of Offenders with PD

Conclusions

References

12 Evaluation of Service and Treatment Outcomes

Introduction

Services for Whom?

Evaluating Services

Designs

Qualitative Approaches

Conclusions

References

Part III: Treatment Approaches

13 The Treatment and Management of Sex Offenders

Introduction

Behavioral Approaches to Treatment

Cognitive‐Behavioral Interventions for Non‐IDD Men

The Nature of Cognitive‐Behavioral Sex Offender Treatment for Men with IDD

Treatment Evaluation Studies for Men with IDD

Evaluation of the Quality of Evidence Supporting Sex Offender Treatment

Summary and Conclusions

References

14 Treatment for Anger, Aggression, and Violence

Introduction

Prevalence of Aggression Amongst People with IDD

Impact of Aggression on Patients, Staff, and Services

Treatment for Anger and Aggression

A Model CBT Anger Treatment for Offenders with IDD

Conclusions

References

15 Assessment and Treatment of Firesetting Behavior

Introduction

Classification and Explanatory Theories for Firesetting Behavior

Assessment of Firesetting Behavior

Treatment of Firesetting Behavior

A Model Treatment Program for Firesetters with IDD

Summary and Conclusions

References

16 Assessment and Treatment of Alcohol‐Related Violence in Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Alcohol Use by People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Alcohol Use and Antisocial and Offending Behavior

Assessment and Treatment for Alcohol Abuse and Alcohol‐Related Violence

Development of a Specialized Program for Alcohol‐Related Violence

Conclusions

Appendix 1 Alcohol Screening Scale – Intellectual Disability (ASSID)

References

17 Social Problem‐Solving and Moral Development

Introduction

Theoretical Perspectives

Social Neuroscience – A New Framework

People with Intellectual Disabilities

Intervention Programs

Conclusions

References

18 Women with Intellectual Disabilities and Forensic Involvement

Introduction

Prison Reform for Women

Theoretical Background and Motivation for Offending

Women in Prisons & Mental Health or Forensic Hospitals

Women with Intellectual Disabilities in Prisons and Forensic Hospitals

Discussion

References

19 Assessment and Treatment of Offenders with Psychiatric Comorbidity

Introduction

Assessment of Psychiatric Comorbidity

Management of Offenders with Psychiatric Comorbidity

Mood Disorders

Schizophrenia and Psychotic Disorders

Personality Disorders

Conclusions

References

20 Autism Spectrum Disorders and Offending Behavior

Offending Behavior and ASD

Types of Crime Committed by People with ASD

Risk Factors for Offending Behavior by People with ASD

Management and Treatment of Offenders with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Summary and Conclusions

References

Part IV: Service Development, Professional, and Research Issues

21 Offenders with Intellectual Disabilities in Secure Mental Health Settings in the United Kingdom

Introduction

Characteristics of Patients in Secure Mental Health Settings

Assessment of Criminogenic and Other Treatment Needs of Offenders with ID in Secure Settings

Interventions in Secure Settings for People with ID

Therapeutic Milieu

Outcomes in Different Levels of Secure Care

Conclusions

References

22 Community Services for Offenders or Alleged Offenders with Intellectual Disabilities

Introduction

Characteristics of Offenders/Alleged Offenders with ID Living in Community Settings

Social and Environmental Factors Associated with Offending Behavior

Addressing Risk Factors Associated with Offending in Community Settings

Interventions in Community Settings

Service Liaison and Integration

Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

23 Understanding Staff to Provide Effective Support and Development

Introduction

Staff Working in Intellectual Disability Services

Challenges for Staff Working in Forensic Settings

Moderating Factors that Influence Staff Working with Offenders

Staff Working with Offenders who have an Intellectually Disability

Developing a Model to Support Staff Support Interventions

Supporting Staff Effectively who Work in Forensic Intellectual Disability Settings

Conclusions

References

24 Issues Concerning People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Involved in Criminal Justice Procedures

Introduction

Prevalence

Inclusion and Vulnerability

Police Custody

The Courts

Liaison and Diversion Services

Conclusions and Recommendations

References

25 Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Introduction

Prevalence and Types of Offending

Risk Assessment and Management

Treatment Approaches

Research Design and Methodology Issues

Ethical Issues

Policy and Service Developments

Conclusions

References

Author Index

Subject Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 07

Table 7.1 Studies evaluating the predictive efficacy of risk assessment of physical aggression in adults with an LD.

Table 7.2 Items of the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide.

Table 7.3 Items of the Risk Assessment Protocol for Intellectual Disabilities.

Chapter 08

Table 8.1 ROC* scores for instrument performance (AUC*) in ID group and control group.

Table 8.2 Description of three dynamic risk assessments for offenders with IDD.

Table 8.3 Predictive accuracy of three dynamic risk assessments for offenders with IDD.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 DSM‐IV/DSM‐5 personality disorder diagnoses for Amy – self‐ratings and staff‐ratings.

Table 11.2 NEO‐PI results for Amy’s self‐ratings and staff‐ratings.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Studies of prevalence of physical aggression amongst people with intellectual disabilities.

Table 14.2 Controlled studies of cognitive‐behavioral interventions for anger in people with intellectual disabilities (ordered chronologically then alphabetically by author).

