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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: SAS Institute Inc
- Sprache: Englisch
Uncover the financial fraud that funds terrorist organizations Trade-Based Money Laundering is an authoritative examination of this burgeoning phenomenon, now coming under scrutiny in the War on Terror. This book walks you through the signs and patterns of trade-based money laundering (TBML) to help you recognize it when it occurs, and shows you how data and analytics can be used to detect it. You'll learn the common value transfer techniques including invoice fraud, over-and-under invoicing, and misrepresentation, and learn why analytic detection systems have yet to be implemented despite the existence of copious data. Case studies from around the world highlight the real-life implications of the concepts and processes presented in the text, giving you a first-hand view of the mechanisms at work inside this expanding illegal market. Trade-based money laundering uses trade to convert large quantities of illicit cash into less conspicuous assets or commodities to evade financial transparency laws and regulations. As an ideal funding mechanism for terrorist groups, the practice is getting more attention even as it increases in scale and spread. This book takes you deep inside TBML to better arm you against its occurrence. * Learn the typical value transfer techniques of TBML * Examine case studies detailing international examples * Discover why institutions have failed to implement detection systems * Explore ways in which analytics can identify TBML According to the U.S. State Department, TBML has reached staggering proportions in recent years, and is considered by many to be the next frontier of international money laundering enforcement. Trade-Based Money Laundering gives you a battle plan, with expert insight and real-world guidance.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015
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Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface
How This Book Is Organized
Sourcing
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Chapter 1: The Next Frontier
The Magnitude of the Problem
How Are We Doing?
Notes
Chapter 2: Trade-Based Money Laundering Techniques: Invoice Fraud
How Does TBML Work?
Invoice Fraud
Case Examples: Invoice Fraud and Manipulation
Cheat Sheet
Questions to Ask if a Shipment of Goods Looks Suspicious
Notes
Chapter 3: Black Market Peso Exchange
Background of the BMPE
A Typical BMPE Value Transfer Scheme
Expansion of the BMPE to Mexico and Venezuela
The China Connection
Cheat Sheet
Notes
Chapter 4: Hawala: An Alternative Remittance System
Definition of Hawala
The Hawala Transaction
How Do Hawaladars Make a Profit?
Countervaluation and Trade
An Abused Financial System
How to Recognize Hawala
Countermeasures
Case Examples: Hawala
Cheat Sheet
Notes
Chapter 5: Chinese Flying Money
An Ancient System
The Modern Era
How Does It Work?
Chinese Presence in Africa
Case Examples
Notes
Chapter 6: Misuse of the International Gold Trade
Why Gold Is so Popular with Money Launderers
How Is Gold Manipulated to Launder Money and Transfer Value?
Possible Questions for Gold Dealers
Case Examples
Examples of Gold and Terrorism Financing
Cheat Sheet
Notes
Chapter 7: Commercial TBML
Trade Diversion
Trade Misinvoicing
Transfer Pricing
Cheat Sheet
Notes
Chapter 8: More Schemes and Facilitators
Barter Trade
Service-Based Laundering
Free Trade Zones
The Afghan Transit Trade
Latin America's Tri-Border Area
Carousel Fraud
Case Studies
Notes
Chapter 9: Monitoring Trade
Steps in the International Trade Process
Information Sources
What about Weight Analysis?
Pioneering Analysis in TBML
Trade Transparency Units (TTUs)
The Application of Big Data and Analytics
Case Example: Operation Deluge
Notes
Chapter 10: Red-Flag Indicators
Possible Red-Flag Indicators of TBML
Prudent Steps
Guidance
Notes
Chapter 11: Conclusions and Recommendations
Get Serious about TBML
Define the Magnitude of the Problem
Focus from the Top
A FATF Recommendation
Curtail the Commercial Misuse of Trade
Enhance Wire Transfer Reporting
TBML Analytics
Expand the International TTU Network
Reempower Treasury Enforcement
The Misuse of Trade Is a Law Enforcement Issue—Not Just a Customs Issue
National Task Forces on Underground Finance
Notes
Appendix A: Money-Laundering Primer
Financial Intelligence
How Is Financial Intelligence Used?
Availability of Financial Intelligence
Legislation
Investigating Money Laundering
Money-Laundering Methodologies
Notes
Appendix B: Original Trade Transparency Unit (TTU) Proposal
May 2003 Proposal: Trade Transparency Units
Glossary
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: The Next Frontier
Figure 1.1 Trade-misinvoicing outflows from developing countries 2003–2012 (in millions of dollars, nominal)
Chapter 2: Trade-Based Money Laundering Techniques: Invoice Fraud
Figure 2.1 Comparative imports and exports of refrigerators
Figure 2.2 Export of used cars from the United States
Figure 2.3 Purchase of consumer goods
Figure 2.4 Toy company involved with TBML
Chapter 3: Black Market Peso Exchange
Figure 3.1 The BMPE cycle
Chapter 4: Hawala: An Alternative Remittance System
Figure 4.1 Prototypical hawala transaction
Figure 4.2 Sample hawala advertisement
Figure 4.3 Sample hawala ledger
Chapter 5: Chinese Flying Money
Figure 5.1 Fei-chien flying money diagram
Chapter 6: Misuse of the International Gold Trade
Figure 6.1 Comparison of gold “scrap” to pure gold
Figure 6.2 Gold exports and money laundering
Chapter 7: Commercial TBML
Figure 7.1 Pricing arbitrage through diversion
Figure 7.2 Basic export underinvoicing diagram
Figure 7.3 Transfer pricing scheme
Chapter 9: Monitoring Trade
Figure 9.1 Basic trade transaction
Figure 9.2 HTS sample code number for gold scrap
List of Tables
Chapter 2: Trade-Based Money Laundering Techniques: Invoice Fraud
Table 2.1 Examples of Abnormal U.S. Trade Prices
Chapter 9: Monitoring Trade
Table 9.1 Top Exports from the United States to Country X
Table 9.2 Abnormal U.S. Import Weights
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Trade-Based Money Laundering
The Next Frontier in International Money Laundering Enforcement
John A. Cassara
Copyright © 2016 by John A. Cassara. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Cassara, John A., 1953- author.
Title: Trade-based money laundering : the next frontier in international money laundering enforcement / John A. Cassara.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, [2016] | Series: Wiley & SAS business series | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015031791 | ISBN 9781119078951 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119125372 (epdf) | ISBN 9781119125396 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Money laundering. | Commercial crimes.
Classification: LCC HV6768 .C398 2016 | DDC 364.16/8--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015031791
Cover Design: Wiley
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Foreword
My introduction to the name John Cassara 13 years ago created an early and instantly classic memory in my emerging career as a counter–illicit financing policy official at the U.S. Department of the Treasury. I was traveling through the Middle East on a Treasury mission to facilitate implementation of anti–money laundering (AML) systems and to explain and inform our evolving strategy to counter the financing of terrorism (CFT). Working with allies and other financial centers, the United States had recently fused many elements of the CFT strategy with global AML standards and was pressing for worldwide implementation as a collective security priority following the terrorist attacks of 9/11. After joining the Treasury mission only months before, I was both honored and a bit anxious participating in these pivotal discussions with experienced senior policymakers and AML/CFT practitioners from such a crucial region. On the margins of these discussions, and on more than one occasion, I was asked an unusual question: “Are you John Cassara?”
The clear respect, bordering on awe, with which the question was asked made the answer as disappointing as it was awkward. I returned to Washington with some frustration and abundant curiosity—who is John Cassara?
Upon my return, I quickly learned that being confused with John Cassara was a tremendous compliment. John's legendary status in the global financial investigative community at that time was mirrored by his reputation among peers across the U.S. federal government. In John's storied if not unique career in public service, he served a combined 26 years as a clandestine case officer with the Central Intelligence Agency and as a Treasury special agent with both the U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Customs.
In the 13 years since the trip that introduced me to the name John Cassara, I have had the privilege of working directly with John on multiple cases and issues. John's insights and advice, including after his retirement from government service, helped shape my perspective as I assisted Treasury leadership in creating a new strategic policy office focusing on all aspects of the counter–illicit financing mission. John's thinking informed our efforts to strengthen and expand the global commitment to combat illicit finance, including in partnership with the interagency community, the Financial Action Task Force and the global AML/CFT community, and the private sector. I have continued to rely on John's experience, talents, and insights since joining the private sector in 2013.