Table 14.3 Primary focus of preparatory and treatment phase sessions of anger treatment.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Structure and aims of the Northgate Firesetters Treatment Programme.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Russ’s self‐reports on the Alcohol Knowledge Questionnaire (AKQ), the Dundee Provocation Inventory (DPI), and self‐reports on drinking at pretreatment, the midpoint in treatment, posttreatment and follow‐up assessments.

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Gender comparison: Clinical variables.

Table 18.2 Gender comparison: Forensic variables.

Table 18.3 Gender comparison: Treatment outcome variables.

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Guide to the structuring of the initial psychiatric assessment and history taking.

Table 19.2 Diagnostic variable for the total cohort (in percentages).

Chapter 21

Table 21.1 ARMIDILO dynamic risk factors for ID sex offenders.

Table 21.2 Dynamic Risk Assessment and Management System for ID offenders.

Table 21.3 Treatment Need Matrix items.

Chapter 24

Table 24.1 Appropriate Adults.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Number of physical assaults over 24 months (

N

 = 50). Data derived from Taylor et al. (2016). Anger treatment was administered between Time 2 and Time 3.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Functional analytic formulation of Daniel’s firesetting behavior.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Russ’s treatment record for possible future pathways if he continues drinking or drinks at more sociable levels.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 A social information processing framework of moral decision‐making.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 10‐point treatment plan.

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Inpatient bed occupancy in ID services.

Figure 21.2 Typical pathway for secure hospital patient with intellectual disability.

Key

. DBT – dialectical behavior therapy; SOTP – sex offender treatment program; VOTP – violent offender treatment program; TC – therapeutic community

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 Model of Awareness and Action.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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The Wiley Handbook on Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Research, Training, and Practice

Edited by

William R. Lindsay

John L. Taylor

This edition first published 2018© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of William R. Lindsay and John L. Taylor to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Lindsay, William R., editor. | Taylor, John L. (John Lionel), 1961– editor.Title: The Wiley handbook on offenders with intellectual and developmental disabilities : research, training and practice / edited by William R. Lindsay, John L. Taylor.Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2018008931 (print) | LCCN 2018012604 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118752999 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118753057 (epub) | ISBN 9781118753101 (cloth)Subjects: LCSH: Offenders with mental disabilities. | Developmentally disabled. | People with mental disabilities and crime. | Criminal psychology.Classification: LCC HV6133 (ebook) | LCC HV6133 .W55 2018 (print) | DDC 364.3/8–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018008931

Cover image: © Jane Rix/ShutterstockCover design by Wiley

In memory of Bill Lindsay.

Friend, mentor, and inspiration.

About the Editors

William R. Lindsay was Lead Consultant Clinical Psychologist, Head of Research and Clinical Director in Scotland for the Danshell Group. He was previously Head of Psychology (Learning Disabilities) for NHS Tayside and Consultant Clinical Psychologist at The State Hospital, the high secure hospital serving Scotland and Northern Ireland. Bill Lindsay was Professor of Learning Disabilities and Forensic Psychology at the University of Abertay, Dundee and he held honorary professorships at Bangor University in Wales, Deakin University in Melbourne, Australia, the University of West of Scotland, and Northumbria University in England. He was involved in obtaining over £1 million in research funding and he published over 300 research articles and book chapters. He also wrote and coedited several landmark books in the intellectual disabilities and forensic fields and he edited and coedited numerous special issues of academic journals. Bill Lindsay gave hundreds of keynote addresses, conference presentations, and workshops on cognitive behavioral therapy for, and the assessment and treatment of offending behavior by people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. He received numerous awards from national and international organizations, such as the British Psychological Society (BPS) and the National Association for Dually Diagnosed (NADD) in the United States, in recognition of his contributions to the science and practice of psychology with people who had intellectual disabilities. Bill Lindsay died suddenly in March 2017 soon after the manuscript for this handbook was completed.

John L. Taylor is Professor of Clinical Psychology at Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne and Consultant Clinical Psychologist and Associate Director for Psychological Services with Northumberland, Tyne & Wear NHS Foundation Trust, UK. He is a chartered clinical and forensic psychologist and an Approved Clinician under the Mental Health Act 1983. He qualified as a clinical psychologist from Edinburgh University and has worked mainly in intellectual disability and forensic services in a range of settings in the UK (community and high, medium, and low secure services). He is Chair of the British Psychological Society’s (BPS) Mental Health Act Advisory Group and a past President of the British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies (BABCP). Dr. Taylor has published over 120 research papers, books, book chapters and articles. He has also presented papers and invited addresses at more than 60 national and international conferences related to his clinical research interests in the assessment and treatment of mental health and in the emotional problems and offending behavior associated with intellectual disabilities. He received an Award for Outstanding Contribution to Applied Practice in 2017.

Notes on Contributors

Regi T. Alexander is Consultant Psychiatrist at St. Johns House, Norfolk, and Research Lead Consultant for Adults with Developmental Disorders at Leicestershire Partnership NHS Trust, UK. Dr. Alexander is the Editor of the Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry of Intellectual Disability and was a member of the UK National Institute of Healthcare and Excellence (NICE) Guidelines Development Group on mental health problems in people with learning disabilities.

Salma Ali is a Liaison & Diversion Practitioner specializing in working with people with intellectual disability. She is also a Forensic Psychologist in Training and has worked with young people and adults with mental health, substance misuse, and intellectual disabilities for over 15 years. Currently she works within Liaison & Diversion services at Central & North‐West London Foundation Trust, and has been integral in the development of the RAPID screening tool, and with the implementation of screening and assessment pathway for offenders with intellectual disability. She has spoken at a number of conferences and had a number of publications within this area, and continues to find ways of ensuring that the needs of offenders with intellectual disabilities are appropriately identified and addressed.

Danyal Ansari is a Clinical Associate in Applied Psychology at The Universities of Dundee and Stirling, and is employed with NHS Greater Glasgow & Clyde. His work focuses on providing cognitive behavioral therapy for individuals experiencing common mental health problems. He has previously worked with individuals who have intellectual and developmental disability and autism where he provided clinical and forensic input to the service.

Nigel Beail is Consultant Clinical Psychologist and Professional Lead for Psychological Services with South West Yorkshire Partnership NHS Foundation Trust, UK. He is also Professor and Clinical Lecturer at the Clinical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychology at the University of Sheffield. He has published extensively on practice‐based research from his clinical work.

Susan E. Breckon is a Clinical Psychologist with Northumberland, Tyne & Wear NHS Foundation Trust, UK. She works clinically in the rehabilitation of patients with intellectual disabilities and complex developmental disorders who are detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 because of offending behavior and mental health problems. Her work focuses on a formulation‐based approach to risk management and care planning at the point of discharge from secure services.

Warren Brookbanks is Professor of Criminal Law and Justice Studies and Director of the Centre for Non‐Adversarial Justice at the Auckland University of Technology Law School. He has coauthored or edited books on forensic psychiatry and law, unfitness to stand trial, criminal justice, and therapeutic jurisprudence. In recent years has undertaken research for the New Zealand, English and Scottish Law Commissions, the New Zealand Ministry of Health, and the former Mental Health Commission. He was a founding Trustee of the Odyssey House Trust (NZ), a former President of the Australia and New Zealand Association of Psychiatry, Psychology and Law (ANZAPPL), and is currently chair of the Oakley Mental Health Foundation Trust Board.

Verity Chester has a background in forensic psychology and is a Research Associate in the Department of Psychiatry at St Johns House, Norfolk, UK and a PhD Candidate at the University of East Anglia where she is researching the offending behavior of people with intellectual or developmental disabilities. She also coordinates the Clinical Research Group in Forensic and Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.

Isabel C. H. Clare is a Consultant Clinical & Forensic Psychologist working in health services research with the NIHR CLAHRC (Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research & Care) East of England at Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, and in the Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, UK. She has been a clinical academic throughout her career, with both her clinical work and her research focusing particularly on the assessment, treatment, and support of people with intellectual disabilities and/or other neurodisabilities whose behavior has, or could, bring them into contact with the criminal justice system. With colleagues, she has carried out many grant‐funded research studies in these and related areas and has published extensively.

Leam A. Craig is a Consultant Forensic Clinical Psychologist and Partner at Forensic Psychology Practice Ltd. He is Professor (Hon) of Forensic Psychology at the University of Birmingham and visiting Professor of Forensic Clinical Psychology at Birmingham City University, UK. He is a Chartered and Registered [Forensic and Clinical] Psychologist. Dr. Craig is a Fellow of the British Psychological Society and of the Academy of Social Sciences and recipient of the Senior Academic Award by the Division of Forensic Psychology. His practice includes services to forensic adult mental health and learning disability hospitals, prison, and probation services and he currently works as a consultant to the National Probation Service on the Offenders with Personality Disorder Pathway. He chairs the British Psychological Society Expert Witness Advisory Group. Dr. Craig has over 90 publications including 10 books and he is a series editor for the What Works in Offender Rehabilitation book series for Wiley Blackwell.

P. Ann Dirks‐Linhorst is Professor of Criminal Justice Studies at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, in the US. She previously served as Forensic Director for the Missouri Department of Mental Health. Her research interests include the intersection of the mental health and criminal justice systems.

Fergus Douds is a Consultant Psychiatrist in intellectual disability and a general adult psychiatrist. His special interest is in forensic intellectual disability issues. Dr. Douds is employed at The State Hospital, Carstairs in Scotland, UK with responsibility for high secure intellectual disability services for Scotland and Northern Ireland and is lead clinician for the Scottish Forensic Network (Intellectual Disability).

Ian Freckelton is a Queen’s Counsel in full‐time practice as a barrister throughout Australia. He is Professorial Fellow of Law and Psychiatry at the University of Melbourne, and Adjunct Professor of Forensic Medicine at Monash University, La Trobe University, Queensland University of Technology, and Auckland University of Technology. He is the Editor of the Journal of Law and Medicine and the Editor‐in‐Chief of Psychiatry, Psychology and Law. He is a Life Member and former President of the Australian and New Zealand Association of Psychiatry, Psychology and Law (ANZAPPL). He has authored over 40 books and more than 500 peer reviewed articles.