Throughout our relationship, John has demonstrated consistent leadership in pushing for urgent reforms required to strengthen the counter–illicit financing mission. And yet, John has never alienated those of us who might take a different view on particularly complex challenges or dimensions of this evolving mission.
I am immensely proud to call John a friend and deeply honored that he asked me to write the foreword for Trade-Based Money Laundering: The Next Frontier in International Money Laundering Enforcement, his fourth book.
John's latest writing comes at a crucial time in the evolution of AML/CFT regimes and the expanding role of financial and economic power as instruments of national and collective security. In the generation since the 9/11 terrorist attacks, there is no doubt that U.S. leadership and global commitments have successfully demonstrated the effectiveness—and indeed, the increasing necessity—of financial power in combating the greatest collective security threats we face. From al Qaeda and global terrorism to the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and the threatening activities of rogue states such as North Korea, Iran, and Syria, the United States has increasingly relied on financial power to protect and advance our national and collective security.
Despite these unequivocal successes in the evolution and application of financial power to help combat our gravest threats, the global AML/CFT community continues to struggle in systematically advancing more fundamental objectives of AML regimes. As John clearly demonstrates, traditional quantitative and qualitative metrics on money-laundering prosecutions and forfeitures present a troubling picture of relative stagnation. More fundamentally, we lack a clear, systemic, and shared understanding of the nature and scope of money laundering risks. These fundamental shortcomings exacerbate increasingly evident challenges of the private sector in applying a risk-based approach to AML/CFT programs and controls.
These concerns are particularly troubling given the ongoing expansion of transnational organized crime and the illicit financing networks that support such activity. Numerous threat assessments and corresponding strategies document the continued growth and reach of these networks and the criminal groups they support. Such growth includes opportunistic convergence and increasing infiltration of legitimate economic activities, strategically important industries, and governing elites in a number of states around the world. This is a grim picture.
Fresh thinking is needed to change this reality and address longstanding cracks in global AML/CFT regimes. In this book, John makes a compelling case to begin necessary AML/CFT reform by focusing on trade-based money laundering. He is incredibly well-suited for this, bringing his career AML/CFT investigative experience together with his expert understanding of global trade controls. John's insights on trade-based money laundering, gained from over three decades of professional experience investigating illicit finance, will be invaluable to the full range of AML/CFT stakeholders seeking to strengthen the counter–illicit financing mission.
The AML/CFT world is ready to listen. As John describes, recent developments across the regulatory, law enforcement, financial intelligence, and counter–illicit financing policy communities indicate a renewed interest in trade-based money laundering. From regulatory guidance and examination to FinCEN advisories and the 2015 U.S. National Money Laundering Risk Assessment, authorities are refocusing on the deep-seated, systemic AML/CFT vulnerabilities presented by various forms of trade-based money laundering. My consulting experience over the past two years has indicated this renewed interest is shared by the private sector, particularly in the global banking industry.
This book will encourage the continuation and intensification of these efforts. It stands alone as a comprehensive and practical guide on trade-based money laundering and value transfer. And it will prove to be an invaluable resource for the global financial community and AML/CFT authorities as we collectively renew our efforts to better understand and attack money laundering systematically, beginning with trade-based money laundering—truly the next frontier in international money laundering enforcement.
— Chip Poncy
Preface
Not long after the September 11 attacks, I had a conversation with a Pakistani entrepreneur. This businessman could be charitably described as being involved in international gray markets and illicit finance. We discussed many of the subjects addressed in this book, including trade-based money laundering, value transfer, hawala, fictitious invoicing, and countervaluation. At the end of the discussion, he looked at me and said, “Mr. John, don't you know that your adversaries are transferring money and value right under your noses? But the West doesn't see it. Your enemies are laughing at you.”
The conversation made a profound impact on me. I knew he was right. Spending the better part of a career as a special agent with the U.S. Customs Service, I conducted investigations both in the United States and overseas. Over the years, I developed sources and expertise in many of the indigenous, ethnic-based, underground financial systems that are found around the world. I knew firsthand that the common denominator in many of these underground financial systems was trade-based value transfer.