Scott Galloway is a Consultant Chartered Clinical and Practitioner Psychologist and was the Clinical Director and Lead Psychologist for the Central & North‐West London Foundation Trust Learning Disabilities Services for 10 years. Dr. Galloway has worked for 24 years in the field of intellectual disabilities, working in and managing both community and specialist inpatient assessment and treatment services for people with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, mental illness, personality disorders, and challenging or violent behavior, including those with a forensic history. He has recently worked on the development of the RAPID screening tool as part of the establishment of the screening and assessment service for offenders with intellectual disability.

Beverley Garrigan is a PhD student at the Department of Clinical Psychology, University of East Anglia, UK. Her PhD focuses on moral decision‐making in typically developing adolescents and those with acquired brain injuries. She has a BSc in Psychology from the University of Manchester and an MSc in Applied Forensic Psychology from the University of York.

Gina Gómez de la Cuesta is a Specialist Clinical Psychologist in Cambridge, UK. She did her PhD at the Autism Research Centre at the University of Cambridge, UK under the supervision of Professor Simon Baron Cohen and Dr. Ayla Humphrey. She has set up Bricks for Autism, running training courses for professionals in how to use LEGO® in social skills groups for children on the autism spectrum. Currently she is involved with the NIHR‐funded I‐SOCIALISE trial evaluating the effectiveness of LEGO® based therapy in schools with Professor Barry Wright, York University.

Nicola S. Gray is a Chartered Clinical and Forensic Psychologist. Currently she is Professor of Psychology at Swansea University, UK and Director of the Welsh Applied Risk Research Network (WARRN). She received her PhD from the Institute of Psychiatry, University of London and has worked within the NHS and Cardiff University before her present posts. Dr. Gray’s research interests are in risk assessment and safety planning, psychopathy, personality disorder, sexual offending, and neuropsychology. She regularly trains professionals on structured professional judgment for the assessment of future risk and management and other schemes for risk management. She has published widely in the areas of risk assessment, psychopathy, implicit cognitions, and schizophrenia.

Dorothy Griffiths is a Professor in the Child and Youth Studies Department and the Centre for Applied Disability Studies and Co‐Director of the International Dual Diagnosis Certificate Programme at Brock University in St. Catharines, Canada. She has published and written extensively on the topics related to persons with intellectual disabilities who demonstrate challenging sexual behavior and issues regarding human rights.

Richard P. Hastings is Professor of Education and Psychology at the University of Warwick in the UK. He is a researcher with interests in a range of topics in the field of intellectual disabilities and autism. Dr. Hasting’s research with colleagues focuses in particular on psychological problems prevalent amongst children and adults with disabilities, especially challenging behavior, mental health problems, and forensic needs. His research team and collaborators also study the demands of caring for and supporting children and adults with disabilities in the family home, and in education, health, and social care settings.

Fabian Haut is a Consultant Psychiatrist trained in general adult psychiatry and the psychiatry of intellectual disability. He has worked with people with intellectual disability in Tayside, Scotland, UK for more than 20 years. His clinical interests include dual diagnosis and offending behavior. Dr. Haut’s responsibility includes forensic learning disability community services, learning disability intensive support services. Previously he was the Responsible Medical Officer to low secure forensic and forensic assessment intellectual disability units.

Susan Hayes is a forensic psychologist and Professor Emeritus at Sydney University Medical School, Officer of the Order of Australia (AO), Fellow of International Society for the Scientific Study of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, and member of Australian Psychological Society’s College of Forensic Psychology. She is recognized internationally for expertise with people with intellectual disability in the justice system, including the areas of criminal justice (offenders and victims of crime), family court, capacity for medical consent, guardianship, and child protection. Dr. Hayes has authored over 120 publications and 100 conference presentations, and received 30 research grants; she teaches both postgraduate and undergraduate courses.

David Hingsburger is the Director of Clinical and Educational Services at Vita Community Living Services, Toronto, Canada. He has authored and coauthored books, chapters, and articles on issues arising in providing services to people with intellectual disabilities who have engaged in sexual offending behavior, on self‐advocacy and assertions skills, and on providing positive behavioral support. He lectures internationally.

Jordan Hoath has been working in the intellectual disability field in Ontario, Canada for over 10 years in a variety of roles, specifically providing assessment and treatment to individuals with problematic sexual behaviors.

Stephanie Ioannou is a behavior therapist and Board Certified Behaviour Analyst and works with individuals with intellectual disabilities and high risk behavior in Toronto, Canada.

Peter E. Langdon is a Senior Lecturer in Clinical Psychology and Disability at the Tizard Centre, University of Kent, UK as well as an Honorary Consultant Clinical and Forensic Psychologist, working within Hertfordshire Partnership University NHS Foundation Trust, in Norfolk. He is a Research Fellow with the National Institute for Health Research and is Coeditor of the Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. He has worked in forensic mental health care services for over 15 years and has a specific interest in developing clinical interventions for offenders with intellectual and other developmental disabilities.

Donald M. Linhorst is Professor of Social Work and Director of the School of Social Work at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, Missouri, USA. His research interests include empowerment of vulnerable populations, as well as criminal justice programs that address, mental illness, substance abuse, or intellectual and developmental disorders.

Rachael Lofthouse is a Clinical Psychologist with the Forensic Outreach Service, Lancashire Care NHS Trust, in the UK. She completed her PhD at Bangor University focusing on risk factors for offending behavior in adults with intellectual disabilities. She continued research in this area as part of her clinical psychology training at the University of Liverpool. She has worked mainly in intellectual disability and forensic services and continues to have a research interest in these areas.

Amanda M. Michie is a Consultant Clinical Psychologist and the Professional Lead Psychologist for Learning Disability Services in the City of Edinburgh, Mid, East and West Lothian. She has specialist expertise in the field of forensic intellectual disabilities and provides a clinical service to community and inpatient forensic settings across the Lothian region. Dr. Michie works closely with criminal justice system staff providing training, consultancy, and clinical input. She is also an established researcher, publishing regularly, particularly on the assessment and treatment of offenders with intellectual disabilities.

Catrin Morrissey has worked in the forensic intellectual disability field for 30 years. As Lead Psychologist in the National High Secure Learning Disability Service (at Rampton Hospital, UK) she led a team who developed psychological care pathways for high risk males in secure hospital care. She has researched and published widely on the subject of personality disorder in intellectual disability.

Glynis H. Murphy is Professor of Clinical Psychology & Disability at the Tizard Centre, University of Kent, UK. She is a chartered clinical and forensic psychologist, and Fellow of the British Psychological Society. She was President of the International Association of the Scientific Study of Intellectual Disabilities (IASSID) between 2008 and 2012. She was coeditor of Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities until the end of 2014 and chair of the UK government’s National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidelines development group for Challenging Behaviour and Learning Disabilities (2013–2015). In 2013 Dr. Murphy was awarded the M. B. Shapiro Award for Clinical Psychology by the British Psychological Society. In 2014 she was elected a member of the Academy of Social Sciences. For many years, she has had research interests in challenging behavior, autism, sexuality, abuse, forensic issues, mental capacity, and the law in intellectual disabilities, and she has published over 130 journal articles, book chapters, and books on these topics.

Suzanne Nicholas is a Clinical Psychologist and works on the Wales Offender Personality Disorder Pathway, supporting probation officers in their work with high risk offenders who likely have a severe personality disorder. She completed her doctoral thesis concerning risk assessment of violence in offenders with intellectual disabilities at Cardiff University in 2008. As part of this research, Dr. Nicholas also developed a screening tool for risk assessment of violence, the RAPID, which is intended for community populations as it can be completed quickly, with limited information. She went on to demonstrate the reliability and validity of the RAPID for her doctorate in clinical psychology in 2012.

Raymond W. Novaco is Professor of Psychology and Social Behavior, at the University of California, Irvine, US. He has worked extensively on the assessment and treatment of anger with a variety of clinical populations, including forensic patients with intellectual disabilities in collaborative research with colleagues in Newcastle and Northumberland, UK. In 2009, he received the Academic Award from the Division of Forensic Psychology of the British Psychological Society. His coedited book, Using Social Science to Reduce Violent Offending (Oxford University Press) received the 2013 Best Book Award from the American Psychology‐Law Society.

Gregory O’Brien was Senior Psychiatrist with the Queensland disability services, Associate Professor at the University of Queensland, Australia and Emeritus Professor of Developmental Psychiatry at Northumbria University, UK. He was a specialist in learning disability, child and adolescent, and forensic psychiatry. Previously he held office as Associate Dean of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, President of the Penrose Society, Scientific Director of the Castang Foundation, Chair of the Faculty of Learning Disability of the RCPsych, and Associate Medical Director of Northumberland, Tyne & Wear NHS Foundation Trust.

John Rose is Director of the forensic clinical psychology training course and also works on the clinical psychology doctorate programme at the University of Birmingham, UK. Prior to this he has worked on the South Wales clinical psychology training course and as a clinical psychologist in a number of different clinical services. He has written on issues related to cognitive therapy, service design, offenders with learning disabilities and staff and organizational issues in intellectual disability services.

Robert J. Snowden is a Professor in the School of Psychology at Cardiff University, UK. He was educated at York and Cambridge Universities, UK and worked as a postdoctoral fellow at MIT in the US before going to Cardiff University. He was awarded a Personal Chair in 1999. Professor Snowden has published widely in the fields of visual perception, visual attention, and forensic and clinical psychology. He regularly contributes to professional training on risk assessment and forensic and clinical psychology. He has acted an advisor to both the UK and Welsh governments.

Jolene Sy is an Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, US. Her research focuses on translational applications of behavior analysis within school settings with individuals diagnosed with intellectual disabilities.

Jenny Talbot joined the UK’s Prison Reform Trust in 2006 to manage the No One Knows Programme, which explored the prevalence and experiences of adult offenders with learning disabilities and difficulties. A series of research reports was published during this three‐year program, together with recommendations for policy and practice – a number of which have been adopted. She is currently director of the Prison Reform Trust’s Care not Custody program, which is concerned with people with mental health problems and learning disabilities who are in contact with criminal justice services. The program, which is chaired by Lord Bradley, has a particular interest in the development of liaison and diversion services for these individuals, and the government’s commitment for all police custody suites and courts to have access to them. In 2011 she received an OBE in recognition of her work on behalf of offenders with special needs.

Jon Taylor is a Consultant Forensic Psychologist and psychotherapist working in a medium secure service for offenders with intellectual disability and as head of psychotherapy at HMP Dovegate Therapeutic Community, Staffordshire, UK. He has provided consultation to the National Offender Management Service in the development of therapeutic communities for prisoners with a learning disability and led the development of a residential treatment programme for high risk offenders with intellectual disabilities and severe personality disorder at Rampton Hospital.