At the time of the conversation, the U.S. government and the international community had not focused attention or resources on the misuse of international trade to launder money, transfer value, avoid taxes, commit commercial fraud, and finance terror. It was completely under our radar. Our adversaries—criminals, terrorists, kleptocrats, and fraudsters—were operating in these areas with almost total impunity. And unfortunately, many years after that conversation and the tremendous expenditure of resources to counter illicit finance, trade-based money laundering and value transfer are still not recognized as significant dangers. Perhaps as the Pakistani businessman implied, it is because the subterfuges are “hiding in plain sight.”
After I “retired” from a 26-year career in the U.S. intelligence and law enforcement communities, I tried to draw attention to the intertwined threats of what the U.S. military calls asymmetric warfare, threat finance, international money laundering, and trade-based value transfer. I wrote two nonfiction books: Hide & Seek: Intelligence, Law Enforcement and the Stalled War on Terror Finance (Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2006) and On the Trail of Terror Finance: What Law Enforcement and Intelligence Officers Need to Know (Washington, D.C.: Red Cell IG, 2010). I continued my efforts by writing articles, consulting, and speaking before various industry and government groups. Realizing that some are not enthusiastic about whitepapers and PowerPoint presentations, I wrote Demons of Gadara (CreateSpace, 2013)—the first novel that revolves around the themes of threat finance and trade-based value transfer. I tried to teach by telling a story.
This book is a continuation. It is designed as a straightforward, accessible, and user-friendly resource that is primarily directed toward anti–money-laundering/counterterrorist finance (AML/CFT) professionals such as compliance officers in financial institutions and money-service businesses. I hope to provide insight into opaque financial systems and trade scams that often impact their work. I believe concerned investigators, analysts, and policymakers in government will also find the book valuable.
Value transfer and underground finance are increasingly popular in academia. I have been particularly pleased to hear from students who share my belief in the importance of this topic and find this new field of study fascinating. This book is not written by an academic but, rather, by someone who has worked and supported value-transfer investigations in various international locations. I will try to convey—in a plain speaking and practical style—some lessons learned by personal experience and observations.
I would like to emphasize that this book is not a general AML/CFT primer. I am making the assumption that the reader has working knowledge of money laundering, terror finance, and many of our countermeasures. Instead, this book will focus on trade-based money laundering and value transfer—a specific methodology plus a few representative subsets and variations. Moreover, this book will not go into detail on trade finance. For those readers who feel they need a brief introduction to money laundering and terror finance to better understand some of the challenges and countermeasures surfaced in this book, see Appendix A.
How This Book Is Organized
Trade-based money laundering and value transfer are very broad topics. Chapter 1 introduces the magnitude of the problem, gives a general definition, and makes clear that the international trading system is abused by money launderers, terrorists, tax cheats, and many who engage in a variety of financial crimes. Chapter 2 provides an overview of basic trade-based laundering techniques that are referenced in succeeding chapters. Case examples and illustrative diagrams are used frequently throughout the book. The trade-based schemes are not United States centric, but rather come from around the world.
Chapters 3, 4, and 5 discuss prominent underground financial systems such as the black market peso exchange, hawala, and fei-chien. Historically and culturally, all of these systems—and others like them—are based on the misuse of international trade. Chapter 6 discusses why and how the international gold trade is prominently used to launder staggering amounts of illicit proceeds. Chapter 7 briefly describes commercial trade-based money laundering, such as diversion, misinvoicing, and transfer pricing. Since trade-based money laundering is so broad, Chapter 8 covers miscellaneous topics that do not neatly fit elsewhere, such as barter trade, the misuse of free trade zones, and others. Chapter 9 discusses how trade is monitored for enforcement purposes and includes insight on innovative countermeasures. Chapter 10 discusses red-flag indicators that can be used by both industry and government to help spot forms of trade-based money laundering and value transfer.
Finally, the conclusion contains recommendations for increasing trade transparency, awareness, and enforcement. And although I try as much as I can to stay away from jargon, acronyms, and technical terms, in order to simplify things for the reader there is a glossary of frequently used terms. In addition, where applicable, chapters contain both abstracts and “cheat sheets” of important points covered.