Ian Thorne, BSc (Hons), MSc, CBTPGDip, CPsychol, is a Principal Forensic Psychologist with Northumberland, Tyne & Wear NHS Foundation Trust, UK with responsibilities for coordinating treatment programs for detained offenders with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Prior to working in the NHS he fulfilled similar responsibilities within HM Prison Service.

Vasiliki Totsika is an Associate Professor at the University of Warwick. Her research on intellectual and developmental disabilities is across the lifespan and examines the role of the environment (family or staff carers) in determining the well‐being of people with an intellectual disability. She is particularly interested in longitudinal research and a large part of her work has focused on describing how challenging behaviors are developed and maintained over time.

Amanda L. Walker is a Clinical Psychologist currently working within a mental health recovery team at Derbyshire Healthcare Foundation Trust, UK. Prior to this she worked in locked psychiatric rehabilitation with offenders who have mental health difficulties and spent two years working in an acute inpatient unit. Her current interests are working with those individuals who have borderline personality disorders and complex trauma, using both dialectical behavior therapy and compassion‐focused therapy approaches.

Jessica R. Wheeler joined the Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, UK as a Research Assistant on a Department of Health funded multisite pathway study of people with intellectual disabilities referred to services because of offending/offending‐type behavior. She completed her PhD on Environmental factors and alleged offenders with learning disabilities in 2011. Dr Wheeler then worked on a National Institute for Health Research (NIHR)‐funded project examining the provision of “good support” for people with intellectual disabilities who had contact with the criminal justice system. She then moved to the Institute of Criminology (University of Cambridge) as a Research Associate to work on a project concerning health and social care support for vulnerable populations with the Cambridge Migration Research Network.

Preface

In 2004, Bill Lindsay and I – in collaboration with Peter Sturmey in the United States – edited and published what was at the time considered to be a comprehensive compendium of the evidence supporting clinical work with people with intellectual and developmental disabilities who offend or are at risk of offending (Lindsay, Taylor, & Sturmey, 2004). Since that time there has been a huge amount of research in every area of this field. There have been developments in the assessment, treatment, and management of various types of offenders with intellectual disabilities including violent offenders, sexual offenders, and firesetters. There have been significant developments in research on risk assessment and management of people with intellectual disabilities who offend or are at risk of offending. There have also been interesting, and to some extent unforeseen, developments in research into the epidemiology of offending in this population, pathways into services, and the trajectories of the criminal careers of those who will later go on to offend.

In response to the increasing amount of work going on and material being published in this field, Bill and I decided several years ago to update the 2004 text. When we started to think about the structure and content of the revised text, however, it became clear to us that this would be a bigger and longer project than we had originally envisaged. Also, our publishers thought that the increased scope of the proposed volume warranted the revised text being classed as a “handbook” that would pull together in one place this work and provide a ready reference for the reader. Unfortunately, Bill Lindsay died suddenly just as we were finishing the project and it is a great sadness that he didn’t see the handbook go into production.

Our starting point was that, historically at least, low intellectual functioning has been viewed as a determinant of criminal behavior and people with lower levels of intellectual functioning have been considered a threat to society. Although there would seem to be a clear relationship between offending behavior and level of intellectual functioning, when studies are extended to include people within the intellectual disability range this relationship does not appear to be simple or linear. And while people with intellectual disabilities may, by definition, have greater difficulty in understanding and learning the rules and conventions of society, the available evidence would suggest that they manage to do this to a similar level of competence as people in the general population. Despite this, it would seem that disproportionate numbers of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities are detained in secure settings because of offending or offending‐type behavior, are detained for longer periods, and suffer more adverse experiences while incarcerated than their nonintellectually disabled counterparts.

Partly in response to this phenomenon, the biggest policy initiative in intellectual disability services in England in more than a generation, Transforming Care (NHS England, Local Government Association & Directors of Adult Social Services, 2015), aims to reduce the lengths of stay of detained patients with intellectual disabilities and to reduce significantly the number of hospital beds available for this population. Unfortunately, it would seem that this policy is in danger of compromising the care and safety of offenders with intellectual and developmental disabilities (Taylor, McKinnon, Thorpe, & Gillmer, 2016). This is particularly concerning given that the policy is atheoretical and appears to lack any credible evidence or analysis to support its primary aim of slashing specialist services for this population.

It is hoped that this handbook is an antidote to this lack of empiricism. The chapters herein deal with a range of theoretical, conceptual, ethical, assessment, treatment, and service development issues that confront practitioners in the real world. They are arranged into four broad, and sometimes overlapping, sections. Part I discusses historical, theoretical, epidemiological, and legal, and ethical considerations and provides a conceptual framework for the succeeding chapters. These consider assessment and evaluation, treatment approaches, and the future development of systems, services, and staff working with people with intellectual and developmental disabilities who offend or are at risk of offending.