Sourcing
The sourcing for this book is a mix of personal observation and experience and information in the public domain. Some sections draw from my previous books and articles, updated and adapted as necessary. In certain sections, I borrowed heavily from On the Trail of Terror Finance: What Law Enforcement and Intelligence Officers Need to Know. The book was co-authored by Mr. Avi Jorisch. Both the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) and the Asia Pacific Group (APG) have produced valuable studies on trade-based money laundering. Web materials such as statistics, investigations, and guidelines are available but change frequently. Recent case examples are used as well as others that are dated. The reason I included some older cases is because they are in the public domain and still representative of current threats.
I have found that both government and academic reporting on money laundering and related topics are often prone to circular reporting, wherein analysis is used and reused often enough to make identifying the original source difficult. I assure the readers that to the best of my ability, I have practiced due diligence in my sourcing, and that this book represents my good-faith effort to make the subject matter as interesting, accurate, well-sourced, and current as possible.
Acknowledgments
Financial institutions, money services businesses, and their anti–money laundering compliance and program officers have long been considered “the first line of defense” in financial crimes. Due primarily to my experiences as a criminal investigator for the U.S. Treasury Department and later during an assignment at the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN), I have been an enthusiastic consumer of the financial intelligence or Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) data they produce. Unfortunately, for a variety of reasons, practitioners in the financial industry do not get the feedback, recognition, and thanks they deserve for the time and resources expended in implementing increasingly robust “know your customer” and industry AML/CFT compliance programs. So I would like to take this opportunity to say “thank you.” I appreciate your hard work and understand that most of you enthusiastically work with government to help secure our financial systems. Thus I am encouraged that many recognize that trade and value transfer is the “next frontier” in international money laundering enforcement. I am hopeful that industry and government can partner to develop common sense and non-onerous guidelines and reporting that promote trade transparency.
To my colleagues in the intelligence, defense, and law enforcement communities, I hope this book will help explain the opaque nature of value transfer that is so prevalent in many of the challenges we face. I would like to extend my appreciation for all that you do to keep us safe.
I would also like to convey my heartfelt gratitude to some friends and colleagues who so generously shared their time, knowledge, and expertise in the preparation and review of the manuscript—especially Raymond Baker and the staff at Global Financial Integrity; Lou Bock, retired senior special agent, U.S. Customs Service; David B. Chenkin, managing partner, Zeichner Ellman & Krause LLP; Hector X. Colon, special agent and unit chief/director, NTC-Investigations & TTU, Homeland Security Investigations; Mark Laxer, vice president of Data Mining International, Inc.; Rob Siberski, retired HSI (legacy U.S. Customs) senior special agent; and Dr. John S. Zdanowicz, professor of finance and president of International Trade Alert, Inc.
And, as always, my gratitude to Cristina for her love and support.
About the Author
John A. Cassara retired after a 26-year career in the federal government intelligence and law enforcement communities. He is considered an expert in anti–money laundering and counterterrorist finance, with particular expertise in the growing threat of alternative remittance systems and forms of trade-based money laundering and value transfer. He invented the concept of international “Trade Transparency Units,” an innovative countermeasure to entrenched forms of trade-based money laundering and value transfer. A large part of his career was spent overseas. He is one of the very few to have been both a clandestine operations officer in the U.S. intelligence community and a special agent for the Department of Treasury.
His last position was as a special agent detailee to the Department of Treasury's Office of Terrorism Finance and Financial Intelligence (TFI). His parent Treasury agency was the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN). Mr. Cassara was also detailed to the U.S. Department of State's Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) Anti-Money Laundering Section to help coordinate U.S. interagency international anti-terrorist finance training and technical assistance efforts.
During his law enforcement investigative career, Mr. Cassara conducted a large number of money laundering, fraud, intellectual property rights, smuggling, and diversion of weapons and high technology investigations in Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. He also served two years as an undercover arms dealer. He began his career with Treasury as a special agent assigned to the Washington field office of the U.S. Secret Service.
Since his retirement, he has lectured in the United States and around the world on a variety of transnational crime issues. He is an industry adviser for SAS, the analytics company. Mr. Cassara has authored or co-authored several articles and books. See www.JohnCassara.com.
Chapter 1The Next Frontier
The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) has declared that there are three broad categories for the purpose of hiding illicit funds and introducing them into the formal economy. The first is via the use of financial institutions; the second is to physically smuggle bulk cash from one country or jurisdiction to another; and the third is the transfer of goods via trade.1 The United States and the international community have devoted attention, countermeasures, and resources to the first two categories. Money laundering via trade has, for the most part, been ignored.