As in the 2004 volume, different contributors have differing and sometimes opposing views on particular issues, and the research evidence available in some areas may be interpreted differently by authors in their own chapters. Similarly, we have contributions from colleagues from around the world, so occasionally some cultural, language, and terminology differences arise. As editors, Bill and I felt it was important, perhaps essential, to permit these differences and perspectives to be laid out, relying on each author to justify their position and thus allowing the reader to be exposed to a range of views and requiring them to reach their own conclusions based on the arguments made. We hoped that this approach would make for a lively, nonuniform volume that would arouse readers’ curiosity and even stimulate further research and enquiry.

Some discussion of the choice of terminology used by the editors in the title and text of this book to describe the client group with whom we are concerned is required. In the United Kingdom the term “learning disability” is commonly used to describe people characterized as having (a) significant subaverage general intellectual functioning as measured on a standard individual intelligence test, (b) more difficulties in functioning in two or more specified areas of adaptive behavior than would be expected taking into account age and cultural context, and (c) experienced the onset of this disability before the age of 18 years. These criteria are broadly those included in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD‐10), Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM‐5) and American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) diagnostic classification systems. The term “intellectual disability” is now widely used internationally in services and the research community to refer to the same syndrome.

We have included the term “developmental disability” in the title of this book. It refers to the definition given in the United States Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Act (2000) and is a broad concept covering the equivalent terms of learning disability, and intellectual disability. In general terms developmental disability means a severe, chronic disability of an individual that (a) is attributable to a mental or physical impairment (or combination of mental and physical impairments); (b) is manifested before the individual attains age 22; (c) is likely to continue indefinitely; (d) results in substantial functional limitations in three or more areas of major life activity; and (e) reflects the individual’s need for individualized and planned supports and assistance that may be lifelong. In addition to intellectual disability, the concept includes other conditions that do not necessarily involve significant subaverage intellectual functioning such as autism, epilepsy, foetal alcohol syndrome, and some other neurological conditions. For these reasons we consider that the term developmental disability provides a helpful description of some of those people with whom services work and are covered in this volume. However, we have not insisted that individual contributors stick rigidly to the terms intellectual and/or developmental disability, and some have preferred use other terms with which they are more comfortable.

We are grateful to our colleagues at John Wiley & Sons for their support and forbearance during the long gestation of this project. Particular thanks go to Darren Reed, Karen Shield, Silvy Achankunju, Elisha Benjamin, and Monica Rogers. We are also immensely grateful to our friends and contributors for their efforts in supporting us with this work. Finally, I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my co‐editor Bill Lindsay for the amazing work he did on this book before his untimely death earlier this year.

John L. Taylor

December 2017

References

Lindsay, W. R., Taylor, J. L., & Sturmey, P. (Eds.) (2004).

Offenders with developmental disabilities

. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

NHS England, Local Government Association & Directors of Adult Social Services (2015).

Building the right support: A national plan to develop community services and close inpatient facilities for people with a learning disability and/or autism who display behaviour that challenges, including those with a mental health condition

. Retrieved from

https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp‐content/uploads/2015/10/ld‐nat‐imp‐plan‐oct15.pdf

Taylor, J. L., McKinnon, I., Thorpe, I., & Gillmer, B. T. (2017). The impact of Transforming Care on the care and safety of patients with learning disabilities and forensic needs.

British Journal of Psychiatry Bulletin

,

41

, 205–208.

Part IHistorical, Theoretical, Epidemiological, Legal, and Ethical Considerations

1Historical and Theoretical Approaches to Offending in People with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

William R. Lindsay and John L. Taylor

Introduction and Historical Roots

Social theory, public policy, and clinical practice have long been susceptible to manipulation and distortion concerning offenders with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). Crime and the issues surrounding crime can be incendiary topics for the media, then the public, and consequently politicians. Fear of crime can lead to the easy manipulation of public perception concerning the culpability of one section of society or another. People with IDD have a long history of being the target of such unwarranted scapegoating.

During the 19th century there were several important influences that came together with such potency that it seems to have taken those involved by surprise. First came the development of the concept of institutions as a solution to educating people with IDD. In 1844 John Conolly, chief physician at the at Hanwell Asylum in London visited two institutions in Paris – the Salpetriere and the Bicêtre, opened by Edouard Seguin, a French physician who pioneered educational approaches for children with IDD (Seguin, 1846). Conolly witnessed humane management of “idiots,” education of even the most disabled, and a huge reduction in the use of restraint. His enthusiasm for Seguin’s regime was reflected in his writings (Conolly, 1847), which were circulated throughout Britain and North America. This resulted in widespread enthusiasm for institutional care. One early North American institution for people with IDD was opened in South Boston in 1847 for people “condemned in hopeless idiocy” (Trent, 1994). The originators of these establishments were influential and similar institutions opened in New York and Philadelphia. The early institute superintendents wrote of the educative potential of these places and created the concept of idiocy as a social construction while offering an ostensibly humane solution in the form of institutions.

By 1858, however, influential figures were already asserting a link between idiocy and delinquency. Isaac Newton Kerlin, a very important figure in the field of IDD who coined the term “moral imbecile” (1858), published a series of 22 case illustrations in which he wrote, of one case:

He was a moral idiot, he recognised no obligation to God nor man and having some appreciation of the value of money and property, nothing that could be appropriated was safe from his reach….His honest face covered the most mature dishonesty.