The United States' current anti–money laundering efforts began in 1971, when President Nixon declared the “war on drugs.” About the same time, Congress started passing a series of laws, rules, and enabling regulations collectively known as the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA). The BSA is a misnomer. The goal is financial transparency by mandating financial intelligence or a paper trail to help criminal investigators “follow the money.” Today, primarily as a result of the BSA, approximately 17 million pieces of financial intelligence are filed with the U.S. Treasury Department's Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) every year. The financial intelligence is warehoused, analyzed, and disseminated to law enforcement agencies at the federal, state, local, and increasingly the international levels.
The worldwide community slowly followed the U.S. lead. In 1989, the G-7 created the FATF. The international anti–money laundering policy-making body championed 40 recommendations for countries and jurisdictions around the world aimed at the establishment of anti–money laundering (AML), and after September 11, counterterrorist financing (CFT) countermeasures. These included the passage of AML/CFT laws, the creation of financial intelligence, know your customer (KYC) compliance programs for financial institutions and money services businesses, the creation of financial intelligence units (FIUs), procedures to combat bulk cash smuggling, and other safeguards.
The FATF's initial recommendations were purposefully imprecise in order to accommodate different legal systems and institutional environments. In its infancy, the FATF was also Western centric, focusing on money laundering primarily through the prism of the West's “war on drugs,” where large amounts of dirty money were found sloshing around Western-style financial institutions. The FATF and its members almost completely ignored other forms of non-Western money laundering. Unfortunately, the FATF's early myopia had serious repercussions. Terrorist groups and criminal organizations continue to take advantage of what Osama bin Laden once called “cracks” in the Western financial system.2
As FATF evolved and the international community responded to growing financial threats, including the finance of terror, its nonbinding recommendations became increasingly precise. Its recommendations and interpretive notes have undergone periodic updates. In 1996, 2003, and 2012, its standards were significantly revised. The FATF's membership expanded, and today FATF-style regional bodies are found around the world.
Yet outside of FATF's 2006 trade-based money laundering “typology” report and similar studies conducted by FATF-style regional bodies (a study of particular note was conducted by the Asia Pacific Group in 2012), trade-based money laundering and value transfer have, for the most part, been ignored by the international community. This despite the FATF's above declaration that trade is one of the three principal categories of laundering money found around the world. For a variety of reasons, it has not been possible to achieve consensus on the extent of the problem and what should be done to confront it. And there continues to be an ongoing debate about whether financial institutions have the means and should assume the responsibility to help monitor international trade and trade finance as it relates to money laundering.
In 2014, The Economist called trade “the weakest link” in the fight against dirty money.3 I agree with the assessment but believe it will change. Governments around the world—simultaneously pressed for new revenue streams and threatened by organized crime's use of money laundering, corruption, massive trade fraud, transfer pricing, and the associated threat of terror finance—are slowly moving to recognize the threat posed by trade-based money laundering and value transfer. (Note: TBML will be used in this book as the accepted acronym.)
So what is TBML? The FATF defines the term as the “process of disguising the proceeds of crime and moving value through the use of trade transactions in an attempt to legitimize their illicit origins.”
The key word in the above definition is value.4 To understand TBML, we must put aside our linear Western thought process. Illicit money is not always represented by cash, checks, or electronic data in a wire transfer, or new payment methods such as stored-value cards, cell phones, or cyber-currency. The value represented by trade goods—and the accompanying documentation both genuine and fictitious—can also represent the transfer of illicit funds and value. This book will provide many examples of the how and why.
The Magnitude of the Problem
To estimate the amount of TBML in the United States and around the world, we must first examine the magnitude of international money laundering in general. Those estimates are all over the map. In fact, the FATF has stated, “Due to the illegal nature of the transactions, precise statistics are not available, and it is therefore impossible to produce a definitive estimate of the amount of money that is globally laundered every year.”5
However, the International Monetary Fund has estimated that money laundering comprises approximately 2 to 5 percent of the world's gross domestic product (GDP)6 or approximately $3 trillion to $5 trillion per year. In very rough numbers, that is about the size of the U.S. federal budget! The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) conducted a study to determine the magnitude of illicit funds and estimates that in 2009, criminal proceeds amounted to 3.6 percent of global GDP, or approximately $1.6 trillion being laundered.7 So how much of that involves TBML? The issue has never been systematically examined. However, I will use a few metrics to put things in context.