(Kerlin, 1858, p. 48)

Here, there is not only the explicit linkage of low intelligence and moral decrepitude, but also an attribution of cunning and culpability – together with an expedient view of capacity – that was to seep into the wider culture and society. These early associations found fertile ground in the latter part of the 19th century following the revelations of Mendelian laws of heredity and Charles Darwin’s writings on evolution and natural selection.

Subsequent institution superintendents were particularly successful in exploiting the supposed links between IDD and criminality to make an argument for the expansion of their services, with medicine rather than education becoming the dominant ethos. Consequently, increasingly persuasive arguments were made for removing people with IDD from society for their own, as well as for society’s, good. State funding followed, leading to the expansion of many such establishments and the increasing segregation of people with IDD (Scheerenberger, 1983). Institution heads in the US began to be perceived as having unique knowledge of the issues in IDD and they certainly believed that, segregated from wider society, people with IDD could become self‐sufficient in isolated communities. Martin Barr, chief physician of the Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble‐Minded Children, said in his 1897 Presidential address to the Association of Medical Officers of American Institutions for Idiotic and Feeble‐Minded Persons that “the imbecile, separated from the world and forbidden to marry, shall become a self‐supporting, self‐respecting citizen” (Barr, 1897, p. 3), while Mary Dunphy (1908), superintendent of Children’s Institutions, Randall’s Island in New York city, wrote that “it is in the interests of the public as well as for their own sakes, that [people with IDD] be prevented from coming in to contact with those of normal minds.” As others had done, Dunphy put her protective remarks in a threatening context, saying “moral instincts are almost always lacking in the mentally deficient so even in ordinary intercourse…they are a menace to the welfare of society” (p. 334). The reader may experience no small sense of schadenfreude on learning that after surviving a series of scandals Mrs Dunphy was dismissed as superintendent of the New York City Children's Hospital and Schools and publicly disgraced by the New York City State Board of Charities in 1915.

Up until the middle of the 19th century, people with IDD were generally considered a burden on, rather than a menace to society. Scheerenberger (1983) wrote that during the 18th and 19th centuries, living conditions were harsh and unremitting for people with IDD especially in urban areas with growing industrialization. In rural areas, they tended to work long hours in poverty but in industrial settings were unable to maintain employment or be accepted into apprenticeships. As mentioned, the impetus for change was Darwin’s theory of evolution and the establishment of Mendelian laws of heredity which Galton (1869) employed to argue for the role of genetics in individual greatness in his book Hereditary Genius. Others, notably Goddard (1912), applied the same methods of dynastic study to IDD, with devastating effect.

In fact, these authors were part of a general movement sympathetic to eugenics which increasingly regarded IDD as a menace. Scheerenberger (1983) notes that:

By the 1880s, mentally retarded persons were no longer viewed as unfortunates or innocents who, with proper training, could fill a positive role in the home and/or community. As a class they had become undesirable, frequently viewed as a great evil of humanity, the social parasite, criminal, prostitute, and pauper. (p. 116)

In 1889, Kerlin developed his theories on the association between IDD and crime and argued that crime, rather than being the work of the devil, was the result of an individual’s inability to understand moral sense and also their physical infirmity, both of which were nonremediable and inherited (Kerlin & Broomall, 1889). Others also linked IDD to a range of social vices including drunkenness, delinquency, prostitution, and crime. Barr (reported by Trent, 1994) stated:

One hundred thousand of the feeble minded in the United States alone, consistently increasing by birth and immigration….crowd our schools, walk our streets and fill alike jails and positions of trust, reproducing their kind and vitiating the moral atmosphere. Science and experience have searched them out. (in Trent, 1994, p. 144)

For Barr, the solution was to increase the number and capacity of the institutions for the protection of both the person with IDD and the public. Here we see both the insinuation of moral deficiency and, importantly, the underpinning and validation from “science” which is an early indication that scientists (many of us writing and reading chapters in this book) can follow and amplify, through their perceived dispassionate legitimacy, the prevailing culture of the day. In this passage from Barr there is also mention of another pernicious insinuation, that those with IDD are particularly fecund and will, therefore, increase significantly in numbers and the threat they pose to moral rectitude.

Goddard (1910) developed this trope using arguments on Mendelian laws of heredity and the innovation of mental testing. Interlinking these developments he introduced the term “feeble‐mindedness” to include all forms of cognitive impairment and intellectual disability. Those with the mental age of two years or less were termed “idiots”; those with a mental age of three to seven years were “imbeciles”; and those with a mental age of eight to 12 years “morons.” Crucially, the addition of the latter category more than doubled the number of people assimilated into the feeble‐minded rubric. His interest in genetics led Goddard to conclude that there was a causal relationship between feeble‐mindedness and social vice. The conceptualization of people with IDD, and their sudden and alarming apparent growth in numbers, escalated this group from a mere social burden to a social menace. Goddard (1911) and others proposed two solutions for this increasing problem – segregation and sterilization – which continued to have a significant impact for decades to come.

In the spirit of Galton and his work on genius, several authors, including Goddard (1911) published pedigree studies apparently confirming the inherited nature of feeble‐mindedness and its causal link to crime. Trent (1994) summarizes these studies writing that they “reinforced the belief in the linkage of rapidly multiplying mental defectives and a host of social problems: crime, prostitution, abusive charity, juvenile delinquency, venereal diseases, illegitimate births, and drunkenness” (p. 178).