What is the magnitude of money laundering in general and TBML in particular? The short answer is that nobody knows with precision, but both are enormous!
According to the U.S. Department of State's 2009 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR), it is estimated that the annual dollar amount laundered through trade ranges into the hundreds of billions.8 In fact, the State Department has concluded that TBML has reached “staggering” proportions in recent years.9
Global Financial Integrity (GFI), a Washington, D.C.–based nonprofit, has done considerable work in examining trade-misinvoicing. It is a method for moving money illicitly across borders, which involves deliberately misreporting the value of a commercial transaction on an invoice and other documents submitted to customs (see Chapter 7). A form of trade-based money laundering, trade-misinvoicing is the largest component of illicit financial outflows measured by GFI. After examining trade data covering developing countries, GFI concluded that a record $991.2 billion was siphoned from those countries in 2012 via trade misinvoicing!10 In its 2014 study, GFI finds that the developing world lost $6.6 trillion in illicit financial flows from 2003 to 2012, with illicit outflows alarmingly increasing at an average rate of more than approximately 9.4 percent per year.11 See the illustration in Figure 1.1 for the 2002–2012 trade-misinvoicing outflows. Of course, much of this hemorrhage of capital originates from crime, corruption, fraud, and tax evasion.
Figure 1.1 Trade-misinvoicing outflows from developing countries 2003–201212 (in millions of dollars, nominal)
Source: Global Financial Integrity, http://www.gfintegrity.org/issue/trade-misinvoicing/ (2015).
In the United States, the UNODC estimated proceeds from all forms of financial crime, excluding tax evasion, was $300 billion in 2010, or about 2 percent of the U.S. economy.13 This number is comparable to U.S. estimates.14
There are no reliable official estimates on the magnitude of TBML as a whole. Since the issue affects national security, law enforcement, and the collection of national revenue, it is remarkable that the U.S. government has never adequately examined TBML.
Dr. John Zdanowicz, an academic and early pioneer in the field of TBML, examined 2013 U.S. trade data obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau. Using methodologies explained further in Chapters 2 and 9, by examining undervalued exports ($124,116,420,714) and overvalued imports ($94,796,135,280), Dr. Zdanowicz found that $218,912,555,994 was moved out of the United States in the form of value transfer! That figure represents 5.69 percent of U.S. trade. Examining overvalued exports ($68,332,594,940) and undervalued imports ($272,753,571,621), Dr. Zdanowicz calculates that $341,086,166,561 was moved into the United States! That figure represents 8.87 percent of U.S. trade in 2013.15
A further complicating factor in estimating the magnitude of TBML involves the factoring of predicate offenses or “specified unlawful activities” involved. Predicate offenses are crimes that underlie money laundering or terrorist finance activity. Years ago, drug-related offenses were considered as the primary predicate offenses for money laundering. Over time, the concept of money laundering has become much more inclusive. Today, the United States recognizes hundreds of predicate offenses to charge money laundering, including fraud, smuggling, and human trafficking. The international standard is “all serious crimes.” This is an increasingly important consideration, because in many international jurisdictions, tax evasion is also a predicate offense to charge money laundering. This viewpoint is gaining traction around the world.
Returning to the estimates of the overall magnitude of global money laundering, experts believe approximately half of the trillions of dollars laundered every year represent traditional predicate offenses, such as narcotics trafficking. The other half comes from tax-evading components.16 In 2012, the FATF revised its recommendations to require that tax crimes and smuggling (which includes non-payment of customs duties) be included as predicate offenses for money laundering. The Internal Revenue Service believes, “Money laundering is in effect tax evasion in progress.”17 In the United States, customs violations including trade fraud is the most important predicate offense involved with TBML.18 Other primary predicate offenses worldwide for TBML include tax evasion, commercial fraud, intellectual property rights violations, narcotics trafficking, human trafficking, terrorist financing, embezzlement, corruption, and organized crime (racketeering).19
